Key Data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2023 Edition PDF

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É& More information on the European Union is available on the Internet (http://europa.eu). Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2023 Print ISBN 978-92-9488-108-3 ISSN 1830-2076 doi:10.2797/737474 EC-XA-22-001-EN-C PDF ISBN 978-92-9488-107-6 doi:10.2797/529032 EC-XA-22-001-EN-N © European Education and Culture Executive Agency, 2023 The Commission’s reuse policy is implemented by Commission Decision 2011/833/EU of 12 December 2011 on the reuse of Commission documents (OJ L 330, 14.12.2011, p. 39 - https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dec/2011/833/oj). Unless otherwise noted, the reuse of this document is authorised under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). This means that reuse is allowed, provided appropriate credit is given and any changes are indicated. For any use or reproduction of elements that are not owned by the EU, permission may need to be sought directly from the respective rightholders. The EU does not own the copyright in relation to any images which do not carry the copyright indicator © European Union. CREDITS Cover photo: © Julia Tim/stock.adobe.com; © everything bagel/stock.adobe.com; © Alice/stock.adobe.com; © VectorPunks/stock.adobe.com; © ok_creation/stock.adobe.com. Key data on teaching languages at school in Europe 2023 edition Eurydice report European Education and Culture Executive Agency This document was published by the European Education and Culture Executive Agency (EACEA; Platforms, Studies and Analysis unit). Please cite this publication as: European Commission / EACEA / Eurydice, 2023. Key data on teaching languages at school in Europe – 2023 edition, Eurydice report, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. Manuscript completed in February 2023. © European Education and Culture Executive Agency, 2023 Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged. European Education and Culture Executive Agency Platforms, Studies and Analysis unit Avenue du Bourget 1 (J-70 – Unit A6) BE-1049 Brussels Tel. +32 22995058 Fax +32 22921971 Email: [email protected] Website: http://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu  FOREWORD A famous philosopher once said: “The limits of my language mean the limits of my world”. But when your language becomes two languages, three languages, or ten languages, then the limits really begin to blur. In languages, we think, feel, imagine, and plan. They dictate how we communicate our knowledge, belief, experience, desire. Language is how we reveal ourselves and how we understand others. After all, we use languages to bring change in society and to invent our future. Languages are thus central to our lives and play a fundamental role in education. Europe is a linguistically diverse continent. Language diversity is also an actuality in many of our schools. This reality brings rich opportunities to all students, notably by fostering their interest in the wide world and developing their intercultural skills. Nevertheless, we have to pay attention to properly support students learning at school in another language than their home or first languages. Supporting language diversity and language learning has been a constant policy line of the European Union (EU). Europe’s own linguistic diversity and the EU’s early ambition to create a common space where people can freely circulate across borders sensibly called for strong commitments in promoting language learning. In education, more specifically, our goal is to build a European Education Area where all young people receive quality education. In that context, the mastery of languages is a key competence that opens doors to unrivalled learning experiences in Europe, and beyond. In fact, for many years, we have been pursuing a policy that encourages all young people to acquire foreign language competences from an early age, so that by the end of secondary education they are capable to master two languages, in addition to the language of schooling. Efforts must continue and even accelerate in this direction. To succeed in providing quality language education in schools, we advocate for a comprehensive approach to teaching and learning languages. Our approach embraces multilingualism in schools and promotes the development of general language awareness among educators. For instance, it encourages collaborative teaching between language teachers and other teachers, using innovative, inclusive and multilingual teaching approaches, and promoting learning experiences abroad for students and teachers, through the Erasmus + programme. This report provides data and comparative analyses for an instructive insight into language teaching in European countries. For instance, you can discover that across the EU, students in primary education are learning a foreign language from a younger age than ever before. And English is the most learned foreign language with over 98% of lower secondary education students learning it at the EU level. 5 Key data on teaching languages at school in Europe – 2023 edition However, regarding the second foreign language more efforts are required as we do not see a noticeable improvement. I am confident that this report will be of great support to education policy-makers and stakeholders, designing and implementing policies in the field and working, ultimately, towards the improvement of language teaching in our schools and an active promotion of linguistic diversity. Mariya Gabriel Commissioner responsible for Innovation, Research, Culture, Education and Youth 6  CONTENTS FO R E WO RD 5 LI ST O F FIG UR E S 9 CO D E S A ND A BB R EV IAT IO N S 13 INT RO D UC TIO N 15 E X EC UT IV E SU M MA R Y 19 CH AP T ER A: CO NT E XT 29 CH AP T ER B: O R G A NI SA TIO N 39 Section I – Structures 39 Section II – Diversity of languages offered 53 CH AP T ER C: PA RTI CI PA TIO N 69 Section I – Number of Foreign languages learnt by students 69 Section II – Foreign languages learnt by students 83 CH AP T ER D: T EA CH E RS 99 Section I – Qualifications and training 99 Section II – Transnational mobility 109 CH AP T ER E: T EA CH IN G PRO C E S SE S 11 9 Section I – Instruction time and learning outcomes 119 Section II – Testing and language learning support measures 137 RE F ER E NC E S 14 5 G LO S S AR Y 14 7 ST ATI S TI CAL D AT AB AS E S A ND T ER M INO LO G Y 15 3 AN NE X E S 15 5 AC KNO WL E DG E M EN TS 17 3 7  LIST OF FIGURES CH AP T ER A: CO NT E XT 29 Figure A1: State languages and regional, minority or non-territorial languages with official status, 2021/2022 30 Figure A2: Percentage of 15-year-old students who mainly speak a different language at home from the language of schooling, 2018 33 Figure A3: Percentages of immigrant and non-immigrant 15-year-old students, by language spoken at home, 2018 35 Figure A4: Percentage of 15-year-old students attending schools where more than 25 % of students mainly speak a different language at home from the language of schooling, 2018 37 CH AP T ER B: O R G A NI SA TIO N 39 Section I – Structures 39 Figure B1: Starting ages at which the first and second foreign languages are compulsory subjects for all students in pre-primary, primary and/or general secondary education (ISCED 0–3), 2021/2022 41 Figure B2: Period during which learning a foreign language was compulsory in pre-primary, primary and/or general secondary education (ISCED 0–3) in 2021/2022, and differences from 2002/2003 43 Figure B3: Period during which learning two foreign languages was compulsory in primary and/or general secondary education (ISCED 1–3) in 2021/2022, and differences with 2002/2003 45 Figure B4: Foreign languages provided as an entitlement and as compulsory subjects for all students in primary and/or general secondary education (ISCED 1–3), 2021/2022 47 Figure B5: Difference between general education students and VET students in the number of years spent learning one foreign language as a compulsory subject, 2021/2022 49 Figure B6: Difference between general education students and VET students in the number of years spent learning two foreign languages simultaneously as compulsory subjects, 2021/2022 50 Section II – Diversity of languages offered 53 Figure B7: Specific foreign languages compulsory for all students in primary and lower secondary education (ISCED 1–2), 2021/2022 54 Figure B8: Foreign languages specified in top-level steering documents for primary and general secondary education (ISCED 1–3), 2021/2022 56 Figure B9: Regional or minority languages specifically referred to in top-level steering documents for primary and general secondary education (ISCED 1–3), 2021/2022 59 Figure B9: Regional or minority languages specifically referred to in top-level steering documents for primary and general secondary education (ISCED 1–3), 2021/2022 60 Figure B10: The studying of classical Greek and Latin in general secondary education (ISCED 2–3), 2021/2022 63 Figure B11: Entitlement to home-language teaching for students from migrant backgrounds in primary and general secondary education (ISCED 1–3), 2021/2022 65 Figure B12: Existence of CLIL programmes and status of languages used in CLIL in primary and general secondary education (ISCED 1–3), 2021/2022 67 CH AP T ER C: PA RTI CI PA TIO N 69 Section I – Number of Foreign languages learnt by students 69 Figure C1a: Percentage of students learning foreign languages in primary education (ISCED 1), by number of languages, 2020 71 9 Key data on teaching languages at school in Europe – 2023 edition Figure C1b: Percentage of students learning at least one foreign language in primary education (ISCED 1), by age, 2020 71 Figure C2: Trends in the percentage of students learning at least one foreign language in primary education (ISCED 1), 2013 and 2020 73 Figure C3: Percentage of students learning foreign languages in lower secondary education (ISCED 2), by number of languages, 2020 74 Figure C4: Trends in the percentage of students learning two or more foreign languages in lower secondary education (ISCED 2), 2013 and 2020 76 Figure C5: Percentage of students learning foreign languages in upper secondary education (ISCED 3), by number of languages, 2020 77 Figure C6: Trends in the percentage of students learning two or more foreign languages in upper secondary education (ISCED 3), 2013 and 2020 79 Figure C7: Average number of foreign languages learnt per student in primary and secondary education (ISCED 1–3), 2020 81 Section II – Foreign languages learnt by students 83 Figure C8: The most learnt foreign language in primary and secondary education (ISCED 1–3), 2020 84 Figure C9: Countries with a high percentage of students (more than 90 %) learning English in primary and secondary education (ISCED 1–3), 2020 86 Figure C10: The second most learnt foreign language in primary and secondary education (ISCED 1– 3), 2020 88 Figure C11: Foreign languages other than English, French, German and Spanish learnt by at least 10 % of students in primary and general secondary education (ISCED 1–3), 2020 89 Figure C12: Trends in the percentages of students learning English in primary and general secondary education (ISCED 1–3), 2013 and 2020 91 Figure C13: Trends in the percentages of students learning French in primary and general secondary education (ISCED 1–3), 2013 and 2020 93 Figure C14: Trends in the percentages of students learning German in primary and general secondary education (ISCED 1–3), 2013 and 2020 94 Figure C15: Trends in the percentage of students learning Spanish in general secondary education (ISCED 2–3), 2013 and 2020 96 Figure C16: Differences in the percentages of students learning English in general and vocational upper secondary education (ISCED 3), 2020 98 CH AP T ER D: T EA CH E RS 99 Section I – Qualifications and training 99 Figure D1: Degree of subject specialisation of foreign language teachers in primary education (ISCED 1), 2021/2022 100 Figure D2: Qualifications required to work in schools providing CLIL type A instruction in primary and general secondary education (ISCED 1–3), 2021/2022 102 Figure D3: Percentage of teachers in lower secondary education (ISCED 2) who have had training in teaching in multilingual or multicultural settings, 2018 104 Figure D4: Examples of key terms describing CPD activities related to ‘language awareness in schools’, 2021/2022 107 Section II – Transnational mobility 109 Figure D5: Existence of top-level recommendations on the content of ITE for prospective foreign language teachers and the period to be spent in the target language country, 2021/2022 110 Figure D6: Percentage of modern foreign language teachers in lower secondary education (ISCED 2) who have been abroad for professional purposes, 2013 and 2018 112 10  List of figures Figure D7: Funding schemes provided by top-level authorities to support the transnational mobility of foreign language teachers in primary and general secondary education (ISCED 1–3), 2021/2022 113 Figure D8: Percentage of mobile modern foreign language teachers in lower secondary education (ISCED 2) who have gone abroad for professional purposes with the support of a mobility programme, 2018 115 Figure D9: Percentage of mobile teachers in lower secondary education (ISCED 2), by professional reason for going abroad, EU level, 2018 116 Figure D10: Percentage of mobile foreign language teachers in lower secondary education (ISCED 2) on long and short stays abroad, 2018 118 CH AP T ER E: T E AC HI NG P RO C E S S E S 11 9 Section I – Instruction time and learning outcomes 119 Figure E1: Number of hours of compulsory foreign language teaching during a notional year in primary and full-time compulsory general secondary education, 2020/2021 121 Figure E2: Number of hours per notional year allocated to teaching the first and second foreign languages as compulsory subjects in full-time compulsory general education, 2020/2021 124 Figure E3: Relationship between the instruction time for the first foreign language and the number of grades during which this language is taught in full-time compulsory general education, 2020/2021 126 Figure E4: Instruction time allocated to foreign languages as compulsory subjects, as a proportion of total instruction time in primary and full-time compulsory general secondary education, 2020/2021 129 Figure E5: Changes (in percentages) to the recommended minimum instruction time per notional year allocated to foreign languages as compulsory subjects between 2013/2014 and 2020/2021 130 Figure E6: Expected minimum level of attainment for the first and second foreign languages at the end of lower and general upper secondary education (ISCED 2–3), 2021/2022 133 Section II – Testing and language learning support measures 137 Figure E7: Foreign languages tested through national tests in general upper secondary education (ISCED 3), 2021/2022 138 Figure E8: Testing of the language of schooling at the end of pre-primary education (ISCED 0) and/or the beginning of primary education (ISCED 1), 2021/2022 141 Figure E9: Language learning support measures for newly arrived migrant students in primary and lower secondary education (ISCED 1–2), 2021/2022 143 11  C O D E S A N D A B B R E V I AT I O N S Country codes European Free Trade Association and EU European Union IT Italy candidate countries Member States CY Cyprus AL Albania BE Belgium LV Latvia BA Bosnia and Herzegovina BE fr Belgium – French Community LT Lithuania CH Switzerland Belgium – German-speaking IS Iceland BE de LU Luxembourg Community BE nl Belgium – Flemish Community HU Hungary LI Liechtenstein BG Bulgaria MT Malta ME Montenegro CZ Czechia NL Netherlands MK North Macedonia DK Denmark AT Austria NO Norway DE Germany PL Poland RS Serbia EE Estonia PT Portugal TR Türkiye IE Ireland RO Romania EL Greece SI Slovenia ES Spain SK Slovakia FR France FI Finland HR Croatia SE Sweden Other codes (:) or : Data not available  Not participating in the data collection (-) or - Not applicable Abbreviations and acronyms CEFR Common European Framework of Reference for Languages CLIL Content and Language Integrated Learning CPD continuing professional development ECTS European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System ISCED International Standard Classification of Education ISO International Organization for Standardization ITE initial teacher education OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development PISA Programme for International Student Assessment TALIS Teaching and Learning International Survey VET vocational education and training 13  INTRODUCTION Languages are a part of culture. As such, they fully contribute to building personal and collective identities. In fact, each language offers a specific vision of life. Therefore, language diversity is valued and cherished in democratic societies. Languages are also sophisticated tools enabling human beings to engage in meaningful relationships with one another and relate to the world in general. Being proficient in languages is therefore a true gateway to more enriching experiences and opportunities in life. Europe is a linguistically diverse continent. This diversity includes not only official languages of countries but also regional or minority languages spoken for centuries on European territory, not to mention the languages brought by migrants. From the beginning, respect for linguistic diversity has been seen as a key principle of the European Union and is inscribed in its most fundamental law, the Treaty on European Union ( 1). POLICY CONTEXT Language learning has an essential role to play in making the European project come true. Effective competences in more than one language directly influence European citizens’ ability to benefit from education, training and work opportunities across Europe ( 2). Language learning can also strengthen the European dimension in education and training: it develops learners’ interest in, understanding of and appreciation of other cultures and, ultimately, fosters a European identity that is inclusive and open to other cultures. Language competences are at the heart of the vision of a European Education Area set out in the European Commission’s communication ‘Strengthening European identity through education and training’. In line with this inspiring outlook, Europe should be a place where ‘learning, studying and doing research [is not] hampered by borders. A continent … where, in addition to one’s mother tongue, speaking two other languages has become the norm’ ( 3). Fostering language learning and multilingualism is also part of the vision for high-quality education and key for mobility, cooperation and mutual understanding across borders. Literacy and multilingual competences are indeed among the eight key competences for lifelong learning, included in the European reference framework ( 4). Ensuring that all students benefit from the teaching of two foreign languages from an early age is an ambitious objective that was formulated for the first time in 2002 by the Heads of State or Government gathered in Barcelona ( 5). This objective was recently reiterated in the Council recommendation of May 2019 on a comprehensive approach to the teaching and learning of languages. More precisely, the recommendation invites Member States to ‘[e]xplore ways to help all young people to acquire before the end of upper secondary education and training – in addition to the languages of schooling – where possible, a competence level in at least one other European language which allows them to use the language effectively for social, learning and professional purposes, and to encourage the (1) The Union ‘shall respect its rich cultural and linguistic diversity, and shall ensure that Europe’s cultural heritage is safeguarded and enhanced’ (Article 3(4)). (2) ‘Competences are defined as a combination of knowledge, skills and attitudes’ (Council recommendation of 22 May 2018 on key competences for lifelong learning, OJ C 189, 4.6.2018). (3) Commission communication – Strengthening European identity through education and culture, COM(2017) 673 final, p. 11. (4) Council recommendation of 22 May 2018 on key competences for lifelong learning, OJ C 189, 4.6.2018. (5) Presidency Conclusions – Barcelona European Council 15 and 16 March 2002, C/02/930. 15 Key data on teaching languages at school in Europe – 2023 edition acquisition of an additional (third) language to a level which allows them to interact with a degree of fluency’ ( 6). In fact, the 2019 Council recommendation takes the objective a step further, as it aims to change the mindset of policymakers and education practitioners, inspiring them to adopt comprehensive language education policies, and innovative and inclusive language teaching methods and strategies. The objective is enhancing the overall language competences of students, that is, their competences in the language of schooling, foreign languages ( 7) and home languages in the specific case of children with a multilingual background. This comprehensive approach to the teaching and learning of languages can be achieved notably by supporting the development of language awareness in schools, which requires the engagement of all school staff in continuous reflection on the language dimension in all facets of school life. Language- aware schools should provide an inclusive framework for language learning, valuing the linguistic diversity of learners and using it as a learning resource while also involving parents, other carers and the wider local community in language education. More recently, the Council resolution on a new strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training towards the European Education Area and beyond (2021–2030), adopted in February 2021 ( 8), identified the support of language teaching and learning and multilingualism as a concrete action for European cooperation in order to ensure quality, equity, inclusion and success in education and training. Finally, the recently adopted Council recommendation on pathways to school success ( 9) is aimed at promoting better education outcomes for all students, irrespective of their particular circumstances (e.g. socioeconomic background), and well-being at school. In this context, the specific needs of students from migrant backgrounds, notably in terms of language learning support, are highlighted. CONTENT OF THE REPORT This fifth edition of Key data on teaching languages at school in Europe, which, naturally, builds on the previous edition, provides reliable data on many issues related to the teaching of languages in schools in Europe. Foreign languages are the focal point of this publication, even though other languages (regional or minority languages, classical languages, etc.) are also considered. The focus of the investigation is the policy framework in which actual foreign language teaching takes place. However, when available, statistical data help to provide a more grounded picture. This report includes 51 indicators. Each of them contains graphics, explanatory text and a heading summarising the main finding. Indicators are organised in five chapters: (6) Council recommendation of 22 May 2019 on a comprehensive approach to the teaching and learning of languages, OJ C 189, 5.6.2019, p. 17. () 7 The European Union survey on students’ competences in foreign languages showed that only 42 % of 15-year-old students tested attained ‘independent user’ level (B1/B2 in the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages) in the first foreign language learnt and 25 % reached this level in a second foreign language. Furthermore, a significant number of students (14 % for the first foreign language and 20 % for the second foreign language) did not reach the ‘basic user’ level (i.e. pre-A1 level in the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages) (European Commission, 2012). (8) Council resolution on a strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training towards the European education area and beyond (2021–2030), OJ C 66, 26.2.2021. (9) Council recommendation of 28 November 2022 on pathways to school success and replacing the Council recommendation of 28 June 2011 on policies to reduce early school leaving, OJ C 469, 9.12.2022. 16  Introduction Chapter A starts by outlining all official languages in Europe and continues by discussing linguistic diversity in today’s classrooms. Chapter B discusses foreign language provision in the curriculum. The first section focuses on the number of foreign languages provided, while the second outlines the specific languages that are provided. Chapter C focuses on students’ rates of participation in language learning. The first section investigates the number of foreign languages learnt by students according to education level and pathway, while the second explores which foreign languages students learn. Chapter D is devoted to (foreign language) teachers. The first section addresses a series of issues related to teachers’ qualifications, their degree of subject specialisation and the training opportunities they have. The second section looks at foreign language teachers’ transnational mobility. Chapter E starts by investigating the instruction time dedicated to foreign languages and expected learning outcomes of the first two foreign languages students learn. It also looks at language testing and support measures for migrant students in mainstream education. The chapters are accompanied by a glossary that explains the key concepts used. The annexes provide complementary information on various aspects of the report. DATA SOURCES AND METHODOLOGY The main source of data for this report is the Eurydice Network, which provided qualitative information on policies and measures in the area of (foreign) language teaching in schools. This information was collected through a questionnaire completed in January and February 2022 by national experts/re- presentatives of the network. The prime source of information is regulations/recommendations, curricula and other steering documents issued by top-level education authorities. The reference year is the school year 2021/2022. Information from the joint 2020/2021 Eurydice–Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) data collection on instruction time was also used (European Commission / EACEA / Eurydice, 2021a). The Eurydice data are complemented by Eurostat data and data from two international surveys carried out by the OECD: the 2018 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and the 2018 Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS). The Eurostat statistical data, with 2019/2020 as a reference year, provide information on students’ rates of participation in language learning in schools. The student questionnaire for the 2018 PISA was used to compute the proportion of students who speak a language at home other than the language of schooling. The teacher questionnaire for the 2018 TALIS was used to give some insight into (foreign) language teachers’ transnational mobility and their opportunities to train to teach in multilingual schools. This report focuses mainly on primary and general secondary education. However, some indicators cover pre-primary education and vocational secondary education. In most cases, only public schools are included (except for Belgium, Ireland and the Netherlands, where government-dependent private schools are taken into account). 17 Key data on teaching languages at school in Europe – 2023 edition The report covers 39 education and training systems in the 37 member countries ( 10) of the Eurydice Network (the 27 European Union Member States and Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Switzerland, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Norway, Serbia and Türkiye). During the school year 2021/2022, which is the reference year for most indicators, specific measures implemented in response to the COVID-19 pandemic influenced the organisation of schooling in many European countries. Measures of a temporary nature are not reported in this publication, which presents the ‘normal’ context in which students are learning (foreign) languages. (10) The number of education and training systems is higher than the number of countries. This is because Belgium counts as three education and training systems (French Community of Belgium, Flemish Community of Belgium and German- speaking Community of Belgium). 18  EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Linguistic diversity is part of Europe’s DNA. The mosaic of European languages includes not only countries’ official state languages but also the regional or minority languages spoken for centuries on European territory, not to mention the languages brought by migrants. Against this background, learning languages is a necessity for many people; what is more, it is an opportunity for all, leading to new work or opportunities to study. In addition, as part of culture, languages contribute to building personal and collective identities. In fact, each language offers a specific vision of life. Therefore, language diversity is valued and cherished in democratic societies. Language learning has an essential role to play in making the European project come true, particularly in the achievement of the European Education Area ( 11), a genuine common space for high-quality education and lifelong learning for all, across borders. In this context, multilingualism is acknowledged as one of the eight key competences needed for personal fulfilment, a healthy and sustainable lifestyle, employability, active citizenship and social inclusion, as outlined in the Council recommendation on key competences for lifelong learning ( 12). The 2019 Council recommendation on a comprehensive approach to the teaching and learning of languages is aimed at enhancing the overall language competences of students. Improving specifically foreign language learning in schools is also a major objective. In view of this objective, the recommendation invites Member States to ‘help all young people to acquire before the end of upper secondary education and training – in addition to the languages of schooling – where possible, a competence level in at least one other European language which allows them to use the language effectively for social, learning and professional purposes, and to encourage the acquisition of an additional (third) language to a level which allows them to interact with a degree of fluency’ ( 13). The 2023 edition of Key data on teaching languages at school in Europe is the fifth edition of the report. Naturally, it builds on the four previous publications. As with the past editions, this new edition intends to contribute to the monitoring of the policy developments in the field of (foreign) language teaching in schools in Europe. While foreign languages are at the centre of the investigation, other languages are also considered (regional or minority languages, classical languages, etc.). More specifically, this report includes 51 indicators covering a wide range of topics relevant to (foreign) language policy at European Union (EU) and national levels, such as: the provision of (foreign) languages in the curriculum; the number and range of languages studied by students; the instruction time dedicated to foreign language teaching; the expected levels of attainment for the first and second foreign languages; language support for newly arrived migrant students and home-language teaching; foreign language teachers’ profiles and qualifications; the transnational mobility of foreign language teachers. (11) For more information on the European Education Area, please consult the Commission’s website (https://education.ec.europa.eu/about-eea). (12) Council recommendation of 22 May 2018 on key competences for lifelong learning, OJ C 189, 4.6.2018. (13) Council recommendation of 22 May 2019 on a comprehensive approach to the teaching and learning of languages, OJ C 189, 5.6.2019, p. 17. 19 Key data on teaching languages at school in Europe – 2023 edition The main data source of the report is the Eurydice Network, which provided qualitative information on policies and measures in the area of (foreign) language teaching in schools ( 14). The Eurydice data are complemented by Eurostat data and data from two international surveys carried out by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development: the 2018 Programme for International Students Assessment and the 2018 Teaching and Learning International Survey ( 15). The report covers 39 education systems in the 37 member countries ( 16) of the Eurydice Network (the 27 EU Member States and Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Switzerland, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Norway, Serbia and Türkiye). Compared with nearly two decades ago, students in primary education are learning a foreign language from a younger age in the vast majority of education systems In the majority of education systems, all students have to start learning a foreign language between the ages of 6 and 8 years. In six education systems (the German-speaking Community of Belgium, Greece, Cyprus, Luxembourg, Malta and Poland), this requirement is imposed even earlier (see Figure B1). Over the last two decades, about two thirds of education systems have increased the duration of compulsory foreign language learning by 1 to 7 years. In all cases, this increase is due to the lowering of the starting age at which the first foreign language is a compulsory subject (see Figure B2). This trend reflects the call made by the European Council at its meeting in Barcelona in 2002, which invited EU countries to take actions to ‘improve the mastery of basic skills, in particular by teaching at least two foreign languages from a very early age’ ( 17). The obligation to learn at least one foreign language from the early years of primary education (or even pre-primary education) in most education systems explains the very high percentage of primary education students at EU level learning at least one foreign language (86.1 %) in 2020 (see Figure C1a). Compared with 2013, this is an increase of 6.7 percentage points (see Figure C2). In 2020, fewer than half of all students attending primary education learnt at least one foreign language in only three education systems (the French and Flemish Communities of Belgium and the Netherlands) (see Figure C1). In these education systems, learning a foreign language as a compulsory subject starts relatively late in primary education (see Figure B1). This explains why the proportion, which concerns students in the whole of primary education, is relatively low. Learning a second foreign language usually starts at the end of primary education or in lower secondary education In 2020, at EU level 59.2 % of students in the whole of lower secondary education were learning two foreign languages or more (see Figure C3). Students start learning a second foreign language as a compulsory subject in the late years of primary education or in the early years of lower secondary education in most education systems (see Figure B1). However, other patterns exist, which may partly explain the relatively low overall rate of students studying at least two foreign languages at this level of (14) The reference year is 2021/2022, except for data on instruction time, for which it is 2020/2021. These data mostly concern general education. ( ) 15 For Eurostat statistical data, 2019/2020 is the reference year, except for time series, for which the reference years are 2012/2013 and 2019/2020. Eurostat statistical data provide information on language learning participation rates of students in schools. The contextual questionnaires of Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development surveys were used to address the issues of students speaking a language other than the language of schooling at home (Programme for International Students Assessment) and (foreign) language teachers’ transnational mobility and opportunities to train to teach in multilingual schools (Teaching and Learning International Survey). (16) The number of education and training systems is greater than the number of countries. This is because Belgium has three education and training systems (French Community of Belgium, Flemish Community of Belgium and German-speaking Community of Belgium). (17) Presidency Conclusions – Barcelona European Council 15 and 16 March 2002, C/02/930, p. 19. 20  Executive summary education at EU level. For instance, in eight education systems (Bulgaria, Hungary, Austria, Slovenia, Slovakia, Liechtenstein, Norway and Türkiye) learning two foreign languages becomes compulsory for all general education students only when they reach upper secondary level. Furthermore, in seven education systems (the French Community of Belgium, Germany, Ireland, Spain, Croatia, Sweden and Albania), there is no policy making the learning of two foreign languages a requirement for all students (see Figure B1). In some countries, learning two languages is an entitlement rather than an obligation Instead of making two foreign languages compulsory for all students, national curricula may provide other ways of ensuring that all students have the opportunity to learn two or more foreign languages. For instance, in Spain, Croatia and Sweden learning two foreign languages is never a requirement for all students. However, all general education students are entitled to do so during their schooling. This opportunity is first provided at the beginning of lower secondary education (in Spain) or at the end of primary education (in Croatia and Sweden) (see Figure B4). Between 2013 and 2020, at European Union level there was hardly any change in the percentage of students learning at least two foreign languages in lower secondary education At EU level, the proportion of students learning at least two foreign languages in lower secondary education only increased by 0.8 percentage points between 2013 and 2020. The difference was less than 10 percentage points in the majority of countries. Among those countries (i.e. with a difference of less than 10 percentage points), slightly more than half displayed a percentage that was still lower than 90 % in 2020, which suggests room for improvement in the participation rates of students learning two or more foreign languages (see Figure C4). In three education systems, namely the Flemish Community of Belgium, Czechia and France, the percentage grew by at least 15 percentage points. In another two countries (Slovenia and Slovakia), the trend was the opposite: the proportion of lower secondary students learning two or more foreign languages decreased by more than 25 percentage points ( 18). Different reasons for those changes can be identified. For instance, in Slovakia the decrease may be related to the removal of the requirement for every student to learn two foreign languages during lower secondary education (see Figure B3). Vocational education and training students do not have the same opportunities to learn two foreign languages as their counterparts in general education In 2020, at EU level the proportion of vocational education and training (VET) students in upper secondary education who were learning two languages or more was 35.1 %. This is nearly 25 percentage points less than their counterparts in general education (60.0 %). In general upper secondary education, at least 90 % of students learnt two or more foreign languages in 13 education systems, while in vocational upper secondary education, this percentage was only reached in Romania. Similarly, there is only one country where more than 30.0 % of students across the whole of general upper secondary education do not learn any foreign languages (Portugal), versus six in vocational upper secondary education (Denmark, Germany, Estonia, Spain, Lithuania and Iceland) (see Figure C5). Compared with 2013, the percentage of VET students in upper secondary education (18) In Poland, there was also a significant decrease in the proportion of lower secondary students learning two or more foreign languages. This decrease is due to a reorganisation of school grades across education levels, with lower secondary education now consisting of four grades, out of which two include no compulsory second foreign language learning. However, the starting grade and the number of years of compulsory second foreign language learning remain unchanged (see Figure C4). 21 Key data on teaching languages at school in Europe – 2023 edition who were learning two languages or more remained rather stable in the majority of countries (see Figure C6). These statistics give a true reflection of the differences in language provision as set out in official curricula for general education students, on the one hand, and VET students, on the other hand. In fact, in 19 education systems, by the end of secondary education VET students will have learnt two languages as compulsory subjects for fewer years than their counterparts in general education (see Figure B6). English, as a foreign language, is one of a kind In almost all European countries, English is the foreign language most learnt by students during primary and secondary education (see Figure C8). In 2020, more than 90 % of students learnt English in at least one education level (i.e. primary, lower or upper secondary education) in almost all European countries. In 11 countries, more than 90 % of students learnt English in all the levels of education covered (see Figure C9). The high percentage of students learning English relates to the fact that English is a mandatory foreign language in 21 education systems at primary and/or lower secondary level (see Figure B7). In even more education systems, it must feature in the curriculum at specific education levels in all schools (see Figure B8a). Between 2013 and 2020, there was a substantial increase in the participation rates of students learning English in primary education In 2020, at EU level the percentage of students learning English was 98.3 % in lower secondary education and 95.7 % in general upper secondary education. Back in 2013, in the vast majority of education systems 90 % or more students in lower and general upper secondary education also learnt English. This means that, in these two education levels, rates of students learning English are both stable and high (see Figures C12b and C12c). In primary education, the picture is slightly different: in only around one third of education systems did at least 90 % of all students learn English in both 2013 and 2020. Between these two reference years, in eight education systems (Denmark, Greece, Latvia, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia, Finland and Sweden) the learning of English increased by at least 10 percentage points (see Figure C12a). This increase may be explained by two facts mentioned above: students start learning a foreign language at an earlier age and English is the most learnt foreign language in nearly all countries. In 2020, at European Union level French and German were the most popular choices for the second foreign language French and/or German must be provided in the school curriculum in around one quarter of education systems (see Figure B8a). Moreover, certain education systems make French and/or German mandatory (see Figure B7). This is notably the case in multilingual countries where they are state languages, for example in Belgium, Luxembourg and Switzerland (see Figure A1). Official documents also commonly refer to French and/or German among those languages that schools can decide to include in their learning provision (see Figure B8b). In 2020, at EU level French was the second most learnt foreign language in primary and lower secondary education. It was learnt by 5.5 % and 30.6 % of students in these two levels, respectively. German was the second most learnt foreign language in the EU in upper secondary education, with 20.0 % of students taking it as a subject (see Figure C10). 22  Executive summary Compared with 2013, the percentage of students learning French or German remained stable in the majority of countries (see Figures C13 and C14). In 2020, Spanish was the second most learnt foreign language in five countries Education authorities in most European countries put less emphasis on Spanish than on English, French or German. Indeed, no European country specifies Spanish as a compulsory foreign language for all students during at least one school year (see Figure B7), and only two countries (Sweden and Norway) require that all schools at specific education levels provide students with the opportunity to learn Spanish (see Figure B8a). In 2020, at EU level Spanish was learnt by 17.7 % of lower secondary education students and 18.0 % of upper secondary education students. It was the second most learnt foreign language (with at least 10 % of students learning it) in lower secondary education in Ireland, in upper secondary education in Germany, and in both lower secondary education and upper secondary education in France, Sweden and Norway (see Figure C10). Like the observed trends for the learning of French and German, the percentage of students learning Spanish also remained stable in the majority of countries compared with 2013 (see Figure C15). In 2020, foreign languages other than English, French, German and Spanish were learnt much less often in Europe In 2020, languages other than English, French, German and Spanish were commonly studied in only a few countries, mostly for historical reasons or due to geographical proximity (see Figure C11). Italian (in Croatia, Malta, Austria and Slovenia), Russian (in Bulgaria, Czechia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland and Slovakia), Danish (in Iceland), Dutch (in the French Community of Belgium), Estonian (in Estonia) and Swedish (in Finland) were the only other foreign languages learnt by a minimum of 10 % of students in primary or general secondary education in any European country (see Figure C11). However, in several countries the curriculum specifies other languages that schools may provide, such as Chinese, Arabic, Turkish, Japanese and Portuguese. The range of specified foreign languages is the highest in general upper secondary education (see Figure B8b). Moreover, at that education level national tests in less-learnt languages that lead to a certificate exist in several countries across Europe. This is, for instance, the case for the Chinese language, for which a national test leading to a certificate is available in about one quarter of the countries. France, Norway and Germany are the three countries with the highest number of foreign languages for which there is such a national test: 60, 45 and 24, respectively (see Figure E7). In primary education, instruction time dedicated to foreign languages is a small proportion of total instruction time in most countries In primary education, in most education systems, the instruction time dedicated to foreign languages as compulsory subjects represents between 5 % and 10 % of the total instruction time allocated to teach the whole compulsory curriculum. This proportion reaches 10 % to 19 % in the compulsory grades of general secondary education, during which students learn one or sometimes two foreign languages (see Figure E4). In primary education, the number of hours dedicated to teaching foreign languages as compulsory subjects is between 30 and 69 hours per notional year in most education systems (see Figure E1a). The relatively low number of hours observed in some education systems can be partly explained by the fact that foreign language teaching is not compulsory in all grades of primary education. 23 Key data on teaching languages at school in Europe – 2023 edition In the compulsory grades of general secondary education, the number of taught hours per notional year ranges from around 75 hours (in Croatia, Albania and Norway) to around 185 hours (in Bulgaria, Denmark, France and Liechtenstein (Gymnasium)) (see Figure E1b). With 373 hours, Luxembourg (enseignement secondaire classique) is an outstanding case: French and German, two of the three state languages, which are learnt by students from an early age (see Figure B1), are considered foreign languages in the curriculum. Between 2014 and 2021, notable changes in the instruction time devoted to foreign languages occurred in only a minority of countries Between 2014 and 2021, the instruction time dedicated to foreign languages as compulsory subjects remained relatively stable in most education systems. In primary education, among education systems with differences between the two reference years, the instruction time dedicated to foreign languages increased in most cases. The largest increases, greater than 50 %, are found in Denmark and Finland (see Figure E5). When looking at the compulsory grades of general secondary education, the number of countries with a noticeable change in the number of taught hours is quite similar to the number of countries with no or hardly any change. Among the countries with a difference, no clear trend emerges. In addition, the differences are smaller than those in primary education. Denmark is the only country with a particularly large increase (100 %) (see Figure E5). In this country, the study of a second foreign language has become compulsory for all students, while before it was optional (see Figure B3). Students are expected to reach level B2 of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages in their first foreign language by the end of general secondary education Nearly all countries use the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, established by the Council of Europe to set internationally comparable attainment levels for foreign languages. For the first foreign language, most countries require students to reach level A2 at the end of lower secondary education and level B2 at the end of general upper secondary education. The curricula in Greece and Iceland set level C1 as the highest level of attainment at the end of general upper secondary education. For the second foreign language, in most countries the minimum requirements are level A2 at the end of lower secondary education and level B1 at the end of general upper secondary education. Only Italy and Iceland set the minimum requirement at a higher level than B1 for general education students at the end of their schooling (B2 and C1, respectively) (see Figure E6). When comparing students’ levels of attainment for the first and the second foreign languages, attainment is generally expected to be higher for the first foreign language than for the second. In only a minority of countries are expected outcomes for the first and second languages identical at the same reference point. This difference in attainment levels between the first and second foreign languages is not surprising, as the second foreign language is learnt for fewer years in all education systems (see Figures B2 and B3). Instruction time for the second foreign language is also lower (see Figure E2). In many countries, regional or minority languages and classical languages also feature in the curriculum In most European countries, legislation officially recognises at least one regional or minority language (see Figure A1). This official recognition often requires the promotion of the use of these languages in different fields of public life, including in education. However, some countries, such as France, do not recognise regional and minority languages as official languages, and yet they make provision for these languages in their top-level steering documents related to education (see Figure B9). Furthermore, in 24  Executive summary nearly half of the countries Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) programmes include regional or minority languages as languages of instruction alongside state languages (see Figure B12). Based on the content of the curriculum, the teaching of classical Greek and/or Latin mostly takes place in general upper secondary education. These languages are very rarely compulsory subjects. Classical Greek is only compulsory for all students in Greece and Cyprus in lower and general upper secondary education. Latin is a compulsory subject for all students in Romania (lower secondary education) and in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Serbia (general upper secondary education). In a number of additional education systems, classical Greek and/or Latin are compulsory only for students following specific educational pathways (see Figure B10). At European Union level, about one in seven 15-year-old students attend a language- heterogeneous school Language-heterogeneous schools, defined for the purposes of this report as schools where more than 25 % of students speak a different language at home from the language of schooling, are quite common in many European countries. In 2018, at EU level 13.3 % of 15-year-old students attended language-heterogeneous schools (see Figure A4). This can partly be explained by the national language context: some countries have several state languages and/or regional, minority or non- territorial languages (see Figure A1). This finding is also closely linked to the proportion of students from migrant backgrounds who do not speak the language of schooling at home (see Figure A3). In 2018, only a minority of teachers at EU level reported that they had been trained to teach in multilingual classes during their initial teacher education (24.5 %) or continuing professional development (20.1 %). Cyprus had the highest proportion of teachers who trained to teach such classes during initial teacher education (48.0 %) and continuing professional development (37.7 %) (see Figure D3). Home-language teaching is promoted or financially supported by a minority of countries Many top-level education authorities in Europe are taking measures to support language learning for newly arrived migrant students in primary and lower secondary education. The most popular measure is additional classes in the language of schooling; those are promoted or financially supported in nearly all education systems (see Figure E9). Diagnostic tests of the language of schooling at the end of pre-primary education or the beginning of primary education are recommended or required by top- level education authorities in a little fewer than half of education systems. In a slight majority of those, these recommendations or requirements concern the whole school population and not just specific groups of pupils (newly arrived migrant students, those speaking at home a language that is different from the language of schooling, etc.) (see Figure E8). Promoting or financially supporting classes of the mother tongue of newly arrived migrant students is much less common than additional classes in the language of schooling, as slightly more than one third of countries do so (see Figure E9). In a smaller number of countries (Estonia, Lithuania, Austria, Slovenia, Sweden and Norway), students from migrant backgrounds are entitled, with conditions, to home-language teaching (see Figure B11). 25 Key data on teaching languages at school in Europe – 2023 edition The need for competent foreign language teachers in primary education and Content and Language Integrated Learning programmes has led to various policy responses across Europe Over the last two decades, foreign language teaching has gained ground in primary education (see Figure B2). Therefore, the issue of primary teachers’ competences in teaching foreign languages has arisen in many countries. This issue notably concerns the degree of specialisation of those teaching foreign languages, as traditionally generalist teachers (i.e. those teaching all or most subjects) deliver the curriculum at that level. Across Europe, there are three approaches to assigning teachers to teach foreign languages in primary education; each of them is found in around one third of countries. First, the responsibility for teaching foreign languages is assigned to specialist teachers (i.e. those specialised in teaching a limited number of subjects) only. Second, this responsibility is placed in the hands of generalist teachers. Finally, both general teachers and specialist teachers may teach foreign languages (see Figure D1). In about two thirds of countries providing CLIL programmes where at least some subjects are taught in a foreign language, teachers delivering this type of programme need to hold specific (additional) qualifications. Most commonly, these teachers must prove that they have sufficient knowledge of the language in which the CLIL programme is delivered. The minimum foreign language proficiency required usually corresponds to either level B2 or level C1 of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (see Figure D2). Between 2013 and 2018, at European Union level the percentage of foreign language teachers who have been abroad for professional purposes rose by 14.6 percentage points Studying or teaching abroad is an enriching experience for any teacher or prospective teacher. It is even more so for foreign language teachers, as visits abroad contribute to the development of their language skills and their knowledge and understanding of the culture of the country where the language they teach is spoken. In 2018, at EU level around 70 % of foreign language teachers teaching in lower secondary education reported having been abroad at least once for professional purposes during initial teacher education or while in service. Spain, the Netherlands and Iceland had the highest proportions of mobile foreign language teachers, with more than 80 % of them reporting transnational mobility (see Figure D6). In all countries, this proportion increased compared with 2013. At EU level, it rose by 14.6 percentage points. The greatest increase was seen in the Netherlands (26 percentage points) (see Figure D6). At European Union level, the transnational mobility of more than one in four mobile foreign language teachers has been supported by a European Union programme EU programmes play a major role in the transnational mobility of foreign language teachers. In 2018, in the majority of education systems the percentage of mobile foreign language teachers in lower secondary education who went abroad for professional purposes through an EU programme was significantly higher than the percentage of those who went abroad through a national or regional programme. At EU level, these percentages were 27.4 % and 15.7 %, respectively (see Figure D8). In contrast to this trend, the contribution of EU programmes and national or regional programmes to the transnational mobility of foreign language teachers in lower secondary education was roughly similar in the Flemish Community of Belgium, France, Croatia, Cyprus and Hungary (see Figure D8). 26  Executive summary At European Union level, teaching abroad is reported as a professional reason to go abroad by one third of mobile foreign language teachers In 2018, at EU level the main professional reasons to go abroad (reported by more than half of mobile lower secondary foreign language teachers) were ‘language learning’, ‘studying as part of their teacher education’ and ‘accompanying visiting students’. Other less common professional reasons for going abroad (reported by about 40 % or fewer lower secondary foreign language teachers), were ‘establishing contact with schools abroad’, ‘teaching’ and ‘learning of other subject areas’ (see Figure D9). In 2018, in almost all countries a majority of mobile foreign language teachers reported staying abroad for fewer than 3 months (i.e. short stays). Spain, France and Italy are exceptions to that pattern, as the majority of mobile foreign language teachers stated that they stayed abroad for longer (see Figure D10). 27  CONTEXT Europe is characterised by a rich mosaic of languages, each of them embodying a specific cultural history. Languages may be spoken across entire countries, or they may have a regional basis within countries. It is also common for countries to share languages with their neighbours around their borders, thus reflecting their shared history. Europe’s multilingual nature may be approached from different angles, one of which is the official recognition of languages by European or national authorities. This chapter therefore starts by outlining all official languages of the 37 European countries participating in this report (see Figure A1). This information is based on the data supplied by the Eurydice Network. To highlight further language diversity in Europe, the chapter also looks at the percentage of students across European countries who do not speak the language of schooling at home (see Figures A2 and A3) and the degree of language heterogeneity across schools in Europe (see Figure A4). These indicators are based on data from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2018 ( 19). They display data for all the countries participating in this report except Liechtenstein, which did not take part in the 2018 PISA survey. ALONGSIDE THEIR STATE LANGUAGE (OR LANGUAGES), MOST EUROPEAN COUNTRIES OFFICIALLY RECOGNISE ADDITIONAL LANGUAGES The European Union (EU) has 24 official languages, all of which are state languages in at least one of its Member States ( 20). Regulations and other documents of general application are drafted in the 24 official languages. There are fewer official EU languages than Member States, as some share common languages: German, Greek, English, French, Dutch and Swedish are official state languages in more than one country. Alongside the 24 official EU languages, two additional languages are state languages in the EU Member States (Turkish is one of the two state languages in Cyprus, and Luxembourgish is one of the three state languages in Luxembourg). Thus, the EU Member States have altogether 26 state languages. In most European countries (EU Member States and non-EU countries ( 21)), only one language is recognised as a state language (Figure A1). Ireland, Cyprus, Malta and Finland each have two state languages. In Belgium, Luxembourg, and Bosnia and Herzegovina, there are three state languages. However, in Belgium the state languages are used in delimited linguistic areas and are not recognised as administrative languages across the whole territory of the country (only Brussels-Capital Region is bilingual, using Dutch and French). Similarly, although Switzerland has four official state languages, most of its cantons are monolingual. German is the only official language in 17 Swiss cantons, 4 cantons are French speaking and 1 canton is Italian speaking. In addition, 3 cantons are bilingual (German and French), while 1 is trilingual (German, Italian and Romansh). More than half of the countries covered by this report officially recognise regional or minority languages within their borders for legal or administrative purposes. The presence of these languages (and their number) depends on a variety of factors, such as the cultural and political history of each (19) For details of the PISA survey, see the section ‘Statistical databases and terminology’. (20) Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, German, Finnish, French, Greek, Hungarian, Irish, Italian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovenian, Spanish and Swedish. (21) The country coverage of this report goes beyond the EU countries. For details of the country coverage, see the introduction to the report. 29  CONTEXT country, its geographical position, its size and/or its number of state languages. The status of officially recognised regional or minority language is normally granted to languages within a certain geographical area – often a region – in which they are widely spoken. Commonly, a certain proportion of the population must speak the minority language for the language to be classed as an official language. For example, in Slovakia and Serbia a minority language is officially recognised and can be used for legal and administrative purposes in any local administrative unit where the minority population accounts for at least 15 % of the total number of inhabitants. In Poland, Romania and North Macedonia, the threshold is set at 20 %. In Hungary, if the minority population exceeds 10 % the local minority self-governing authority can require that the minority language is used in addition to the state language on local government decrees, official forms and public notice boards, and in the local media. If the minority population exceeds 20 % of the total number of inhabitants, additional rights may be granted on request. For example, local public officers who speak the minority language may be employed. The number of officially recognised regional or minority languages varies from one country to another. Latvia, the Netherlands and Portugal each have only one official regional language. In contrast, Italy, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Serbia have more than 10 official regional or minority languages. Some regional or minority languages are officially recognised in several countries. More specifically, some Slavic languages (Czech, Croatian, Polish, Slovak and Ukrainian) as well as German and Hungarian are recognised as regional or minority languages in more than three EU countries. Another part of the language picture in Europe is the existence of non-territorial languages, that is, ‘languages used by nationals of the state which differ from the language or languages used by the rest of the state’s population but which, although traditionally used within the state’s territory, cannot be identified with a particular area thereof’ (Council of Europe, 1992). Romany is a typical example of a non-territorial language. It is an officially recognised language in 11 European countries, namely Czechia, Germany, Hungary, Austria, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Finland, Sweden, North Macedonia and Serbia. Figure A1: State languages and regional, minority or non-territorial languages with official status, 2021/2022 1 state language 2 state languages 3 state languages 4 state languages Regional or minority language(s) with  official status Source: Eurydice. 30  CONTEXT Figure A1 (continued): State languages and regional, minority or non-territorial languages with official status, 2021/2022 State Regional and/or minority language(s) with State Regional and/or minority language(s) language(s) official status language(s) with official status BE German, French, PL Polish Belarusian, Czech, Kashubian, German, Dutch Hebrew, Armenian, Karaim, Lithuanian, Romany, Russian, Slovak, Tatar, BG Bulgarian Ukrainian, Yiddish CZ Czech German, Polish, Romany, Slovak PT Portuguese Mirandese DK Danish German, Faroese, Greenlandic RO Romanian Bulgarian, Czech, German, Greek, Croatian, Hungarian, Italian, Polish, DE German Danish, Frisian, Low German, Romany, Romany, Russian, Slovak, Serbian, Sorbian Turkish, Ukrainian EE Estonian SI Slovenian Hungarian, Italian IE English, Irish SK Slovak Bulgarian, Czech, German, Croatian, EL Greek Hungarian, Polish, Romany, Rusyn, Ukrainian ES Spanish Catalan, Valencian, Basque, Galician, Occitan FI Finnish, Swedish Romany, Sami FR French SE Swedish Finnish, Meänkieli, Romany, Sami, HR Croatian Czech, Hungarian, Italian, Slovak, Serbian Yiddish IT Italian Catalan, German, Greek, French, AL Albanian Francoprovençal, Friulian, Croatian, Ladin, Occitan, Slovenian, Albanian, Sardinian BA Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian CY Greek, Turkish Cypriot Arabic, Armenian CH German, French, Francoprovençal, Yenish Italian, Romansh LV Latvian Liv (Livonian) IS Icelandic LT Lithuanian LI German LU German, French, Luxembourgish ME Montenegrin Bosnian, Croatian, Albanian, Serbian HU Hungarian Bulgarian, German, Greek, Croatian, MK Macedonian Bosnian, Romany, Albanian, Serbian, Armenian, Polish, Romany, Romanian, Rusyn, Turkish Slovak, Slovenian, Serbian, Ukrainian NO Norwegian (two Finnish, Kven, Sami MT English, Maltese forms: Bokmål and Nynorsk) NL Dutch Frisian RS Serbian Bosnian, Bulgarian, Czech, AT German Czech, Croatian, Hungarian, Romany, Slovak, Montenegrin, Croatian, Hungarian, Slovenian Macedonian, Romany, Romanian, Rusyn, Slovak, Albanian TR Turkish Explanatory notes This figure groups regional, minority and non-territorial languages with official status under the heading ‘regional or minority languages with official status’. Languages in the table are listed in alphabetical order according to their International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 639-3 code (see http://www.sil.org/iso639-3/, last accessed: 27 June 2022). Languages that have no ISO 639-3 code are specified in the country-specific notes. For definitions of ‘non-territorial language’, ‘official language’, ‘regional or minority language’ and ‘state language’, see the Glossary. Country-specific notes Belgium (BE fr, BE nl), Bulgaria, Czechia, Denmark, Germany, Estonia, Ireland, Greece, Spain, France, Croatia, Italy, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Hungary, Malta, the Netherlands, Austria, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia, Slovakia, Finland, Sweden, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Iceland, Norway and Türkiye: all these countries have granted official language status to their sign language(s). Belgium: different state languages are only used in delimited areas. 31  CONTEXT Spain: the state language Spanish coexists with other languages in some autonomous communities (see the languages listed in the table) and shares with them the status of official language. The co-official languages are also languages of schooling. In addition to the languages listed, Asturian, a language that does not have official status, is protected by law. It is taught in primary and general secondary education in the autonomous community of Asturias (see Figure B9). Hungary: Boyash, a dialect of Romany, is also an officially recognised language. Austria: the regional/minority language Croatian refers to Burgenland Croatian. Poland: in addition to the languages indicated in the table, Lemko is also an officially recognised minority language. Slovakia: in addition to the languages indicated in the table, Russian and Serbian were officially recognised in 2014– 2015. However, these two languages have not yet been added in the key legal framework on the use of languages of national minorities (Act 184/1999) and, therefore, are not displayed in the table. Finland: Finnish law does not recognise official minority languages, but Romany and Sami (see the languages listed) have protected status in various legal documents. Switzerland: different state languages are only used in delimited areas. When it comes to regional and minority languages, in addition to the languages indicated in the table, Frainc-Comtou is also an officially recognised minority language. The mosaic of European languages would not be complete without mentioning sign languages. At present, most countries covered by this report officially recognise their sign language(s) ( 22). In countries with no such recognition, there are commonly legal frameworks establishing the right for people with hearing or speech impairments to communicate in a sign language (e.g. Poland and Serbia). AROUND ONE IN TEN 15-YEAR-OLDS IN THE EU DO NOT SPEAK THE LANGUAGE OF SCHOOLING AT HOME The PISA survey allows the evaluation of the percentage of 15-year-old students who speak (and do not speak) the language of the PISA test at home, which is considered a proxy for speaking the language of schooling. At EU level, 88.5 % of 15-year-old students mainly speak the language of schooling at home, while 11.5 % speak a different language. Figure A2 shows the percentages of 15-year-old students across European countries (EU Member States and non-EU countries) who mainly speak a different language at home from the language of schooling. Among the countries with the highest percentage (20 % or more) of 15-year-old students speaking at home a language that differs from the language of schooling, Luxembourg and Malta have the greatest proportion of students who do so. In Luxembourg, 82.9 % of 15-year-old students do not speak the language of schooling at home. In this country, 40.3 % of the students indicate that at home they mainly speak Luxembourgish ( 23), a Germanic language that is one of the three official languages of Luxembourg (see Figure A1) but is not used in schooling. In Malta, which is a bilingual country, all students took the PISA test in English, one of the two languages widely used in the context of schooling. However, 82.8 % of the students speak a different language at home. Most students (75.2 %) speak Maltese at home. Switzerland also has a relatively high percentage of 15-year-olds who mainly speak a language at home that is different from the language of schooling (27.0 %). In this multilingual country, most students who speak German, French or Italian (or their dialects) speak the same language at home (22) See the country-specific notes related to Figure A1. (23) The percentage of students speaking specific languages at home presented in the text is based on information provided by the PISA survey (for the link to the PISA database, see the section ‘Statistical databases and terminology’). These data are not displayed in the figure or Annex 1. 32  CONTEXT and at school. Still, many students speak at home a language that differs from the language of schooling. Other countries (or education systems) where 20 % or more of 15-year-old students mainly speak a different language at home from the language of schooling are the German-speaking Community of Belgium (24.1 %), Cyprus (22.3 %), Spain (20.6 %) and Austria (20.5 %). They are followed by the two other Belgian education systems (the French and Flemish Communities), Germany and Sweden, where 17 % to 18 % of students mainly speak a different language at home from the language of schooling. In contrast to all the above countries, Poland has an especially language-homogeneous 15-year-old population, with only 1.7 % of students speaking a different language at home from the language of schooling. The percentage is also relatively low – below 5 % – in Croatia, Hungary, Portugal, Romania, Albania and Montenegro. In more than half of the countries with data (20 countries), between 5 % and 15 % of 15-year-old students mainly speak at home a language that differs from the language of schooling. Figure A2: Percentage of 15-year-old students who mainly speak a different language at home from the language of schooling, 2018 0–4.9 % 5–9.9 % 10–14.9 % 15–19.9 % 20 % or more Data not available Source: Eurydice, based on PISA 2018. Explanatory notes Data are calculated based on the PISA survey question ‘What language do you speak at home most of the time?’ (ST022Q01TA). The survey category ‘Language of the test’ (Language 1) is used as a proxy for speaking the same language at home as at school. Speaking a dialect of a certain language at home is considered speaking the standard language. This approach has been used in most countries participating in the PISA survey. As the approach has not yet been applied to the German- speaking Community of Belgium and Italy, dialects have been recoded accordingly. See Annex 1 for the data and standard errors (S.E.s). For further information on PISA, see the section ‘Statistical databases and terminology’. Looking at the evolution between 2003 and 2018, the percentage of students who mainly speak a language at home other than the language of schooling increased most substantially – by 14.9 percentage points – in Switzerland (see Annex 1). The increase was also notable – around 33  CONTEXT 10 percentage points – in the French Community of Belgium, Germany and Sweden. In most of these countries, the increase mainly took place between 2003 and 2015. In Germany, however, the percentage of students who mainly speak a different language at home from the language of schooling increased by 4.1 percentage points between 2003 and 2015, and by 6.0 percentage points between 2015 and 2018. This can be explained by the fact that the country received over 1 million asylum seekers – mainly people fleeing war in Afghanistan, Iraq and Syria – in 2015 and 2016. STUDENTS WHO DO NOT SPEAK THE LANGUAGE OF SCHOOLING AT HOME ARE NOT ONLY FOUND AMONG THE IMMIGRANT POPULATIONS Identifying the populations that do not speak the language of schooling at home may help in providing more appropriate language support measures. Figure A3 shows the percentages of students speaking, and not speaking, the same language at school and at home among the immigrant and non- immigrant populations. Immigrant and non-immigrant populations are defined based on the birthplace of parents. A student is defined as an ‘immigrant’ if both of his/her parents were born abroad. Immigrant students can be either born in their country of residence (second-generation immigrants) or foreign-born (first-generation immigrants). A student is considered a ‘non-immigrant’ if at least one of his/her parents was born in their country of residence. As the figure shows, having parents who were born abroad does not inevitably mean that the student does not speak the language of schooling at home. At EU level, 5.6 % of 15-year-old students are immigrants who mainly speak the language of schooling at home (data in light red on the left side of the figure). Just a slightly higher percentage of 15-year-old students – 6.9 % – are immigrants who do not speak the language of schooling at home (data in dark red on the left side of the figure). In other words, about half of the 15-year-old students in the EU whose parents were born abroad indicate that they speak the language of schooling at home. Conversely, being a non-immigrant does not necessarily mean that the student speaks the language of schooling at home. At EU level, 4.4 % of 15-year-olds are non-immigrants who do not speak the language of schooling at home (data in dark red on the right side of the figure). Moving from EU-level data to country-level data, the figure demonstrates that country situations vary greatly when it comes to the proportions of immigrant students in the student population (total of the two categories on the left side of the figure). In a number of countries (or education systems), 20 % or more of 15-year-old students are immigrants (the French and German-speaking Communities of Belgium, Germany, Luxembourg, Austria, Sweden and Switzerland). In all these countries, at least half of all immigrant students speak a different language at home from the language of schooling (compare data in light red and dark red on the left side of the figure). In countries with lower percentages of 15-year-old students from migrant backgrounds (less than 20 %), situations vary. For example, in Estonia, Croatia and Serbia, in which around 10 % of the 15-year-old student population are immigrants, almost all immigrant students speak the language of schooling at home. In contrast, in Slovenia, which has a comparable share of immigrants in the student population, the majority of immigrant students (around 80 %) speak a different language at home from the language of schooling. When it comes to non-immigrant students (on the right side of the figure), Luxembourg and Malta have the most extreme patterns. In Malta, 77.2 % of 15-year-old students are non-immigrants who mainly speak a different language at home from the language of the PISA test. This is because most students in Malta speak Maltese at home, whereas at school they use English and Maltese, the former being the language in which they took the PISA test (for further details, see the analysis related to 34  CONTEXT Figure A2). In Luxembourg, 41.5 % of 15-year-olds are non-immigrants mainly speaking a different language at home from the language of schooling (for further details, see the analysis related to Figure A2). Other countries with relatively high percentages of non-immigrant students speaking a different language at home from the language of schooling (more than 10 %) are Bulgaria, Spain and Cyprus. Figure A3: Percentages of immigrant and non-immigrant 15-year-old students, by language spoken at home, 2018 % Immigrant students Non-immigrant students % % Immigrant students Non-immigrant students % Mainly speak a different language at home from the language of schooling Mainly speak the language of schooling at home Source: Eurydice, based on PISA 2018. Explanatory notes Data are calculated based on the PISA survey question ‘What language do you speak at home most of the time?’ (ST022Q01TA). The survey category ‘Language of the test’ (Language 1) is used as a proxy for speaking the same language at home as at school. 35  CONTEXT Speaking a dialect of a certain language at home is considered speaking the standard language. This approach has been used in most countries participating in the PISA survey. As the approach has not yet been applied to the German- speaking Community of Belgium and Italy, dialects have been recoded accordingly. The category ‘immigrant students’ corresponds to students whose parents were born abroad. This category merges two distinct PISA categories of immigrant students, namely (1) the student and both parents were born abroad (i.e. first- generation immigrants); and (2) the student was born in the country of the test, but both parents were born abroad (i.e. second-generation immigrants). See Annex 1 for the data and S.E.s. For further information on PISA, see the section ‘Statistical databases and terminology’. Country-specific notes Bulgaria, Ireland, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia and Türkiye: at least one category of students is not shown in the figure because the sample was insufficient (contained fewer than 30 students). See Annex 1 for details of the category or categories concerned. EUROPEAN COUNTRIES DIFFER GREATLY WHEN IT COMES TO THE PERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS IN LANGUAGE-HETEROGENEOUS SCHOOLS Teaching and learning in language-heterogeneous contexts can provide an opportunity for students to become aware of other languages and cultures, and can therefore enrich the school experience. However, at the same time, language diversity in the student population can be a challenge for teachers, students and, more generally, the education systems concerned. Specific measures may be needed to support students in mastering the language of schooling and to support teachers in managing multilingual and, in some cases, multicultural classes. Language heterogeneity in schools, defined here as more than 25 % of students speaking a different language at home from the language of schooling, varies between countries (see Figure A4). This can partly be explained by the national language context: some countries have several state languages and/or regional, minority or non-territorial languages (see Figure A1). It is also closely linked to the percentage of students from migrant backgrounds who do not speak the language of schooling at home (see Figure A3). Further factors that may influence language heterogeneity in schools include, for instance, urban planning (with or without residential segregation) and policies related to school choice. At EU level, 13.3 % of 15-year-old students attend language-heterogeneous schools. Luxembourg and Malta have the highest percentages of 15-year-old students attending language- heterogeneous schools (96.2 % and 98.0 %, respectively). In Luxembourg, many students speak Luxembourgish at home, which is one the three official languages of Luxembourg (see Figure A1) but is not used in schooling (see the analysis related t