Lecture 04 - Ethical Theories PDF

2.5 Ethical Egoism 1-1 1-1 Definition of Ethical Egoism Every individual or every group must act in their self interest despite the circumstances. 1-2 1...

2.5 Ethical Egoism 1-1 1-1 Definition of Ethical Egoism Every individual or every group must act in their self interest despite the circumstances. 1-2 1-2 Case for Ethical Egoism Ethical egoism is practical because people naturally tend to look out for their own best interests. It suggests that it's often better to let others take care of themselves. When individuals focus on their own well-being, the whole community can benefit as well. Many other moral ideas are based on this principle of putting oneself first. 1-3 1-3  2.6 Kantianism It says that the rightness of an action depends on whether it follows a universal rule, or principle. According to this view, we should treat others with respect and not just use them for our own gain. A key idea is the "categorical imperative," which means we should act in ways we’d want everyone else to act. A simple example of Kantianism is telling the truth. If you’re in a situation where lying could make things easier for you, Kantianism would argue that you should still tell the truth because honesty is a universal principle everyone should follow. It respects others by valuing them and promoting trust. 2-4 1-4 Categorical Imperative (1st Formulation) Act only from moral rules that you can at the same time will to be universal moral laws. 1-5 1-5 Illustration of 1st Formulation Question: Can a person in dire straits make a promise with the intention of breaking it later? Proposed rule: “I may make promises with the intention of later breaking them.” The person in trouble wants his promise to be believed so he can get what he needs. Universalize rule: Everyone may make & break promises Everyone breaking promises would make promises unbelievable, contradicting desire to have promise believed The rule is flawed. The answer is “No.” 1-6 1-6 A Quick Check When evaluating a proposed action, reverse roles What would you think if that person did the same thing to you? Negative reaction evidence that your will to do that action violates the Categorical Imperative 1-7 1-7 Categorical Imperative (2nd Formulation) Act so that you treat both yourself and other people as ends in themselves and never only as a means to an end. This is usually an easier formulation to work with than the first formulation of the Categorical Imperative. 1-8 1-8 Kant: Wrong to Use Another Person Solely as a Means to an End 1-9 1-9 Plagiarism Scenario Carla – Single mother – Works full time – Takes two evening courses/semester History class – Requires more work than normal – Carla earning an “A” on all work so far – Carla doesn’t have time to write final report Carla purchases report; submits it as her own work 1-10 1-10 Kantian Evaluation (1st Formulation) Carla wants credit for plagiarized report Rule: “You may claim credit for work performed by someone else” If rule universalized, reports would no longer be credible indicator’s of student’s knowledge, and professors would not give credit for reports Proposal moral rule is self-defeating It is wrong for Carla to turn in a purchased report 1-11 1-11 Kantian Evaluation (2nd Formulation) Carla submitted another person’s work as her own She attempted to deceive professor She treated professor as a means to an end – End: passing the course – Means: manipulate professor What Carla did was wrong 1-12 1-12 Case for Kantianism Aligns with common moral concern: “What if everyone acted that way?” Produces universal moral guidelines Treats all persons as moral equals 1-13 1-13 Perfect and Imperfect Duties Perfect duty: duty obliged to fulfill without exception – Example: Telling the truth Imperfect duty: duty obliged to fulfill in general but not in every instance – Example: Helping others 1-14 1-14 Case Against Kantianism Sometimes no rule adequately characterizes an action Sometimes there is no way to resolve a conflict between rules – In a conflict between a perfect duty and an imperfect duty, perfect duty prevails – In a conflict between two perfect duties, no solution Kantianism allows no exceptions to perfect duties Despite weaknesses, a workable ethical theory 1-15 1-15 2.7 Act Utilitarianism 1-16 1-16 Principle of Utility Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill An action is good if its benefits exceeds its harms An action is bad if its harms exceed its benefits Utility: tendency of an object to produce happiness or prevent unhappiness for an individual or a community Happiness = advantage = benefit = good = pleasure Unhappiness = disadvantage = cost = evil = pain 1-17 1-17 Principle of Utility (Greatest Happiness Principle) An action is right (or wrong) to the extent that it increases (or decreases) the total happiness of the affected parties. 1-18 1-18 Principle of Utility 1-19 1-19 Act Utilitarianism Utilitarianism – Morality of an action has nothing to do with intent – Focuses on the consequences – A consequentialist theory Act utilitarianism – Add up change in happiness of all affected beings – Sum > 0, action is good – Sum < 0, action is bad – Right action to take: one that maximizes the sum 1-20 1-20 Bentham: Weighing Pleasure/Pain Intensity Duration Certainty Propinquity Fecundity Purity Extent 1-21 1-21 Highway Routing Scenario State may replace a curvy stretch of highway New highway segment 1 mile shorter 150 houses would have to be removed Some wildlife habitat would be destroyed 1-22 1-22 Evaluation Costs – $20 million to compensate homeowners – $10 million to construct new highway – Lost wildlife habitat worth $1 million Benefits – $39 million savings in automobile driving costs Conclusion – Benefits exceed costs – Building highway a good action 1-23 1-23 Case for Act Utilitarianism Focuses on happiness Down-to-earth (practical) Comprehensive 1-24 1-24 Case Against Act Utilitarianism Unclear whom to include in calculations and how far out into the future to consider Too much work Ignores our innate sense of duty We cannot predict consequences with certainty Susceptible to the problem of moral luck Overall, a workable ethical theory 1-25 1-25