Sociology: Norms and Behavior PDF

§ We must decide on what values to keep and what values to get rid off § Ex. Peers pressure us to drink/do drugs as teenagers. What movies/music we watch and listen to. o **Mass media** -- television, internet, radio, book, magazines. When you are young, you learn things through mass media that...

§ We must decide on what values to keep and what values to get rid off § Ex. Peers pressure us to drink/do drugs as teenagers. What movies/music we watch and listen to. o **Mass media** -- television, internet, radio, book, magazines. When you are young, you learn things through mass media that parents would not approve of. Today, children are exposed to a lot of content intended for mature audiences -- violent TV shows. Enforces gender and other stereotypes. Ex: Children's books is another agent of socialization. Normative and Non-Normative Behavior What is Normal? Exploring Folkways, Mores, and Taboos  Psychologists and sociologists study human behavior and often ask: What is normal? Who decides what behavior is normal? What behavior is strange, and what behavior is criminal? These individuals are studying norms.  **Norms** are standards for what behaviours, set by groups of individuals, are acceptable, and which are not. Rules that dictate how person should behave around certain group of people -- and are defined by that group and usually guided by some sort of moral standard or ethical value that is easily understood and internalized by all members of the group. Provide structure and standards of how people can behave. o *Norms vary/are dependent on context, physical locations, culture and by country.* *Can change with time as individual's attitudes shift or circumstances change to* *allow certain types of behaviors to be valued.* § Ex: At a baseball game you stand up and yell very loudly when your team gets a homerun. At a meeting at work, you do the same thing (yell loudly) -- a behavior in this context with those individuals would probably not be acceptable. § Ex: can vary country to country/culture to culture: Individuals from America greet each other by saying hello or a handshake, but in European cultures it's customary to kiss on the cheeks. § Ex: Can change over time. When baseball began, only men were allowed to play but when men were drafted in WWII, women started playing baseball too which caused a shift in norms. By end of WWII, it was normal for men and women to play baseball. o Norms are reinforced by **sanctions** -- rewards/punishments for behaviours in accord with or against norms respectively. § **Positive sanction** - a reward for conforming to norms. § **Negative sanction** - a punishment for violating norms. § **Formal sanction** - officially recognized and enforced. § **Informal sanction** - unofficially recognized and does not result in specific punishment. 192 o **Formal norms** are written down, **informal norms** are understood but less precise and have no specific punishments.  Norms can be classified into 4 groups: *folkways, mores, laws, and taboos*. Dictate how important the norm is and consequences for deviating for deviating from norm. o **Folkways** -- the mildest type of norm, just common rules/manners we are supposed to follow on a day to day base. *Traditions individuals have followed for* *a long time,* ex. opening the door, helping a person who's dropped item, or saying thank you. Not engaging results in a consequences that is not severe/consistent. *No actual punishment.* § Ex: Friend's pants zipper is undone. Tell your friend your zipper is undone (common courtesy) but not telling friends leads to no consequences. o **Mores** -- norms based on some *moral value/belief* (dependent on group's values of right and wrong). Generally produce strong feelings. Usually a strong reaction if more is violated. Ex. Truthfulness (tell the truth because it's the right thing to do, when public figures are not truthful it causes outrage because the figure has done something wrong). *Don't have serious consequences.* Acronym: MOREALS § Ex: friends takes of shirt who has painted baseball team's logo on chest. You feel strongly about modesty so you think its wrong that your friend took of shirt and is exposing skin. No serious consequences of your friend's behavior other than your disapproval. o **Laws** -- *norms still based on right and wrong, but have formal/consistent* *consequences.* Ex. Public figure lies under oath, done something morally wrong but also violate laws of court. There is a punishment for the crime. Violation can be simple (J-walking) or severe (murder). There is not always outrage when a law is violated -- depends on the law. § Ex: friends takes of all clothes and decides to go streaking across the field. Broken law and you will receive a punishment. Perhaps not outrage or disgust -- crowd might be laughing or cheering. o **Taboos --** behaviors completely forbidden/wrong in any circumstance, and violation results in consequences far more extreme than a more. Often punishable by law (with serious legal consequences) and result in severe disgust by members of community. Considered very immoral behavior. Ex. Incest (sexual relationships between family members) and cannibalism (eating human flesh) Perspectives on Deviance: Differential Association, Labelling Theory, and Strain Theory  When norm is violated, it's referred to as **deviance**. Not negative, just individuals behaving differently from what society feels is normal. Deviance is relative (just like norms are). Deviance is dependent on context, individuals, group, and country. Deviance standards can change based on these factors. 193 o Ex. most Americans eat meat, but someone who's vegetarian is deviant in US (their behavior is different than what majority considers as normal)  **Symbolic Interactionism:** society is a product of everyday interactions of individuals. Looking at how people behave in normal everyday situations and helps us to better understand and define deviance.  Views of deviance include theory of *differential association, labeling theory, and strain* *theory.*  The **Theory of Differential Association** states that *deviance is a learned behavior that* *results from continuous exposure to others whom violate norms and laws* -- learn from observation of others. Rejects norms/values and believes new behavior as norm. o Relationships a person forms are very important -- if strong relationship to someone deviant (whom provides constant exposure to violated norms), the person is more likely to learn deviance than someone not. Converse is true as well, if they form relationships with someone who follows norms they are less likely to learn deviant behavior. o Known as: "as money sees, money do" Money accepts deviant behavior as normal. o Ex: elite athlete who grows up believing that cheating is wrong and to be a successful athlete one must train hard, avoid drugs and alcohol, and be respectful to opponents. Elite athlete now switches teams and now new team member believe that using steroids, partying, and heckling is the best way to be successful at a sport. Perhaps even show athlete how to be deviant by demonstrating how to take a particular drug, introducing athlete to steroid, etc. Overtime the athlete will learn from the new team members that these behaviors (partying, heckling, and drug use) are acceptable even though they were not before. Accepts these new deviant behaviors overtime  **Labeling Theory** -- a behavior is deviant if people have judged the behavior and labelled it as deviant. Depends on what's acceptable in that society. o Ex. steroids can be labelled as deviant. Not labeled as right or wrong, it is possible that in some situations steroids are necessary. In professional sports -- steroid use can be labeled as wrong or unfair and can be considered deviant and subject to critic by others. Deviance is determined by the team members, sporting league, or greater society label. § "Perspective on deviance that suggests labels get applied to certain groups or individuals regardless of specific behavior. Adolescents are often subject to stigmatizing labels, leading to perceptions that may not match behavior. Labelling theory calls attention to the power that sterotypes can have in determining how individuals are perceived. o Societies reaction to and label for deviant behavior and person who committed the deviant behavior are important § **Primary deviance** -- no big consequences, reaction to deviant behavior is very mild and does not affect person's self-esteem. Individual is able to continue to behaves in same way without feeling immoral/wrong. Ex. All 194 athletes of team use steroids, so the act of a player is not labeled as deviant and his actions go unnoticed. § **Secondary deviance** -- more serious consequences, characterized by severe negative reaction that produces a stigmatizing label and results in more deviant behavior. Ex. Teammates of an athlete label players behavior as deviant and they exclude him from practices and call him a terrible player. Reaction will be he needs to continue to use steroids to be a better player. Reaction might be to use steroids more frequently or try more dangerous forms of drug. Repeated deviance gives him a reputation of deviance and the stigma of deviance stays with him for the rest of his career  **Strain Theory** -- if person is blocked from attaining a culturally accepted goal, may become frustrated/strained and turn to deviance. Individuals in a group are pushed to attain certain goals, but may not have means or legitimate ways to achieve success. Society values a certain behavior but the opportunity to be successful is not made available to everyone. The lack of equal opportunity results in increased access to illegal means to achieve success. o **Ex**: athlete attends a school that doesn't have proper baseball training equipment or no coach, or funding. Athlete becomes frustrated and turns to deviant behavior. School lacks the resources, so athlete tries steroids to level the playing field. Aspects of Collective Behavior: Fads, Mass Hysteria, and Riots  Previous video: norms and deviance and how changes in norms can occur at the individual level.  What happens when large numbers of individuals rapidly behave in ways that are not inline with societal norms? In sociology, this is called *collective behavior*  **Collective behavior** is not the same as group behavior, because of a few reasons. o First, collective behavior is time-limited, and involves **short social interactions**, while groups stay together and socialize for long period of time. o Collectives can be **open**, while groups can be exclusive. o Collectives have **loose norms** (which are murkily defined), while groups have strongly held/well-defined norms.  Collective behavior violates generally violates widely held societal norms and it times it can be very destructive.  Collective behavior is often driven by group dynamics, such as deindividualization. Certain group dynamics can encourage people to engage in acts they may consider wrong in normal circumstances, which also occur in a collective.  Sociologists have identified 3 types of collective behavior: **fads, mass hysteria**, and **riots**. o **Fad** -- "fleeting behavior" is something that becomes incredibly popular very quickly, but loses popular just as quickly. Last for short period of time, but reach 195 influence of large \# of people in that time. Not necessarily in line with normal behavior. Perceived as cool/interesting by large group of people. § Ex. is a "cinnamon challenge" -- person has to eat large spoonful of ground cinnamon in under a minute and posting video online. o **Mass hysteria** is large \# of people who experience unmanageable delusions and anxiety at same time. Reactions spread rapidly and reach more people through rumours and fears. Often takes the form of panic reactions and negative news or potential threat. § **Mass hysteria** refers to behavior that occurs when groups react emotionally or irrationally to real or perceived threats. It is characterized by panic and spread of information (or misinformation) by the media. § Ex. Mild-form of hysteria: Reaction due to news of severe weather warnings. The result is fear/anxiety induced in large \#s of people and the fear causes people to become crazed (rush to supermarket), drive erratically and become irrational § **Mass psychogenic illness, or epidemic hysteria**: Mass hysteria can be a result of of psychology, like when large amount of people believe they have same illness despite lack of disease.  Ex. after anthrax attack in US, after reports there were over 2000 false alarms. Individuals reported false symptoms of anthrax infection and because they believed they were exposed (which induced false symptoms). o **Riots** -- characterized by large \# of people who engage in dangerous behavior, such as vandalism, violence, or other crimes. Riots are very chaotic and cost cities millions in damages. Individuals who act case aside societal norms and behave in very destructive ways, and violate laws indiscriminately (ruin property, steal, etc). Often seen as a collective act of defiance/disapproval, and can be result of a perceived issue (ex. sports game outcome, frustration of working/living conditions or conflicts between races/religions). Cause of act can be legitimate, the group acts out in ways that are illegal/damaging to society as a whole. § **A riot is a violent form of crowd behavior that results from feelings of** **injustice or feeling that needs have been ignored. Riots typically result** **in property damage and other significant crimes.** o A mob is a group of individuals who are emotional and violent, but target specific individuals or categories of individuals. 196 Learning Types of Learning  **Non-associative learning** -- when an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus, ex. **habituation** and **sensitization**. In habituation, person tunes out the stimulus. **Dishabituation** occurs when previously habituated stimulus is removed. **Sensitization** is increase in responsiveness to a repeated stimulus.  **Associative learning** -- when one event is connected to another, ex. classical and operant conditioning. Classical Conditioning: Neutral, Conditioned, and Unconditioned Stimuli and Responses  Example: Pet Guinea pig gets excited about carrot at first (natural). When first giving carrot to guinea pig, had to open a refrigerator to get the carrot out, the opening of which makes a loud sound. After time, guinea pig gets excited just at refrigerator door opening/the sound of the refrigerator opening (even before carrot was given). Same with every other time refrigerator door opened. This process is called classical conditioning.  **Classical conditioning** (also known as **Pavlovian** or **respondent conditioning**) is a learning process in which an innate response to a potent stimulus comes to be elicited in response to a previously neutral stimulus; this is achieved by repeated pairings of the neutral stimulus with the potent stimulus. o "I am conditioning myself to like it" is the same as "I am learning to like it"  **"S" = Stimulus --** Anything that stimulates your senses (anything you can hear, see, smell, taste, or touch.  Stimuli can produce a **response --"R"**  Classical does not involve change in behaviour like operant conditioning.  In example:  Carrot is an **unconditioned stimulus (UCS)** because no one had to teach guinea pig to like carrots. The UCS triggers a response, called an **unconditioned response (UCR).** The response in this case was an excitement in guinea pig (a normal physiological response. o Unconditioned means it's innate, already do naturally, and not learned. o While conditioned means it's a learned behavior.  Right before guinea pig got carrot, heard refrigerator door sound-- a **neutral stimuli**: a stimuli you can sense by sight, taste, or hearing it that typically doesn't not produce the reflex that is being tested. In this example, the sound of the refrigerator door can be heard, but it does not naturally cause excitement. It is something that had to be learned.  Conditioning is produced when the neutral stimulus is presented shortly before the unconditioned stimulus -- presentation of both stimuli is caused a **trial**. Pairing the two stimuli together is how you establish classical conditioning. Occurs when neutral 197 stimulus (refrigerator door) is able to elicit the same response as the unconditioned stimulus (the carrot) o Ex. guinea pig was conditioned to respond to sound of refrigerator door. o Refrigerator door (neutral stimulus) becomes the **conditioned stimuli**, because it elicits a **conditioned response** (excitement). The excitement was previously a UCR elicited by UCS (the carrot).  Pavlov's Dog is another classical example. Classical Conditioning: Extinction, Spontaneous Recovery, Generalization, Discrimination  Recall last experiment, guinea pig also responds (gets excited) to desk door opening because it sounds similar (but different) to the refrigerator door. This is termed generalization.  **Generalization**: tendency/ability of a stimulus similar to conditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response, and more similar the stimulus is to original conditioned stimulus - the greater the conditioned response. o Has an adaptive value. o Generalization allows us to make appropriate response to similar stimuli. Ex. meeting someone new who smiles, reminds us of other smiles (both exhibit feelings of joy).  Guinea pig doesn't respond to dresser drawer, which makes a sound that is different from refrigerator, this is called **discrimination**, when you learn to make a response to some stimuli but not others. Also has an adaptive value because you want to respond differently to related stimuli. o Ex: You wouldn't want to respond to all loud sounds in the same way. You probably want to respond differently to a loud bang of drum vs loud bang of gunshot  If you open refrigerator door and give the Guinea pig get a carrot anymore, over time she would no longer react -- **extinction**. When a CS does not elicit a CR anymore. 198 o It is used to train certain phobias. Ex. If you are afraid of heights, the therapist would expose you to various heights and the stimuli would not elicit the same response anymore (the response of fear)  But suddenly she hears refrigerator door open later, and makes a response (a milder form like feeling intrigued more than usual instead of a strong feeling of excitement)-- **spontaneous recovery** (when old conditioned stimulus elicits response). Don't know why it happens, usually infrequently, doesn't persist for a long time, and less strong.  In classical conditioning, behavior that is typically in response to one stimuli becomes the response due to another stimulus (due to pairing)  **Extinctive Burst: When an animal no longer receives regular reinforcement, its original** **behavior will sometimes spike (meaning increase dramatically) - this is known as an** **extinction burst.** o While extinction, when implemented consistently over time, results in the eventual decrease of the undesired behavior, in the short-term the subject might exhibit what is called an *extinction burst*. An extinction burst will often occur when the extinction procedure has just begun. This usually consists of a sudden and temporary *increase* in the response\'s frequency, followed by the eventual decline and extinction of the behavior targeted for elimination. Novel behavior, or emotional responses or aggressive behavior, may also occur.\[Take, as an example, a pigeon that has been reinforced to peck an electronic button. During its training history, every time the pigeon pecked the button, it will have received a small amount of bird seed as a reinforcer. So, whenever the bird is hungry, it will peck the button to receive food. However, if the button were to be turned off, the hungry pigeon will first try pecking the button just as it has in the past. When no food is forthcoming, the bird will likely try again \... and again, and again. After a period of frantic activity, in which their pecking behavior yields no result, the pigeon\'s pecking will decrease in frequency.  Other things to know: o Classical conditioning usage in therapy:  ***Aversive Conditioning***: Aversive conditioning is usually used to stop a particular behavior. The process involves pairing a habit a person wishes to break, such as smoking or bed-wetting, with an unpleasant stimulus such as electric shock or nausea. If I wanted to stop Shanikwa from smoking I could shock her every time she smokes. The shock is the UCS and the pain is the UCR. Once the smoking becomes associated with the electric shock (acquisition), Shanikwa will experience pain when she smokes, even without the shock. Thus the smoking will become the CS and the pain the CR (but only if the shock is no longer given).  ***Systematic Desensitization***: Systematic Desensitization was developed by Joseph Wolpe and is a process that involvers teaching the client to replace feelings of anxiety with relaxation. It works great with phobias. If Akira has a horrific phobia of spiders, the therapist will teach Akira relaxation techniques (or give Akira a magical feel good drug). Slowly spiders are introduced to Akira. First maybe just a picture, then one in a cage, then one outside of a cage etc\... The goal is to get Akira to associate spiders with 199 the drugs or relaxation techniques. Eventually, seeing a spider will cause Akira to relax (in theory). o Most of the time, systematic desensitization occurs gradually, but some therapists use a technique called ***implosive therapy***. Here they throw Akira in a room with thousands of spiders with the idea that if they face their fear and survive, they will realize their fear is irrational. This technique often produces a lot of anxiety.  **Counterconditioning**: **Counterconditioning** (also called **stimulus substitution**) is a form of respondent conditioning that involves the conditioning of an unwanted behavior or response to a stimulus into a wanted behavior or response by the association of positive actions with the stimulus. o Counter conditioning is very similar to extinction seen in classical conditioning. It is the process of getting rid of an unwanted response. But in counter conditioning the unwanted response does not just disappear, it is replaced by a new, wanted response. \"The conditioned stimulus is presented with the unconditioned stimulus\". This also can be thought of as stimulus substitution. The weaker stimulus will be replaced by the stronger stimulus. When counter conditioning is successful, the process can not just be explained by simply substitution of a stimulus. It usually is explained by things such as conditioned inhibition, habituation, or extinction. o It is a common treatment for aggression, fears, and phobias. The use of counter conditioning is widely used for treatment in humans as well as animals. The most common goal is to decrease or increase the want or desire to the stimulus. One of the most widely used types of counter conditioning is systematic desensitization.  Extinction occurs in both operant and classical conditioning.  Phobic responses are acquired through classical conditioning. Operant Conditioning: Positive and Negative Reinforcement and Punishment  Associated with **B.F. Skinner**  **Operant conditioning** ALSO CALLED **Instrumental Conditioning** focuses on the relationship between behavior and their consequences, and how those in turn influence the behaviour (classical conditioning no change in behaviour)  In operant conditioning, behaviours have consequences -- two types: **reinforcement** (increase a behavior) and **punishment** (decrease a behavior). Two types of reinforcement (positive and negative) and two types of punishment (positive and negative). o We will use the example goal: safe driving. o **Positive reinforcement** = something is being added to increase tendency of behavior, ex. a gas gift card for safe driving o **Negative reinforcement** = taking something away to increase tendency behavior will occur again. Ex. taking loud buzzing noise away only once you put your 200 seatbelt on. Taking away sound of buzzer when you put on seatbelt is negative reinforcement, because taking something away in effort to increase behavior (putting a seatbelt on) o **Positive punishment** = Positive punishment means something is added to decrease tendency something will occur again. Ex. giving a speeding ticket (adding) to decrease behavior of speeding (behavior). o **Negative punishment** = something taken away in effort to decrease tendency it'll occur again. Ex. taking away your license. o All these consequences **shape** (influence) the behavior o **The immediacy of feedback is an important factor in influencing behavior.**  **Primary reinforcers** are innately satisfying/desirable, like food, water, sexual activity  **Secondary reinforcers** are those learned to be reinforcers, such as previously neutral stimuli. Requires a pairing or association with a primary reinforcer for it to have value. Ex. money  **Token economy** -- system of behaviour modification based on systematic reinforcement of target behaviour, reinforcers are "tokens" that can be exchanged for other reinforcers (ex. Prizes).  **Operant Extinction**: In operant conditioning it results from some response by the organism no longer being reinforced (for example, you keep getting your dog to sit on command, but you stop giving it a treat or any other type of reinforcement. Over time, the dog may not sit every time you give the command).  **Instinctual drift:** it is the phenomenon whereby established habits, learned using operant techniques, eventually are replaced by innate food-related behaviors. So the learned behavior "drifts" to the organism's species-specific (instinctual) behavior. o **Instinctive drift** or **instinctual drift** is the tendency of an animal to revert to instinctive behaviors that interfere with a conditioned response. The concept originated with B.F. Skinner\'s former students Keller Breland and Marian Breland when they tried to teach a raccoon to put tokens into a piggy bank. Instead, the raccoon drifted to its instinctive behavior of putting the tokens on the ground or turning them over in its paws, as they often do with food  How is motivational state defined? By depriving the subject of some desirable stimulus for a period of time.  Extinction: both in operant conditioning and classical conditioning. Operant Conditioning: Shaping  "I want to learn to do a headstand" -- emphasize **learn**. Learning through successively reinforcing behaviors that approximate the target behavior is **shaping**.  What is the **target behavior?** The final behavior you wish to train. Ex. headstand. o Showing up to yoga class, won't necessarily make you learn it. o Next, put hands on mat (downward dog). Then forearms on mat. Each is then reinforced behavior until next step. o Finally, put legs up -- the target.