Khan Child Development PDF

§ Cloth mother acts as a **secure base** -- eventually monkey is comfortable enough to explore world/cage on its own, because it knows cloth mother will still be there.  If monkey became anxious, it would come back to cloth mother. Secure and Insecure Attachment  Young Babies are happy to be...

§ Cloth mother acts as a **secure base** -- eventually monkey is comfortable enough to explore world/cage on its own, because it knows cloth mother will still be there.  If monkey became anxious, it would come back to cloth mother. Secure and Insecure Attachment  Young Babies are happy to be passed around, but then around 8 months: **stranger** **anxiety** (the fear of strangers) sets in. o ex. If baby doesn't see grandma often, they might not want to be held by even her. Child ends up being wary of strangers and even people they know. Some don't have stranger anxiety though, and some babies don't have a strong bond with their caregiver.  **Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation** -- done to try to understand why some babies have stranger anxiety and some don't. This research focused on mother-child interactions primarily (not child-caregiver ones). o Experiment: § \#1. Mother and child in room with a stranger (stranger was part of experiment). Child allowed to explore. Neither stranger nor mother interact with child. Purpose: would they explore the space? § \#2. Then mom leaves the room (without calling too much attention to herself) and quietly leaves. Baby left alone with stranger. Purpose: what is child's response when mother leaves (does child keep playing or does child start crying) § \#3. Then mother returns. Mother + stranger + baby in the room. Purpose: What is the child's response when mother returns (are they happy, sad about her return, or ignore her) o Researchers found children could be split into 2 groups -- those with **secure** **attachment** and those with **insecure attachment**. o **60%** were **secure attachment** § **\#1:** Child was secure with parent and explored room, might have stayed with mother and eventually explored room (aka. child might walk back to mother at times or look back at mother, but comfortable exploring) § **\#2:** When parent left, child became really distressed/upset § **\#3:** when parent comes back, they would go to the mother and be happy o 40% were classified as having **Insecure attachment** § \#1: children cling to mother, and stayed with mother and did not explore. § \#2: When mother left became upset/distress § \#3: distress did not go away when she came back. § Others were avoidant -- were not upset when they left the room and were indifferent to her when she returned.  What causes this? What causes some to have secure attachment while others have insecure attachment? 242 o **Parenting style** -- mothers who are sensitive to child and responsive had secure attachment, and those insensitive/unresponsive formed insecure attachments. § Insensitive parenting does not mean child abuse/neglect. § Difference in parenting style can be observed by a parent looking at phone while child calling for attention -- do they continue to look at the phone when child is calling for attention or do they stop looking at their phone. o Does this parenting style have any long-term effects after childhood? Yes. Early attachment style forms basis of adult relationships later in life, especially with comfort with intimacy/relationships. § Secure attachment with mothers leads to secure attachment with partner. Feel secure and trusting of partner § Insecure attachment with mother means they feel anxious about their relationship with partners as adults. Might avoid being too attached to any one person. § Attachment style with infants effect our attachment with our own children. Secure attachment people tend to have secure attachments with their children and insecure attachment people tend to have insecure attachments with their children. § How comfortable we feel with parents with first year of life affects us into adulthood. o Parenting styles can be **authoritarian**, **permissive**, or **authoritative** (best). § **Authoritarian parenting**: very strict, break will of child. Punishment. § **Authoritative**: also strict, consistent and loving but more pragmatic and issue-oriented and listen to children's arguments. Balance responsibility with rights of child. Discipline. § **Permissive parenting/Indulgent parenting:** non-directive and lenient. Few behavioral expectations for child. Aggression  **Aggression** = any physical/verbal behavior intended to harm or destroy. Ex. Physical, verbal, or spreading a malicious rumor  Aggression/aggressive behavior comes from combination of the 3: o 1) **Biology:** § 1. Genes: evidence: identical twins, if one is more aggressive the other is as well. With fraternal twins -- not the case, and we can breed animals for aggression § 2. Brain structure impact on aggressive behavior: No one brain spot controls for aggression but there are circuits in brain can inhibit/facilitate aggression. The **amygdala** (part of limbic system which is composed of structures from telencephalon, diencephalon, and mesencephalon) facilitates our fear response, and when stimulated triggers aggressive 243 behavior. The **frontal lobe** is responsible for planning, decision making, and importantly impulse control, and correlation studies have shown criminals have decreased frontal lobe activation.(perhaps those who commit violent actions can't inhibit violent behaviors) § **3. Testosterone** is hormone released by testes in men and ovaries in women. Higher in men = why men are more aggressive than women. Also why 70 y/o man is less aggressive than a 17 y/o adolescence man. High levels of high testosterone can lead to aggression, muscle building, and wider faces (rather than long round one). Can lead to irritability/assertiveness/impulsiveness, and low tolerance for frustration. Drugs that reduce testosterone levels tend to reduce aggressive tendencies. o 2) **Psychological:** § **Frustration-aggression principle**, the idea that frustration creates anger which can spark aggression. Almost anything can cause frustration.  Ex. Physical pain or presence of crowd. Higher temperatures can also lead to frustration. (more violent crimes when the weather is hot) § **Reinforcement-modeling** can lead to aggression through positive reinforcement. Parents who give into demands of child during temper tantrums lead to more temper tantrums in future.  Also if parents yell/hit each other, child will pick up on behavior too (parents can model aggressive behavior -- child can observe and pick up behavior of parents). o 3) **Socio-cultural** § People act more aggressively in groups (ex. riots) -- **de-individuation** -- you gain an anonymous status when you are with large group of people. If people around individual act poorly, individual might act poorly too. This also explains why there is poor behavior on the internet (they are anonymous here, and those around them model poor behavior).  De-individualization - De-individuation is when an individual loses self-awareness in groups. § **Social scripts** -- when people are in new situations they rely on **social** **scripts**, or instructions provided by society on how to act. Ex. violent video games model aggressive behavior for them. Viewing media can give them example of how they should act. Ex. Lash out at someone when something goes wrong  Again, *seems to be a combination of all 3 factors work together to lead to aggressive* *factor, not only 1.* 244 Altruism  **Altruism:** care about welfare of other people and are acting to help them. Beneficial to society and also individuals.  Studies found connection between volunteerism and future health and well-being. Also higher life satisfaction and decreased risk for depression/anxiety.  Most definitions of altruism include that altruistic person is not getting anything in return. Can anything ever be truly altruistic?  Types of altruistic behavior: (Does altruism have an ulterior motive?) o **Kin selection** - people act more altruistically to close/kin than distant/non-kin people. § Same when people share last names, especially true if people have rare last names. § Morphing face as increase trust we have in other person. § Is this behavior altruistic if it gives us an evolutionary advantage, to pass on our genes (the genes of those closest to us)? Is it really altruism if we are helping select for genes of our kin? o **Reciprocal altruism** - People are also more cooperative if they will interact with that person again in the future. Giving with expectation of future reward. § We feel more obliged to help someone else if they have helped us. § This is why charities send out small gifts. By helping you out now, they hope you respond by giving them a larger gift in the future. o **Cost signalling** -- giving signals to others that person who's giving has resources. People have increased trust in those they know have helped others in the past. Signals that the person is open to cooperation. o Altruism has ulterior motive in the above three. There is always a reason (not completely selfless!)  **Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis** -- suggests some people are altruistic due to empathy. High empathy = high in altruistic behaviors. Those who score higher on empathy are more altruistic. o **Early developmental trajectory** -- Helping behaviors begin early. Some newborns cry when other newborns cry (they recognize other babies distress). Helping behavior begins around **age 2**, children share toys and *play act helping*/altruism. Age 4 begin actually begin helping. o Says that altruism might be a normal human behavior because it occurs at such a young age. We have a tendency to help other people without an alternative motive. Social Support  Let's say you had a bad day at school or work? You would call friends, parents, reach out to people online, and your other social network in this time of stress. Social support is from more than just friends/family -- it's from everyone we reach out too. Individual people can give you different kinds of social support. 245  4/5 Kinds of social support: 1. Emotional support. 2. Esteem support 3. Informational support 4. Tangible/instrumental support 5. Companion support  **Emotional support** -- affection, love, trust, caring. The type that involves listening and emphasizing. Can include physical support (hugs/pats on back). Provided by those closest to you (family/close friends)  **Esteem support** -- expressions of confidence/encouragement. Things people say to let you know they belief in you. Can come from family+ friends but also therapists, teachers, coaches.  **Informational support** -- sharing information with us or giving us advice. Can come from family/friends or even articles online.  **Tangible/Instrumental support** -- financial assistance/support, material goods, or services. Taking some of your responsibilities so you can deal with other problems. Can come from a bank, people who bring you dinner when you're sick, or lend you money between jobs.  **Companionship support** -- the type that gives someone sense of social belonging. Companionship while you engage in an activity.  Social support network is huge! Can come from family, friends, pets, coworkers, partners, community organizers, healthcare workers, etc.  Social support is important! Social support is a major determinant of health and wellbeing. Good social support = less mental health issues, more likely to behave in healthy behaviors, exercising, not smoking, Can help us deal with stress.  People with low social support report more symptoms related to depression/anxiety, more mental disorders, more likely to have alcohol and drug problems. Also higher risk of deaths from cancer and heart disease. o Why it's important to provide support for people around you too and also to pay attention to your own social support. o You are a part of the web of social support for other people just like others are a social support for you! Social Interactions Status  **Status / Social Status** is a person's social position in society. Each person has many statuses, ex. One individual can be a Son, student, and friend, etc. They affect the type of interactions we have -- some situations people are equal (ex. you and your friend, you feel comfortable talking things out) some not -- you hold an inferior (ex. with professor -- you are submissive/respectful, and less negotiate) or superior to the other (ex. President of an organization. You have control over your members. Your members respect you more so. 246 o In short: Friends are equal, but if you are interacting with professor they are superior to you. Of if you're president of school organization you can be superior over members.  **Ascribed statuses** -- statuses you can't change, given from birth. ex. Prince of royal family o The practice of assigning such statuses to individuals exists cross-culturally within all societies and is based on gender, race, family origins, and ethnic backgrounds.\[3\] For example, a person born into a wealthy family has a high ascribed status based solely on the social networks and economic advantages that one gains from being born into a family with more resources than others. o Caste System is an example of this  **Achieved status** -- status you *earn* yourself after working for it, ex. Olympic athlete o An achieved status is a social position a person takes on voluntarily that reflects both personal ability and merit. An individual\'s occupation tends to fall under the category of an achieved status; for example, a teacher or a firefighter.  **Master Status** In perception, an individual\'s **master status** supersedes other identifying traits; for example, if a woman feels that her role as a mother is more important than her role as a woman, a daughter, etc., she is more likely to identify herself as a mother and to identify with other women who label themselves as such. Role Strain and Role Conflict  **Role strain** -- when you can't carry out all obligations of a status, tensions within one status. Causes individual to be pulled many directions by one status, ex. a student has to write two papers, five reading assignments, give a speech, two lab reports in one week.  **Role conflict** -- conflict/tension between two or more different statuses, unlike role strain. The different statuses compete for someone's time. Ex. someone who's is a parent, friend, husband, and worker. Ex; as a husband he has an anniversary and a friend is calling for their monthly get-together. OR ex. Paper due for school and son is injured and at hospital. Or ex. as a worker has to go to work and as a husband wife wants him to clean the garage. o **"Defined as the stress that people feel when they are confronted with** **incompatible role expectations across different social statuses they occupy**. A common source of role conflict is the need to balance the statuses of employee and caregiver."  **Role Exit**: Also called Social Role Exit. When an individual stops engaging in a role previously central to their identity and the process of establishing a new identity. o **Example:** When an individual retires from a long career and must transition from the role of worker with deadlines and responsibilities to a leisurely life or when an individual becomes a parent and has to change their lifestyle. 247 Primary and Secondary Groups  **Primary groups** -- closest members of the group to you. Close intimate long-term relationships. ex. in a wedding the bridesmaids/groomsmen (usually close friends and family members). Primary groups give a sense of belonging and shared identity. You have a sense of loyalty to each of the group members (group members care about you and you care about them as well). The value of the group is just being part of it itself, not in it for some sort of goal. Primary groups provide an anchorpoint. You are born into a primary group -- your family. You often meet with those of your primary group face to face and you know a lot about their lives. These close relationships w/ primary group is often seen as a source of close human feeling/emotion (love, cooperation, and concern) o Primary Group vs. In-Group: § **Primary group** is your core social group. Parents, close friends from childhood. Long term relationships formed which have a great social impact on the individual. § **In-group** is the group you are affiliated with based on identification - can be ethnicity, nationality, gender, religion, etc.  **Secondary groups** -- formal, impersonal, temporary, and business-like relationships, based on a limited purpose/goal. Usually short-term, and only see them sometimes. Do a few goal-directed activities with these people. o **Example**: You do things like attending a lunch meeting to talk business. You are only part of the group to accomplish a task or for example, earn money (means to an end) "formal impersonal groups." o **Example**: wedding. § Bride and groom sit with close friends known for a long time/close family (bridal party). *Primary group* § Groom played football in college. His teammates are in his *primary group* because they know each other well (countless hours practicing with each other) § Neighborhood of bride really were close to each other. Went to the beach, had cookouts, and the neighborhood was a giant community. This would be a *primary group* of the wife. § Secondary group: parents work friends, distant family, acquaintances (guests there to keep strong relationships in the future. Distant family there to avoid family drama/avoid people's feelings) xEthnocentrism and Cultural Relativism -- In Group and Out Group  See above Dramaturgical Approach  "DRAMA" = acronym. Uses metaphor of theater. Audience = essential.  Dramaturgical Approach/ Theory: Concepts of front stage self, back stage self, impression management, and communication are all relevant to the dramaturgical 248 approach to social interactions. Dramaturgy uses the metaphor of theater to understand social interactions. When interacting, people are assumed to act in accordance with the expectations of their audience.  Erving Goffman (1940) studied nature of people's interactions. He noticed people planned their conduct, people want to guide and control how they're seen, and act differently alone than in public. They put the best presentation of themselves that they can. o Says people do all these things through process of **dramaturgy.**  2 parts of dramaturgy: Both help us explain how humans behave in a social setting. o **Front stage** -- when people are in a social setting. Ex. someone watches baseball with friends even if he doesn't like baseball. Manipulating how he's seen to gain/make friends. "Putting on a front and acting for an audience" perhaps use this to your advantage one day. § Say "oh I love baseball" even though you don't really like baseball o **Back stage** -- more private area of our lives, when act is over. You can be yourself. You can do what you feel makes you comfortable. Private area of your life. § Some things in backstage maybe nobody knows about, few people who are close to you might know about some things in your backstage § Ex; guy who said he loved baseball might come home and like watching cooking shows, cooking nice meals, hanging out with his cat. Nobody knows this about him. § It is things we do behind stage. Ex; putting on makeup! Things we do to prepare for front-stage when nobody is around.  Some people are crossing over from back stage to front stage due to social media -- putting on a front in their backstage to make a good impression. Impression Management  **Impression management** --our attempt to control how others see us on the front stage. Do this because we want to be viewed in a positive way. There are multiple social situations which require different **scripts** from you as an actor and hence there are multiple front stages, and you have to play a different front stage role every time. We manage our sense of self in social interactions. o **Ex**; All front stages - football team captain (he had to get people fired up!) and perhaps on the weekends he volunteers at the hospital (very different front stage, his role is be there for the patient and offer them help as a volunteer) and then perhaps he goes to school and in chemistry class he needs to get a rec from his chemistry teacher to get into grad school (he pretends to be interested in professors research and gives impression he is a curious student).  **Backstage** -- where you work on impression management. Ex. put on makeup, look in mirror and try different outfits (training area for impression management) 249 xAggression  See above xHarlow Monkey Experiments  See above xAltruism  See above Discrimination -- Individual vs. Institutional  **Discrimination** is differential treatment and harmful *actions* against minorities. Can be based on different factors including race, age, religion, etc. Can occur at individual or at the organizational/institutional level.  **Individual discrimination --** *Individual person acting to discriminate* based on something (sex, religion, race, age etc.) ex. a science professor who doesn't let women into his class. (in this example sex discrimination)  **Institutional discrimination** -- organization discriminating -- including governments, banks, schools etc. Example: Brown vs. Board of Education in 1954. In this court case, overturned separate schools for whites and African-Americans. Brown said these schools aren't equal, and Africans were being mistreated.  **Unintentional discrimination** -- how policies can discriminate unintentionally o **Side-effect discrimination** -- talks about how one institution/organization/sector can influence another negatively. (Institutions -- economics, politics, law, medicine, business and are all interrelated, and discrimination in one area can effect another- it is an side effect). § Ex. a small town where African American always get unfair verdict of guilty because they didn't think they could get off on a fair verdict (so they take lesser crime). Then while applying to a job later, don't get the job because of criminal record. Criminal justice reached unfair verdict, and potential employers are swayed too (employer is swayed and unjustly discriminates unintentional because of another institution -- in this case the court system). o **Past-In-Present** discrimination -- how things done in the past, even if no longer allowed they can have consequences for people in the present. Ex. After Brown vs. Board verdict, but girl in integrated school still doesn't feel welcome in her classroom. (Negative attitude of the past coming forward to the present and causes minority to be discriminated against unfairly) 250 Prejudice vs. Discrimination  **Prejudice** = attitudes that prejudge a group, usually negative and not based on facts. Make same assumptions about everyone in a group without considering their differences. Ex. CEO doesn't think women are capable of running a team.  **Discrimination** = differential treatment and harmful actions against minorities. ACTIONS ARE BEING TAKEN on negative-attitude (going a step further from prejudice) Ex. say there's a woman who's very good at the job, but doesn't promote her just because she's a woman. o Ex. Discrimination examples: Jews in WWII in Germany required to where yellow stars and in Apartheid in Africa from 1948-1994 where negative attitudes and action against minority (a sign that says for use by white persons only). Actions taken in both situations. Organizations and Bureaucratization  Organizations and bureaucracies play a large role on our lives.  **Organizations** are institutions designed for a specific purpose, collective goal, and try to achieve maximum efficiency. Ex. Postal Service (purpose: deliver mail) , McDonalds (food), Time Warner Cable (TV/Internet access) etc. o **Utilitarian Organizations** -- members are paid/rewarded for their efforts, ex. Businesses and government jobs, and universities (receive diploma in exchange for your time). o **Normative Organizations** -- members come together through shared goals, ex. religion groups or MADD (Mothers against Drunk Driving). Positive sense of unity and purpose. o **Coercive Organization** -- members don't have choice about membership, ex. people in a prison, or the military (you need to be discharged to leave).Usually highly structured and have very strict rules  Organizations achieve maximum efficiency through **bureaucracy** -- the rules, structures, and rankings that guide organizations. (DOES NOT mean something negative, lines, or red tape) o **Bureaucratization** - process by which organizations become increasingly governed by laws and policy. Ex. customer service, now move through 12 menu options before reaching someone to help you. o **Iron rule of oligarchy --** even most democratic of organizations become more bureaucratic over time until they're governed by select few. Why? Conflict theory explains it. Once person gains leadership role in organization they might be hesitant to give it up**.** (those with power have vested interest in keeping it) **Also those who achieve power might have skills that make them valuable.** § **Oligarchy:** a small group of people having control of a country, organization, or institution. o **McDonaldization** -- policies of fast food organizations have come to dominate other organizations in society. Primarily, *Principles of efficiency, calculability*