Ethical Theories Reviewer Notes PDF

​ Consequentialism ○​ Determines rightness or wrongness of actions based on consequences. ○​ The "right" action produces the most good. ○​ Utilitarians define "good" as happiness and follow the greatest happiness principle: act to maximize overall happiness.​ ​ Divine Com...

​ Consequentialism ○​ Determines rightness or wrongness of actions based on consequences. ○​ The "right" action produces the most good. ○​ Utilitarians define "good" as happiness and follow the greatest happiness principle: act to maximize overall happiness.​ ​ Divine Command Ethics ○​ Actions are morally right or wrong based on God’s commands. ○​ Right if not forbidden by God; obligatory if commanded by God. ○​ Common in the Judeo-Christian tradition.​ ​ Deontological Ethics ○​ Certain actions are right or wrong regardless of consequences. ○​ Rightness or wrongness determined by reason, not divine commands. ○​ Immanuel Kant emphasized reason, duty, and motives as the basis of goodwill.​ ​ Rights Ethics ○​ Originated in Roman law to protect personal interests and later expanded to moral rights. ○​ Inspired by natural law, as seen in documents like the Declaration of Independence. ○​ Follows Kant's duty-based ethics: ​ Imperfect duties: Not obligatory, can be fulfilled in various ways (e.g., occasional aid). ​ Perfect duties: Obligatory, requiring specific actions (e.g., keeping promises).​ ​ Virtue Ethics ○​ Originated with the Greeks, defining right actions based on virtuous behavior. ○​ Achieving happiness, fulfillment, and success requires practicing virtues: ​ Intellectual virtue: Wisdom. ​ Moral virtues: Courage, temperance, justice. ○​ Christian thinkers later added faith, hope, and love as virtues.​ ​ Casuistry ○​ Case-based moral analysis bridging theory and practice. ○​ Historically linked to confession and penance in Christianity. ○​ Modernized in 1988 by Albert Jonsen and Stephen Toulmin to resolve contemporary ethical problems. ○​ Involves collecting case details, comparing to similar cases, and deriving principles from them.​ ​ Ethics of Care ○​ A feminist perspective introduced by Carol Gilligan in 1982. ○​ Women approach ethics through nurturing and relationships, contrasting men’s focus on justice, rights, and duties. ○​ Moral decisions stem from the characteristics of caring relationships.​ ​ Principlism ○​ Popular in health professions; introduced in Principles of Biomedical Ethics (1979) by Tom J. Beauchamp and James F. Childress. ○​ Based on a shared common morality with four principles in medicine: ​ Autonomy: Respecting patient decisions. ​ Beneficence: Promoting well-being. ​ Non-maleficence: Avoiding harm. ​ Justice: Fair distribution of resources and treatments.