Sociology Course Outline 2023/2024 (ZUST)

(ZUST) Paramedic Department Course:Sociology Code: Semester: 2023/2024 Bahaa Aldeen Nassar  ‫أﺻﺒﺢ ﻧﻈﺎًﻣﺎ ﻣﺘﻤﻴًﺰا ﰲ ﻣﻨﺘﺼﻒ اﻟﻘﺮن اﻟﺘﺎﺳﻊ ﻋﺸﺮ‬ ‫اﻟﺜﻮرة اﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﻴﺔ‬ ‫اﻹﻣﺒﺮﻳﺎﻟﻴﺔ‬...

(ZUST) Paramedic Department Course:Sociology Code: Semester: 2023/2024 Bahaa Aldeen Nassar  ‫أﺻﺒﺢ ﻧﻈﺎًﻣﺎ ﻣﺘﻤﻴًﺰا ﰲ ﻣﻨﺘﺼﻒ اﻟﻘﺮن اﻟﺘﺎﺳﻊ ﻋﺸﺮ‬ ‫اﻟﺜﻮرة اﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﻴﺔ‬ ‫اﻹﻣﺒﺮﻳﺎﻟﻴﺔ‬ ‫ﳒﺎح اﻟﻌﻠﻮم اﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ‬ Why Study Sociology? Sociologists Kenneth and Mamie Clark influenced the U.S. Supreme ‫ﻣﺠﻠﺲ اﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ‬ court landmark decision in Brown vs. the Board of Education ‫ﻗﺮار ﺗﺎرﻳﺨﻲ ﻟﻠﻤﺤﻜﻤﺔ اﻟﻌﻠﻴﺎ‬ The field‫ﻤﺔ‬of ‫اﳌﺴﺎﻫ‬ sociology consists of people interested in contributing to the body of knowledge as well as those interested in both the study and ‫ﻟﻌﺐ ﻋﻠﻢ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎع دوًرا ﺣﺎﺳًﻤﺎ ﰲ‬ improvement of society ‫ واﳌﺴﺎواة‬، ‫إﻟﻐﺎء اﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰ ﺑﲔ اﳉﻨﺴﲔ‬ ‫ وﲢﺴﲔ‬، ‫ﺑﲔ اﳉﻨﺴﲔ ﰲ ﻣﻜﺎن اوﻟﻌﻤﻞ‬ Sociology has played a crucial role in ‫اﻣﻟﻌﺎﺴﻜﻣﺎﻠنﺔااﻷﻷﻓﺮﺻاﻠﻴد ذﲔوي اعﻹﻋﺎﻗﺔ وﺣﻘﻮق‬ desegregation, gender equality in the workplace, improved treatment of individuals with disabilities, and the rights of native populations Sociology can teach people ways to recognize how they fit into the world and how others ‫ﳝﻜﻦ ﻟﻌﻠﻢ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎع أن ﻳﻌﻠﻢ اﻟﻨﺎس ﻃﺮًﻗﺎ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺮف‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﻣﻼءﻣﻬﻢ ﻟﻠﻌﺎﻟﻢ وﻛﻴﻒ ﻳﺮى اﻵﺧﺮون‬ perceive them and increase awareness of ‫إدراﻛﻬﻢ وزﻳﺎدة اﻟﻮﻋﻲ‬ ‫ﻟﻬﻢ زﻳﺎدة اﻟﻮﻋﻲ ﺑﺎﻻﺧﺘﻼﻓﺎت‬ differences Sociology in the Workplace ‫ﳝﻜﻦ ﻟﺪراﺳﺔ ﻋﻠﻢ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎع أن ﲤﻨﺢ اﻷﺷﺨﺎص اﻟﺬﻳﻦ ﻟﺪﻳﻬﻢ اﻟﻜﺜﻴﺮ ﻣﻦ اﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ‬ ‫واﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ اﳌﺮﻏﻮب ﻓﻴﻬﻤﺎ ﳝﻜﻨﻬﻢ اﳌﺴﺎﻫﻤﺔ ﰲ اﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ أﻣﺎﻛﻦ اﻟﻌﻤﻞ‬ Studying sociology can provide people with much desired knowledge and education that can contribute to many workplaces: an understanding of social systems and large bureaucracies ‫ﻓﻬﻢ ﻟﻸﻧﻈﻤﺔ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ واﻟﺒﻴﺮوﻗﺮاﻃﻴﺔ اﻟﻜﺒﻴﺮة‬ ‫اﺑﺘﻜﺎر وﺗﻨﻔﻴﺬ ﻣﺸﺎرﻳﻊ ﺑﺤﺜﻴﺔ‬ the ability to devise and carry out research projects the ability to collect, read, and analyze statistical‫اﻟﻘﺪرةاﳌﻋﻌﻠﻠﻰﻮﻣﺟﺎﻤتﻊا اﻹﻟﻘﺣﺮاﺼءﺎﺋةﻴوﺔﲢﻠﻴﻞ‬ information the ability to recognize important differences ‫اﻟﻘﺪرة ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﻌﺮف ﻋﻠﻰ اﻻﺧﺘﻼﻓﺎت اﳌﻬﻤﺔ‬ skills in preparing reports and communicating complex ideas ‫اﳌﻬﺎرات ﰲ إﻋﺪاد اﻟﺘﻘﺎرﻳﺮ وﺗﻮﺻﻴﻞ اﻷﻓﻜﺎر اﳌﻌﻘﺪة‬ the capacity for critical thinking ‫اﻟﻘﺪرة ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﻔﻜﻴﺮ اﻟﻨﻘﺪي‬ Sociology prepares people for a wide variety of careers include government agencies and corporations ‫ﻋﻠﻢ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎع ﻳﻌﺪ اﻟﻨﺎس ﻤﻮﻋﺔ واﺳﻌﺔ ﻣﻦ اﳌﻬﻦ ﺗﺸﻤﻞ اﻟﻮﻛﺎﻻت اﳊﻜﻮﻣﻴﺔ واﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت‬ Introduction to the Sociological Imagination The sociological imagination (C. Wright Mills, 1916 - 1962) provides a framework for understanding our social world and makes the connection between personal challenges and larger social issues Personal troubles are private problems experienced within the character of the individual and the range of their immediate relation to others Larger social or public issues are those that are outside of one’s personal control and the range of one’s inner life The real power of the sociological imagination is in how we learn to distinguish between the personal and social levels in our own lives A majority of personal problems are not experienced only personally but are also influenced and affected by social norms, habits, and expectations  Why It Matters: Foundations of Sociology ‫ﺗﻨﻮع‬ We are all members of society and we all experience a variety of social interactions every day ‫ﻳﻜﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﻢ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎع اﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ا ﺎﻻت اﻷﺧﺮى‬ ‫ذات ﺻﻠﺔ‬ Sociology complements many other subject areas and is pertinent to ‫ﻛﻞ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﻣﻦ ﺟﻮاﻧﺐ ﺣﻴﺎﺗﻚ‬ every aspect of your life You are an individual within society but also a member of several social groups that interact constantly and part of social institutions ‫أﻧﺖ ﻓﺮد داﺧﻞ ا ﺘﻤﻊ وﻟﻜﻨﻚ أﻳﻀﺎ ﻋﻀﻮ ﰲ اﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺸﺒﻜﺎت اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ‬ ‫ا ﻤﻮﻋﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﻤﺮار وﺟﺰء ﻣﻦ اﳌﺆﺳﺴﺎت اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ‬ Sociology Sociology is the scientific study of social behavior and human groups Sub-sections of study range from analysis of conversations to the development of theories and explaining how the world works What is Sociology? Sociology is the study of groups and group interactions, societies and social interactions A group is any collection of at least two people who interact with some frequency and who share some sense of aligned identity A society is a group of people who live in a defined geographic area who interact and share a common culture Sociologists study small groups and individual interactions from the micro-level and trends among and between large groups and societies on the macro-level Culture refers to the group’s shared practices, values, and beliefs Sociological imagination (C. Wright Mills): an awareness of the relationship between one’s behavior and experience and the wider culture that shaped a person’s choices and perceptions What is Sociology, continued (1) Reification is an error of treating an abstract concept as though it has a real, material existence All sociologists are interested in the experiences of individuals and how they are shaped by interactions with social groups and society as a whole Cultural patterns and social forces put pressure on people to select one choice over another Changes in the U.S. family structure present an example of changing patterns that interest sociologists Sociologists study social facts that are aspects of social life shaping a person’s behavior and can include laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and cultural rules that govern social life What is Sociology, continued (2) Sociologists might also study the consequences of new patterns such as the ways children are affected by them or changing needs for education, housing, and healthcare SNAP benefits offer another example of how sociologists identify and study social trends Research has found that there is a strong stigma or attribute that is deeply discrediting attached to the use of SNAP benefits The strength of the SNAP stigma is linked to the general economic climate Part of the sociological imagination is that the individual and society are inseparable and must be studied together Norbert Elias called the process of simultaneously analyzing the behavior of individuals and society that shapes the behavior figuration, which can be seen in the practice of religion Karl Marx Karl Marx (1818 - 1883): German philosopher and economist who coauthored The Communist Manifesto with Friedrich Engels, one of the most influential political manuscripts in history Marx rejected Comte’s positivism, believing societies grew and changed as a result of the struggles of different social classes over the means of production Marx predicted that inequalities of capitalism would become so extreme that workers would eventually revolt and result in the collapse of capitalism and rise of communism Communism is an economic system under which there is no private or corporate ownership but with everything distributed as needed Marx’s idea that social conflict leads to change in society remains a major theory used in modern sociology Émile Durkheim Émile Durkheim (1858 – 1917): Helped establish sociology as a formal academic disciple by establishing the first European department of sociology at the University of Bordeaux in 1895 and publishing Rules of the Sociological Method in 1895 Durkheim laid out his theory on how societies transformed from a primitive state into a capitalist, industrial society with the belief that people rise to their proper level in society based on merit Durkheim believed that sociologists could study objective “social facts” and that healthy societies are stable while pathological societies experience a breakdown in social norms between individuals and society Max Weber Max Weber (1864 – 1920) was a prominent German sociologist who wrote on many sociological topics His best known book The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism Weber believed that the influence of culture on human behavior had to be taken into account Verstehen: concept meaning to understand in a deep way and that in seeking verstehen, outside observers attempt to understand it from an insider’s point of view Weber and others proposed antipositivism whereby social researchers strive for subjectivity and has an aim to systematically gain an in-depth understanding of social worlds Differences between positivism and antipositivism have been considered the foundation for the differences between quantitative (like surveys with many participants) and qualitative (like in-depth interviews, focus groups, content analysis The Development of Sociology Auguste Comte (1798 – 1857), coined the term sociology The French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution greatly impacted Comte Comte believed that society developed in stages: Theological stage where people took religious views of society Metaphysical stage where people understood society as natural Scientific or positivist stage where society is governed by reliable knowledge understood in light of scientific knowledge (mainly sociology) Positivism is the scientific study of social patterns Comte’s lasting contribution to sociology has been his classification of sciences Harriet Martineau Harriet Martineau (1802 – 1876) was a writer who addressed a wide range of social science issues She was an early observer of social practices, including economics, social class, religion, suicide, government, and women’s rights She translated Comte’s writing from French to English and introduced sociology to English-speaking scholars She is also credited with the first systematic methodological international comparisons of social institutions with works Society in America(1837) and Retrospect of Western Travel (1838) She pointed out the faults with the free enterprise system in which workers were exploited and impoverished while business owners became wealthy Martineau was often discounted in her own time by the male domination of academic sociology  Why Is Culture Important? Culture determines how we see and interact with the world Some aspects of culture are universal Many aspects of culture are not universal How we view our culture in relation to others affects our interactions with others Culture changes over time and varies, even within larger cultures Introduction to culture What is culture? Intangible things like beliefs and thoughts, expectations Tangible things like objects, buildings, infrastructure Material Culture Objects or belongings of a group Clothing, hairstyles, school buildings Non-Material Culture Ideas, attitudes, and beliefs of a society Often represent/ reflect material culture Values and Beliefs Values: the standard for discerning goodness, justice Deeply embedded, essential for transmitting and teaching cultural beliefs Shape society by suggesting what’s good/bad, sought/avoided, ugly/beautiful, etc. Values portray an ideal culture, the standards society would like to embrace and live up to Real culture, the way society actually is, based on what occurs and exists, differs from ideal Rewards, sanctions (permission), and punishments enact values Values are not static Beliefs: Tenets and convictions people hold Social Norms Invisible rule for conduct, norms tell us how to behave according to what society tells us what is right, good, important Most people follow them Formal norms: established, written rules agreed upon Informal norms: casual behaviors people generally conform to (much like behavioral scripts) Breaching experiments reveal our discomfort when people don’t follow these Mores Norms further broken down Mores are norms that embody the moral views and principles of a group Violating them can have serious consequences Guarded by public sentiment: shame, shunning, banning result from violations Folkways Folkways- norms without moral underpinnings Folkways direct appropriate behavior and expression of culture Vary from culture to culture, subject to change Often, they are mannerisms we take for granted until faced with differences Think About It: Culture Shock Think about where you grew up. What were some of the folkways you took for granted as a child? Have you ever traveled to another country and experienced “culture shock” when folkways of different cultures differed from your own? Symbols and Language Symbols: gestures, signs, objects, signals, and words—help people understand their world, convey recognizable meanings shared by societies Material and nonmaterial culture– An object may represent an idea and convey important cultural meanings (wedding rings, trophies, stop signs, etc.) Destruction of symbols also conveys cultural meaning Language: symbolic system through which people communicate, culture is transmitted Language is a common symbol to all cultures, no matter how it is conveyed (verbal, written, non-verbal) Sapir- Whorf hypothesis People experience their world through their language, and understand their world through the culture embedded in their language, which evolves constantly Also called linguistic relativity Think about it: Bilingual education and bilingual speakers If the culture imbued in our languages helps us understand the world, would you agree that those who speak more languages understand the world from a greater perspective than single-language speakers? Intro to cultural similarities and differences Culture- represents the beliefs, practices and artifacts of a group Society- represents the social structures and organization of the people who share those beliefs and practices Cultural Universals- patterns or traits that are globally common to all societies (example: family unit, weddings, funeral rites, birth celebrations, language, names, jokes) These commonalities very in expression Music: conveys basic emotions of happiness, sadness, fear Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism: different expectations for different cultures– differences outnumber similarities Ethnocentrism: evaluating and judging another culture based on how it compares to one’s own cultural norms “Better than thou” attitude Cultural imperialism, the deliberate imposition of one’s own ostensibly advanced cultural values on another culture Colonialism’s damage pervades today Even seemingly benign gestures, like teaching “better” farming methods show ethnocentricity Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism, cont. Cultural Relativism: assessing a culture by its own standards rather than viewing it through the lens of one’s own culture Open-mindedness, adaptive, yet may still struggle to reconcile key differences (for example, things we may consider human rights violations) Xenocentrism: opposite of ethnocentrism, belief in superiority of another culture Upon meeting other cultures, we may find we prefer their lifestyles Perspective is important Pride in one’s own culture doesn’t necessitate disparaging another Appreciation for another culture does not discount the importance of our own in our lives and backgrounds Introduction to Pop Culture, Subculture, and Cultural Change High Culture Pattern of cultural experiences and attitudes in the highest class segments of a society Often associated with intellectualism, political power, and prestige Wealth: expensive, formal events are high culture Pop Culture More accessible, mainstream TV “top 20s”, radio, internet memes The pop culture of old can fall into obscurity and become high culture or niche Now and Then: Do you think this event, in its day, would be considered high or pop culture? Subculture or counterculture? How about today? Subculture vs. Counterculture Subculture: a smaller cultural group within a larger culture Part of the larger culture but also share a specific identity within a smaller group Shared race/ ethnicity and customs Shared unifying interests Example: hipsters- unified by adopting clothes, music, styles, etc., before the mainstream (before “it was cool”) Counterculture: type of subculture that rejects the larger culture’s norms and values Might actively defy larger society, develop their own set of rules and norms (hippie communities, Beat generation, Punk, early LGBT movements, etc.) Sometimes create communities that operate outside of and apart from the larger society Oppositional, sometimes antagonistic position Can have the purpose of social change Cultural change Cultural change: culture is always evolving, materially and non-materially When something new opens up new ways of living and when new ideas first enter a culture Innovation: Discovery and Invention Innovation: involves an object or concept’s initial appearance in society; it’s new! It’s invented or discovered Discoveries make known previously unknown but existing aspects of reality (Examples: science and exploration) Inventions result when something new is formed from existing objects or concepts— things are put together in an entirely new manner Cultural change, cont. Culture lag is the time that elapses between the introduction of a new item of material culture and its acceptance as part of nonmaterial culture Unforeseen consequences, too: Infrastructural deficiencies Pollution and fuel consumption Cost prohibitive market may leave working poor behind Diffusion and Globalization Globalization and diffusion allow greater cultural exchange, integration of world markets, technological advances Figure 1. Sociologist Everett Rogers (1962) developed a model of the diffusion of innovations. As consumers gradually adopt a new innovation, the item grows toward a market share of 100 percent, or complete saturation within a society. (Graph courtesy of Tungsten/Wikimedia Commons Think About It: Technology Adoption Where do you fall on the spectrum of adopting new technology? Are you an early adopter or a laggard or somewhere in between? Do you know any innovators? Intro to Theoretical Perspectives on Culture Functionalism or structural functionalist perspective acknowledges that there are many parts of culture that work together as a system to fulfill society’s needs and to promote stability Conflict theory focuses on populations that may be systematically disadvantaged while other groups are advantaged Focus: Power and Inequality Symbolic interactionism is primarily interested in culture as experienced in the daily interactions between individuals and the symbols that have meaning in a culture Functionalism Societies need culture to exist Cultural norms support operation and stability of society Cultural values guide decision making Culture exists to meet its members’ basic needs Values Functionalists study culture in what it values Example: education Conflict Theory Social structure is inherently unequal Society exists to reinforce inequalities in privileges bestowed Women, minorities, LGBT+ groups, senior citizens Groups like ACLU try to balance the inequalities, fight for those whom society’s structure reinforces inequalities Inequalities within cultural value systems Racism, marriage inequality, etc. Economic production and materialism: dependence on technology Technology rich/ technology poor nations “American Dream” ideal perpetuates idea the rich deserve privileges Symbolic Interactionism Concerned with face-to-face interactions between members of society Culture is created, maintained by how people interact with each other and interpret each other’s actions Culture as highly dynamic, fluid Dependent on interpretation Class Activity: Societal Norms Create a new norm for society. Decide what the norm is, how it will be enforced, and what the sanctions will be for following or breaking the norm. Then describe how you would effectively socialize people into this norm. Introduction to Sociological Perspectives Sociologists use paradigms to understand the social world A paradigm is a broad viewpoint, perspective, or lens that permit social scientists to have a wide range of tools to describe society and then build hypotheses and theories Paradigms can also be considered guiding principles or belief systems The Main Sociological Theories A sociological theory seeks to explain social phenomena and are used to create a testable proposition about society, or hypothesis Macro-level theories relate to large-scale issues and large groups of people Micro-level theories look at very specific relationships between individuals or small groups Grand theories attempt to explain large-scale relationships and answer fundamental questions about society Paradigms are philosophical and theoretical frameworks used within a discipline to formulate theories, generalizations, and experiments performed in support of them Three paradigms in sociology: structural functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism Structural-Functional Theory Structural-functional theory sees society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of individuals in society English philosopher and biologist Herbert Spencer (1820 - 1903) wrote about the similarities between society and the human body and argued that as various organs of the body work together, various parts of society work together to keep society functioning These parts of society are social institutions that include patterns of belief and behaviors focused on meeting social needs Émile Durkheim applied Spencer’s theory to explain how societies change and survive over time Durkheim believed that society is a complex system of interrelated and interdependent parts working together to maintain stability Durkheim believed that sociologists need to look beyond individuals to social facts in order to study society Structural-Functional Theory, continued Social facts include the laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and all of the cultural rules governing social life Durkheim also studied social solidarity, social ties within a group, ad hypothesized that differences in suicide rates might be explained by religion- based differences Robert Merton (1910 - 2003) explored the functions of social processes Manifest functions are the consequences of a social process that are sought or anticipated Latent functions are the unsought consequences of a social process and can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful Dysfunctions are the social processes that have undesirable consequences for society Criticism includes that structural-functional theory can’t adequately explain social change and that dysfunctions may continue even if they do not have a function Conflict Theory Conflict theory looks at society as a competition for limited resources This is a macro-level approach most identified with Karl Marx who saw society as being made of capitalist (bourgeoisie) an worker (proletariat) classes The bourgeoisie control the means of production, leading to exploitation False consciousness: the proletariats’ inability to see their position in the class system Class consciousness: structural constraints that prevent workers from joining together create a common group identity of exploited proletariats Max Weber expanded Marx’s view to include inequalities of political power and social structure that is regulated by class differences and rates of social mobility Conflict Theory, continued Ida B. Wells articulated conflict theory through theorized connection between an increase in lynching and increase in black social mobility She also examined competition within the feminist movement as women fought for the right to vote W.E.B. DuBois also examined race in the U.S. and in U.S. colonies from a conflict perspective and emphasized the importance of a reserve labor force, made up of black men C. Wright Mills used conflict theory to look at systems of power and ways in which government, military, and corporations formed a power elite in the U.S. in the 1950s Conflict Theory has been criticized for focusing on the conflict to the exclusion of recognizing stability Symbolic Interactionist Theory Symbolic interactionism is a micro-level theory focusing on meaning attached to human interaction, verbal and non-verbal, and to symbols Communication is the way in which people make sense of their social worlds Looking-glass self (Charles Horton Cooley) describes how a person’s sense of self grows out of interactions with others Threefold process: 1)We see how others react to us 2) We interpret that reaction, and 3) We develop a sense of self based on those interpretations George Herbert Mead (1863 – 1931) is considered the founder of symbolic interactionism Symbolic Interactionist Theory, continued Mead’s student, Herbert Blumer, coined the term symbolic interactionism with basic premises that humans interact with things based on ascribed meanings that arise from our interactions with others and society and are interpreted by a person Mead’s contribution was to the development of self Symbolic-interactionists focus on patterns of interactions between individuals Dramaturgical analysis (Erving Goffman) used theater as an analogy for social interaction and recognized interactions as cultural “scripts” Constructivism is an extension of symbolic interaction theory which proposes that reality is what humans cognitively construct it to be Criticism: research has difficulty remaining objective as well the narrow focus on symbolic interaction Reviewing Sociological Theories Food consumption from a structural-functional approach might be interested in the role of the agricultural industry within the economy and how it is changed, different functions that occur in food production, or how food production is related to social solidarity A conflict theorist might be interested in the power differentials present in food regulation, the power and powerlessness experienced by local farmers vs. conglomerates, or how nutrition varies based on social classes or other groups A symbolic interactionist would have more interest in topics such as the symbolic use of food in religious rituals, food’s role at family dinners, interactions among members identifying with a particular diet, relationships between farm workers and employees, and symbolism related to food consumption Putting It Together: Sociological Foundations Sociology can contribute positively in both your personal and professional life Due to the diversity of our society and a “shrinking” world, it is likely you will run into people from distinctly different cultures Understanding one another contributes to more peaceful interactions in our daily interactions A solid knowledge of the sociological imagination helps us see connections between personal experiences and how our life may be impacted by how society views us as individuals  Why It Matters: Sociological Research Sociologists study society and human behavior and sometimes go to extreme measures to do research that will provide insightful and valuable results Sociologists question and analyze why things happen and if there is a way to stop a problem before it happens Introduction to the Scientific Method Sociologists rely on systematic research processes to evaluate social behavior Unlike “common sense”, social scientists carefully examine and investigate in order to draw accurate conclusions about society as a whole Sociologists utilize research methods to understand human behavior, groups, and/or aspects of society Research may center around groups or might detail the experiences of specific families or experiences of individuals Sociological Research The goal of research is to answer questions, and sociologists aim to answer questions about our social world Empirical evidence comes from direct experience, scientifically gathered data, or experimentation Meta-analysis is a technique which the results of virtually all previous studies on a specific subject are evaluated together Interpretive framework focuses on gathering information instead of designing a study and is more descriptive and narrative The Scientific Method Every aspect of human behavior is a source of possible investigation for sociologists, who look for patterns of behavior Sociologists often begin the research process by asking a question about how or why things happen before adopting an in-depth process to answer it A scientific process of research establishes parameters that help make sure results are objective and accurate The scientific method involves developing and testing theories about the world based on empirical evidence, striving to be objective, critical, skeptical, and logical The scientific method involves a series of prescribed steps established over centuries of scholarship The Scientific Method, continued Results of studies tend to provide access to knew knowledge of other cultures, rituals and beliefs, and trends and attitudes Reliability refers to how likely research results are to be replicated if the study is reproduced and increases the likelihood that what happens to one will happen to all When another sociologist follows another study protocols and comes up with the same results, the study is reliable Validity refers to how well the study measures what it was designed to measure Sociologists can use the scientific method not only to collect but also interpret and analyze data The scientific method starts with asking a question, researching existing sources, and formulating a hypothesis Ask a Question The first step of the scientific method is to ask a question, describe a problem, and identify the specific interest area Questions should be narrow enough to study within a geography and time frame but broad enough to have universal merit When forming basic research questions, sociologists develop a operational definition, or the concept in terms of the physical or concrete steps it takes to objectively measure it The operational definition should be valid, appropriate, and meaningful Research Existing Sources Conduct background research through a literature review, which is a review of any existing similar or related studies This step helps researchers gain a broad understanding of work previously conducted on the topic at hand and enables them to position their own research to build on prior knowledge Researchers are responsible for correctly citing existing sources used in a study or that inform their work Previously published material must be referenced properly and never plagiarized Formulate a Hypothesis Hypothesis: an assumption about how two or more variables are related and makes a conjectural statement about the relationship The hypothesis will often predict how one form of human behavior influences another Independent variables are the cause of the change The dependent variable is the effect or thing that is changed In a basic study, the researcher would establish one form of human behavior as the independent variable and observe the influence it has on a dependent variable Correlations are when there is a relationship between variables but not causation Formulate a Hypothesis, continued Hypothesis Independent Variable Dependent Variable The greater the availability of affordable Affordable Housing Homeless Rate housing, the lower the homeless rate. The greater the availability of math Math Tutoring Math Grades tutoring, the higher the math grades. The greater the police patrol presence, Police Patrol Presence Safer Neighborhood the safer the neighborhood. The greater the factory lighting, the Factory Lighting Productivity higher the productivity. The greater the amount of observation, Observation Public Awareness the higher the public awareness. Introduction to Research Methods Conducting research can be quite complex, especially when it comes to informed consent The “setting” in experiments is often manipulated in some way by the research team in order to examine an independent variable All studies shape the research design, while research design simultaneously shapes the study Researchers choose methods that best suit their study topics and that will fit with their overall approaches to research Sociologists generally choose from four methods: survey, experiment, field research, and secondary data analysis Surveys Surveys collect data from subjects who response to a series of questions about behaviors and opinions and are the most widely used scientific research method in sociology The standard survey format allows individuals a level of anonymity in which they can express personal ideas Sociologists must obtain IRB (review board) approval before commencing any type of sociological survey Not all surveys are considered sociological research and may be for marketing or other information Sociologists conduct surveys under controlled conditions for specific purposes and are good for discovering how people feel and think Surveys, continued A survey targets a specific population, or people who are the focus of a study, or may target a small sector of the population (sample) Random sample: every person in a population has the same chance of being chosen for the study It is important to inform subjects of the nature and purpose of the study up front and to always thank participating subjects and provide the option to see results if interested A common instrument is a questionnaire, using quantitative data (numerical data)that are easy to tabulate Questionnaires can ask simple or complex questions where the answers vary from person to person Qualitative data has results that are subjective and often based on what is seen in a natural setting and is harder to organize and tabulate An interview is a one-on-one conversation between the researcher and subject and offers a way of conducting surveys where the participants are free to respond as they wish Experiments An experiment aims to measure the relationship of the independent variable on the dependent variable and the researcher or research team attempts to control all other variables In a lab-based experiment, research can be controlled so that perhaps more data can be recorded in a certain amount of time (i.e., The Stanford Prison Experiment) In natural or field-based experiments, the generation of data is not controlled but the information might be considered more accurate since it was collected without interference or intervention by the researcher Both types of sociological experiments are useful for testing if-then statements: if a particular thing happens, then another particular thing will result Field Research Sociologists meet subjects where they live, work, and play Field research refers to gathering primary data from a natural environment without doing a lab experiment or a survey The researcher interacts with or observes a person or people and gathers data along the way The key point is that the research takes place in the subject’s natural environment Field research is optimal for observing how people behave and generally focuses on correlation (the relationship between variables and not cause/effect) Participant Observation Participant observation is when researchers join people and participate in a group’s routine activities for the purpose of observing them within that context Researchers temporarily put themselves into roles and record their observations and may not disclose their true identity or purpose if they feel it would compromise research results Participant observation is useful if the researcher wants to explore a certain environment from the inside, and researchers may or may not inform members of their mission Because data is qualitative, results might be presented in an article or book Ethnography Ethnography is the extended observation of a social perspective and cultural values of an entire social settings and involve the objective observation of an entire community The heart of an ethnographic study focuses on how subjects view their own social standing and how they understand themselves in relation to a community Institutional Ethnography (Dorothy Smith) is an extension of basic ethnographic research principles that focuses intentionally on everyday concrete social relationships Institutional ethnography is often considered a feminist-inspired approach to social analysis and considers women’s experiences within male-dominated societies and power structures Case Study A case study is an in-depth analysis of a single event, situation, or individual where a researcher examines existing sources, conducts interviews, engages in direct observation and even participant participation A major criticism of case studies is that while offering depth on a topic, they do not provide enough evidence to form a generalized conclusion Case studies are useful when the single case is unique and can add tremendous knowledge to a certain discipline Case studies can offer a way for sociologists to collect data that may not be available by any other method Secondary Data Analysis Secondary data are already completed work of other researchers Sociologists may study works by historians, economists, teachers, or early sociologists and utilize media from any period in history Sociologists also learn by analyzing the research of a variety of agencies such as the World Health Organization Secondary data is nonreactive and does not include direct contact with subjects Public records are not always easy to access, and sociologists may employ content analysis as a systematic approach Additional challenges include the inability to verify the accuracy of existing data and when data are unavailable in the exact form needed  Summary of Research Methods Method Implementation Advantages Challenges Can be time consuming Yields many responses Can be difficult to encourage participant Questionnaires Can survey a large sample response Survey Interviews Quantitative data are easy Captures what people think and believe to chart but not necessarily how they behave in real life Observation Time consuming Participant observation Yields detailed, accurate Data captures how people behave but Field Work Ethnography real-life information not what they think and believe Case study Qualitative data is difficult to organize Hawthorne Effect Deliberate manipulation of Tests cause and effect Experiment social customs and mores relationships Ethical concerns about people’s well- being Analysis of government data (census, health, crime Data could be focused on a purpose Secondary Makes good use of previous statistics) other than yours Data Analysis Research of historic sociological information Data can be hard to find Putting It Together When sociological research is founded on scientific data, we can get a more accurate vision of how people live and behave Scientific method includes Asking a question Review existing studies Set up a method Draw a conclusion Report findings Sociologists choose a research approach based on the question being asked including surveys, field research, participant observation, ethnography, case study, experiments, or secondary data analysis