Human Development - Chapter 8 - PDF

Because learning changes everything. ® Chapter 8: Human Development Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.  Chapter Preview Exploring Human Develo...

Because learning changes everything. ® Chapter 8: Human Development Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.  Chapter Preview Exploring Human Development. Physical Development. Cognitive Development. Socioemotional Development. Gender Development. Moral Development. Death, Dying, and Grieving. Active Development as a Lifelong Process. © McGraw Hill LLC 2  Exploring Human Development Development: the pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities that occurs throughout life. Both growth and decline. © McGraw Hill LLC Paul Bradbury/Getty Images 3  Research Methods in Developmental Psychology Changes occur with age. Cross-sectional designs: a group of people is assessed on a psychological variable at one point in time. Cohort effects: differences stemming from the historical and social time period in which the individuals developed. Longitudinal studies: assess the same participants multiple times over a lengthy period. © McGraw Hill LLC 4  How Do Nature and Nurture Influence Development? 1 Nature: a person’s biological inheritance. Nurture: a person’s environmental and social experiences. Both contribute to development. Emergent property: a person is a consequence of the interaction of multiple lower-level factors. © McGraw Hill LLC 5  How Do Nature and Nurture Influence Development? 2 Genotype: an individual’s genetic heritage (nature). Phenotype: observable characteristics—showing contributions of both nature and nurture. As an example, phenylketonuria (PKU): Caused by two recessive genes (nature). The related phenotype, including brain damage, can be mitigated by dietary choices (nurture). © McGraw Hill LLC 6  Do Early Experiences Rule Us for Life? Both early and later experiences make significant contributions. Resilience: a person’s ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times. Resilient children become capable adults. © McGraw Hill LLC C Squared Studios/Getty Images 7  Three Domains of Development Physical processes: changes in an individual biological nature. Cognitive processes: changes in a person’s thought, intelligence, and language. Socioemotional processes: changes in a person’s relationships with others, in emotions, and in personality. © McGraw Hill LLC 8  Prenatal Physical Development Germinal period—weeks 1 and 2: Conception. Zygote attaches to the uterine wall. Embryonic period—weeks 3 to 8: Cell differentiation. Organ formation. Fetal period—months 2 to 9: Organ functioning increases, as do weight and size. © McGraw Hill LLC 9  Figure 1: From Embryo to Fetus (a) At about four weeks, an embryo is about 0.2 inch (less than 1 centimeter) long. The head, eyes, and ears begin to show; the head and neck are half the length of the body. (b) At eight weeks, the developing embryo is about 1.6 inches (4 centimeters) long and has reached the end of its embryonic phase. It has become a fetus. The fetal stage is a period of growth and perfection of detail. The heart has been beating for a month, and the muscles have just begun their first exercises. (c) At four and a half months, the fetus is just over 7 inches (about 18 centimeters) long. If the thumb comes close to the mouth, the head may turn, and the lips and tongue begin their sucking motions—a reflex for survival. © McGraw Hill LLC (a): Science History Images/Alamy Stock Photo; (b): Stocktrek Images/Getty Images; (c): SCIEPRO/Science Photo Library/Getty Images 10  Prenatal Physical Development: Threats to the Fetus Teratogen: any agent that causes a problem in prenatal development. Nicotine, alcohol, and other substances, along with certain illnesses. Effects depend on the timing of exposure. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD). The environment after birth can influence the effects. Preterm infants and low birth-weight infants may be at risk for developmental difficulties. © McGraw Hill LLC 11  Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood 1 Reflexes: Genetically wired behaviors. Some are crucial for survival. Some persist through life. Some disappear in the months after birth as infants develop voluntary control. © McGraw Hill LLC 12  Rooting Gripping Toe Curling Moro or Startle Galant Provoked by Provoked by Provoked by Provoked by Provoked by stroking of the something that is stroking of the inner sudden noise or stroking the infant’s infant’s cheek Table placed divided in the infant’s hand into 5 columns or outer sole of the summarizes infant’s foot movement Some lower back, next to the spinal cord Head turns in the Infant Reflexes. Infant grasps the The column If the inner sole is headers aretheir Infant curves Infant throws direction of the touch, and the marked as: item and can on very well— Rooting, hold stroked,Gripping, the infant curls their toes; if Toe head Curling, back and Moro arms and legs out toward the side that was stroke—and infant opens their or Startle and Galant. almost enough to the outer sole is (and then cries) looks like a fencer mouth for feeding support their own stroked, the toes when doing so weight spread out Figure 2: Some Infant Reflexes Infants are born with a number of reflexes to get them through life, and they are incredibly cute when they perform them. These reflexes disappear as infants mature. © McGraw Hill LLC 13  Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood 2 Motor and perceptual skills: Within 12 months, sitting upright, standing, stooping, climbing, and often walking. In the second year, rapid gains in running and climbing. Motor skills and perceptual skills depend on each other. Environmental experiences play a role. Perceptual looking: a research technique that involves giving an infant a choice of what object to look at. Shortly after birth, infants prefer faces. © McGraw Hill LLC 14  Figure 3: Infants’ Use of “Sticky Mittens” to Explore Objects Amy Needham and her colleagues (2002) found that “sticky mittens” enhance young infants’ object exploration skills. © McGraw Hill LLC Courtesy of Amy Needham, Duke University 15  Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood 3 The brain: Myelination continues after birth. Synaptic connections increase dramatically. Unused connections are “pruned.” Changes in the brain are the result of both nature and nurture—new experiences in the world. © McGraw Hill LLC 16  Figure 4: Dendritic Spreading Note the increase in connections among neurons over the course of the first two years of life. Access the text alternative for slide images. Leisman, Gerry, “Intentionality and ’Free-Will’ From a Neurodevelopmental Perspective.” Frontiers in Integrative Science, June 27, 2012, Figure 4. Copyright ©2012 by Gerry Leisman. All rights reserved. Used with permission. © McGraw Hill LLC 17  Figure 5: Synaptic Density in the Human Brain from Infancy to Adulthood The graph shows the dramatic increase and then pruning in synaptic density in three regions of the brain: visual cortex, auditory cortex, and prefrontal cortex. Synaptic density is believed to be an important indication of the extent of connectivity between neurons. Access the text alternative for slide images. SOURCE: Huttenlocher, P. R., & A. S. Dabholkar. (1997). Regional differences in the synaptogenesis in the human cerebral cortex. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 387(2), 167–168. © McGraw Hill LLC 18  Physical Development in Adolescence 1 Puberty: a period of rapid skeletal and sexual maturation, mainly in early adolescence. For those assigned female at birth, menarche: the first menstrual cycle. No single marker for those assigned male. Growth spurt begins between 9 and 11 years of age. Concentrations of certain hormones— testosterone and estradiol—increase. © McGraw Hill LLC Arina Habich/Alamy Stock Photo 19  Physical Development in Adolescence 2 The adolescent brain: Changes first occur at the subcortical level in the limbic system: the structures central to emotion, memory, and reward processing. Development of the prefrontal cortex is relatively slow. Adolescents may lack the cognitive skills for effective impulse control. © McGraw Hill LLC 20  Figure 7: Developmental Changes in the Adolescent’s Brain The amygdala, which is responsible for processing information about emotion, matures earlier than the prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for making decisions and other higher-order cognitive functions. The amygdala is located deep inside the outer layer where it is shown. © McGraw Hill LLC (Photo): Brand X Pictures/PunchStock 21  Physical Development in Adulthood 1 In early adulthood: Peak of physical development in the 20s. Beginning of decline in many physical skills. In middle and late adulthood: Most lose height, and many gain weight. For female adults, menopause usually occurs in the late 40s or early 50s. Effects of wear and tear begin to show. Regular physical activity can have wide-reaching benefits. © McGraw Hill LLC 22  Physical Development in Adulthood 2 In selective optimization with compensation, older adults match their goals with their current abilities and compensate for declines. Find other ways to do the things they enjoy. © McGraw Hill LLC Mike Watson Images/Getty Images 23  Physical Development in Adulthood: Biological Theories of Aging 1 Cellular-clock theory: Cells can divide a maximum of about 100 times, due to shortening of the telomeres on chromosomes. Upper limit of the human life span is about 120 years. Figure 8a: Telomeres and Aging The photograph shows telomeres lighting up the tips of chromosomes. © McGraw Hill LLC Los Alamos National Laboratory/Getty Images 24  Figure 8b: Telomeres and Aging This figure illustrates how the telomeres shorten every time a cell divides. Eventually, after about 100 divisions, the telomeres are greatly reduced in length. As a result, the cell can no longer reproduce, and it dies. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill LLC 25  Physical Development in Adulthood: Biological Theories of Aging 2 Free-radical theory: Unstable oxygen molecules known as free radicals are produced in the cells. These damage DNA and other cellular structures. Hormonal stress theory: Aging of the hormonal system can lower resistance to stress and increase the likelihood of disease. © McGraw Hill LLC 26  Physical Development in Adulthood: Aging and the Brain Some new neurons are produced throughout life. Scientists study factors that might promote or inhibit neurogenesis. Some brain regions are less vulnerable to aging. Adults’ brains rewire themselves to compensate for losses. Decreased lateralization might play a compensatory role. Keeping the brain actively engaged can help slow the effects of age. © McGraw Hill LLC 27  Figure 9: The Brains of the Mankato Nuns Nun Study participant Sister Nicolette Welter remained an active, contributing member of her community until her death in 2014, at age 102. (inset) A neuroscientist holds a brain donated by one of the Mankato Nun Study participants. © McGraw Hill LLC (Sister Nicolette): Scott Takushi/KRT/Newscom; (Brain): Steve Liss/Time Life Pictures/Getty Images 28  Cognitive Development Cognitive development: how thought, intelligence, and language processes change as people mature. Cognition: the operation of thinking. Also, cognitive skills and abilities. Jean Piaget presented a theory of cognitive development that has had lasting impact. © McGraw Hill LLC Farrell Grehan/CORBIS/Corbis via Getty Images 29  Cognitive Development from Childhood into Adulthood In Piaget’s view, humans use schemas to make sense of their experience. Schema: a mental concept or framework that organizes information and provides a structure for interpreting it. Assimilation: incorporation of new information into preexisting schemas. Accommodation: adjustment of one’s schemas to new information. © McGraw Hill LLC 30  Cognitive Development: Piaget’s Stages 1 Sensorimotor stage: from birth to about 2. Coordination of sensations with movements. Object permanence: understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched. Begin to use symbols or words in their thinking. © McGraw Hill LLC Stockbyte/Getty Images; 31  Figure 11: Object Permanence Piaget regarded object permanence as one of infancy’s landmark cognitive accomplishments. For this five-month-old, out of sight is literally out of mind. The infant looks at the stuffed toy (left), but when the view of the toy is blocked (right), the infant does not search for it. © McGraw Hill LLC (Both): Science History Images/Alamy Stock Photo 32  Cognitive Development: Piaget’s Stages 2 Preoperational stage: from 2 to 7 years of age. Increased symbolic thinking. Still cannot perform operations—mental representations that are “reversible—such as conservation. Thought is egocentric, meaning they cannot take another’s perspective. Thinking is intuitive. © McGraw Hill LLC Jacobs Stock Photography/BananaStock/Getty Images 33  Figure 12: Piaget’s Conservation Task The beaker test determines whether a child can think operationally—that is, can mentally reverse action and understand conservation of the substance. (a) Two identical beakers are presented to the child, each containing the same amount of liquid. As the child watches, the experimenter pours the liquid from B into C, which is taller and thinner than A and B. (b) The experimenter then asks the child whether beakers A and C have the same amount of liquid. The preoperational child says no. When asked to point to the beaker that has more liquid, the child points to the tall, thin one. © McGraw Hill LLC Marmaduke St. John/Alamy Stock Photo 34  Cognitive Development: Piaget’s Stages 3 Concrete operational stage: from 7 to 11 years. Operational thinking (for example, conservation). Classification skills. Reason logically in concrete contexts. © McGraw Hill LLC Fuse/image100/Corbis 35  Cognitive Development: Piaget’s Stages 4 Formal operational stage: from 11 to 15 years. Continues through the adult years. More abstract and idealistic thought. Hypothetical-deductive reasoning: the ability to develop hypotheses, or best hunches, about ways to solve a problem. © McGraw Hill LLC Purestock/Getty Images 36  Evaluating and Expanding on Piaget’s Theory 1 An alternative view: the nativist approach. Suggests that infants bring more with them into the world than Piaget realized. Spelke’s core knowledge approach: babies are born with domain-specific knowledge systems. Vygotsky: cognitive development in cultural context. Cognitive development is an interpersonal process. Interactions with more knowledgeable others provide scaffolding that allows the child to build on abilities. © McGraw Hill LLC 37  Evaluating and Expanding on Piaget’s Theory 2 Information-processing approach: Focuses on basic cognitive processes. Cognitive performance depends on working memory. Executive function: higher-order cognitive processes, including thinking, planning, and problem solving. Revisionist views: Role of adolescent egocentrism. Inconsistency of formal operational thought. Cognitive changes occur throughout the life span. © McGraw Hill LLC 38  Cognitive Processes in Adulthood 1 In early adulthood: Idealism gives way to a more realistic pragmatism. Key aspects of development include deciding on a particular worldview or philosophy of life. In middle adulthood: Schaie concluded that this is the period when many people reach their peak for a range of intellectual skills. © McGraw Hill LLC 39  Cognitive Processes in Adulthood 2 In late adulthood: Speed of processing generally declines. Memory retrieval skills decline. Some aspects of cognition may improve. Wisdom: expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life. Strategy training and physical activity can improve cognitive functioning. © McGraw Hill LLC 40  Figure 13: The Relationship between Age and Reaction Time In one study, the average reaction time slowed in the 40s, and this decline accelerated in the 60s and 70s (Salthouse, 1994). The task used to assess reaction time required individuals to match numbers with symbols on a computer screen. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill LLC Source: Salthouse, T. A. The nature of the influence of speed on adult age differences in cognition. Developmental Psychology, 30(2) (1994): 240–259. 41  Socioemotional Development Socioemotional processes involve changes in a person’s social relationships, emotional life, and personality. © McGraw Hill LLC Owen D. Phillips/Shutterstock 42  Socioemotional Development in Infancy 1 Temperament: an individual’s behavioral style or characteristic way of responding. Chess and Thomas’s basic types: easy child, difficult child, slow-to-warm-up child. Other researchers suggest degrees of different dimensions be considered: Effortful control or self-regulation. Inhibition. Negative affectivity. © McGraw Hill LLC 43  Socioemotional Development in Infancy 2 Infant attachment: the close emotional bond between an infant and its caregiver. Bowlby theorized it sets the stage for future relationships. Ainsworth devised the strange situation test to measure children’s attachment. Secure attachment: infants use their caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment. Attachment theory does not adequately account for cultural variations and temperamental differences. © McGraw Hill LLC 44  Figure 14: Contact Time with Wire and Cloth Surrogate Mothers Harry Harlow demonstrated the essential importance of warm contact. In his 1958 study, regardless of whether the infant monkeys were fed by a wire or a cloth mother, they overwhelmingly preferred to spend contact time with the cloth mother. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill LLC (Photo): Science Source 45  Erikson’s Theory of Socioemotional Development Erik Erikson generated one of the most important developmental theories of the twentieth century. Eight psychosocial stages of development. Each stage represents a developmental task with two possible outcomes. © McGraw Hill LLC Ted Streshinsky Photographic Archive/Getty Images 46  Socioemotional Development in Childhood: From Trust to Industry 1 Trust versus mistrust: From birth to 1.5 years. Basic needs met by sensitive caregivers. Autonomy versus shame and doubt: Toddlerhood—1.5 to 3 years. Discover and assert a will of their own. © McGraw Hill LLC (First): Tari Faris/Getty Images; (Second): Stephan Hoeck/Getty Images 47  Socioemotional Development in Childhood: From Trust to Industry 2 Initiative versus guilt: Early childhood, ages 3 to 5. Challenged to assume responsibility. Industry versus inferiority: Age 6 to puberty. Mastering knowledge and intellectual skills. © McGraw Hill LLC (First): Ariel Skelley/Getty Images; (Second): Ariel Skelley/Blend Images LLC 48  Parenting and Childhood Socioemotional Development Baumrind’s four basic parenting styles: Authoritarian: restrictive and punitive, with little verbal exchange. Authoritative: encourages independence, but with limits. Neglectful: lack of parental involvement. Permissive: few limits on the child’s behavior. The authoritative style is associated with the most positive child outcomes. Note this is not strictly true across all cultures. © McGraw Hill LLC 49  Socioemotional Development in Adolescence: The Emergence of Identity 1 Erikson’s stage of identity versus identity confusion: Confronted by many new roles and adult statuses. Marcia’s four identity statuses: Identity diffusion: no exploration or commitment. Identity foreclosure: commitment without exploration. Identity moratorium: exploration without commitment. Identity achievement: commitment after exploration. © McGraw Hill LLC fstop123/Getty Images 50  Socioemotional Development in Adolescence: The Emergence of Identity 2 Identity within a larger culture: Affected by the cultural messages conveyed by others. Particularly challenging for marginalized groups. Biculturalism can also be a challenge. Parents and peers: A key parental role is effective manager. Peer relations peak in importance and can have both positive and negative influences. © McGraw Hill LLC 51  Socioemotional Development in Emerging Adulthood Emerging adulthood: the transitional period from adolescence to adulthood. From about 18 to 25 years of age. Five key features identified by Arnett: Identity exploration, especially in love and work. Instability. Self-focus. Feeling “in between.” An age of possibilities. © McGraw Hill LLC 52  Socioemotional Development in Early Adulthood 1 Erikson’s stage of intimacy versus isolation: The challenge of forming intimate relationships with others. Often this involves a romantic partner. Marriage and families: Today’s adult attachments take a variety of forms. Cohabitation has dramatically increased. Marriage often happens much later than in the past. © McGraw Hill LLC Blue Moon Stock/Alamy Stock Photo 53  Socioemotional Development in Early Adulthood 2 Gottman has identified four principles at work in successful marriages: Nurturing fondness and admiration. Turning toward each other as friends. Giving up some power. Solving conflicts together. © McGraw Hill LLC Purestock/SuperStock 54  Socioemotional Development in Middle Adulthood Erikson’s seventh stage, generativity versus stagnation, occurs in middle adulthood. Generativity means creating something of value to benefit future generations. The feeling of having done nothing of value is stagnation. © McGraw Hill LLC Ken Karp/McGraw Hill 55  Socioemotional Development and Aging Erikson’s eighth and final stage is integrity versus despair: Seeking an experience of life as a meaningful and coherent whole. Socioemotional selectivity theory: a narrowing of social contacts and increase in positive emotion. Because time is limited, older adults derive meaning from satisfying relationships and activities in the present. Note that socioemotional factors influence physical health and vice versa. © McGraw Hill LLC Ryan McVay/Getty Images 56  Evaluating Erikson’s Theory Strengths: Emphasis on development as a lifelong process. Important ideas about the central themes that often occupy human life at various stages. Criticisms: Relied heavily on case study research. Left out some other important developmental tasks, such as those dealing with careers and work. Little exploration of emerging adulthood. © McGraw Hill LLC 57  Gender Development Gender: the social and psychological aspects of one’s experience of being male, female, both, or neither. Gender identity: a person’s concept of self in relation to the ideas of being male, female, both, or neither. Can be thought of as a continuum. Distinct from sexual orientation. Also distinct from gender expression: the ways people present themselves through appearance, voice, and behavior. Gender roles: behaviors society expects of people of different genders. © McGraw Hill LLC 58  Biology and Gender Development The twenty-third pair of human chromosomes determines genetic sex: XX for female, XY for male. Higher levels of androgens, the main class of male sex hormones, trigger male sex organs to differentiate from female sex organs. Children’s gendered choices may depend on many factors other than biological differences. © McGraw Hill LLC 59  Cognitive Aspects of Gender Development Gender schema: a mental framework for understanding what gender means. Learned in the social world—through reinforcement and punishment, observation, and modeling. Children feel pressure to conform to gender norms. Bandura suggests modeling is especially potent for transmitting values. Parents and other adults are seen engaging in gender- related behavior. © McGraw Hill LLC 60  Socioemotional Experience and Gender Development In addition to parents, peers play an important part. Peers are strict in punishing nonconforming behavior. Culture determines the content of gender roles. Many psychologists believe social and cultural factors are more significant to eventual gender identity than biology. Gender similarities hypothesis: Hyde’s proposition that people of different genders are much more similar than they are different. © McGraw Hill LLC 61  Nature and Nurture Revisited: The John/Joan Case The physical, cognitive, and socioemotional domains of gender development intersect and influence one another. In the 1960s, one of two twins assigned male at birth was injured and reassigned female. At first, the case appeared a triumph for nurture over nature. Over time, “Joan” (David Reimer) struggled with traumatic gender-related life experiences. © McGraw Hill LLC 62  Moral Development People’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding principles and values in their interactions with others change with age. Laurence Kohlberg studied moral thinking by presenting dilemmas and analyzing the responses. Heinz dilemma. © McGraw Hill LLC Lee Lockwood/The LIFE Images Collection/Getty Images 63  Kohlberg’s Theory Kohlberg identified three broad levels in moral development: Preconventional: moral reasoning is based primarily on consequences—on punishments and rewards from the external world. Conventional: the person abides by standards learned from parents or society’s laws. Postconventional: development of a personal moral code that recognizes alternative options. © McGraw Hill LLC 64  Critics of Kohlberg Kohlberg’s is a justice perspective—seeing a sense of justice as the heart of moral reasoning. Carol Gilligan instead stresses a care perspective, stressing concern for others. Kohlberg also neglected the influence of culture on morality and emphasized reasoning over behavior. Contemporary research focuses on behavior and associated socioemotional factors. © McGraw Hill LLC Frazer Harrison/Getty Images 65  Moral Development in a Socioemotional Context Prosocial behavior: behavior intended to benefit other people. Linked to warm, empathic parenting. Conscience formation begins early. Fostered by clear and elaborate parent–child interactions that are rich with positive emotional content. Evidence supports the idea that children experience empathy, understand fairness, and are able to behave prosocially. © McGraw Hill LLC 66  Death, Dying, and Grieving: Terror Management Theory Becker: being part of a larger culture shields us from the terror of our own mortality. Terror management theory (TMT) suggests that when reminded of their own death, people: Endorse cultural beliefs more strongly; Reject individuals who violate those beliefs; and Seek to maintain or enhance their self-esteem. © McGraw Hill LLC 67  Death, Dying, and Grieving: Stages of Dying Kübler-Ross identified five progressive stages of coping with death: Denial. Anger. Bargaining. Depression. Acceptance. Note that individuals differ greatly in how they feel and behave when faced with the end of life. © McGraw Hill LLC 68  Death, Dying, and Grieving: Bonanno’s Theory of Grieving Bonanno’s research on the experience of bereavement over time identified four patterns: Resilience. Recovery. Chronic dysfunction. Delayed grief or trauma. Resilience—immediate grief followed by a rapid return to previous levels of functioning—is the most common pattern. © McGraw Hill LLC 69  Carving Meaning Out of the Reality of Death Death is part of what makes life precious. Reminders of death can therefore increase the perception that life is meaningful and satisfying. © McGraw Hill LLC Jonathan Drake/Reuters/Alamy Stock Photo 70  Active Development as a Lifelong Process As an active developer, you blaze your own path. One way that adults develop is through coping with life’s difficulties. Assimilate current experiences into existing schemas. Accommodate events by modifying existing schemas. Development in adulthood may mean maintaining an openness to change and to being changed. © McGraw Hill LLC 71  End of Main Content Because learning changes everything. ® www.mheducation.com Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.