Social Change and Social Order in Rural and Urban Society PDF

SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY 21 CHAPTER 2 SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY It is often said that change is the earth for approximately 500,000 (five on...

SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY 21 CHAPTER 2 SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY It is often said that change is the earth for approximately 500,000 (five only unchanging aspect of society. lakh) years, but they have had a Anyone living in modern society does civilised existence for only about 6,000 not need to be reminded that constant years. Of these civilised years, it is only change is among the most permanent in the last 400 years that we have seen features of our society. In fact, the constant and rapid change; even discipline of sociology itself emerged within these years of change, the pace as an effort to make sense of the rapid has accelerated only in the last 100 changes that Wester n European years. Because the speed with which society had experienced between the change happens has been increasing seventeenth and nineteenth centuries. steadily, it is probably true that in the But though social change last hundred years, change has been seems such a common and obvious faster in the last fifty years than in fact about moder n life, it is – the first fifty. And within the last fifty comparatively speaking – a very new years, the world may have changed and recent fact. It is estimated that more in the last twenty years than in human beings have existed on planet the first thirty… The Clock of Human History Human beings have existed on earth for about half a million years. Agriculture, the necessary basis of fixed settlements, is only about twelve thousand years old. Civilisations date back no more than six thousand years or so. If we were to think of the entire span of human existence thus far as a day (stretching from midnight to midnight), agriculture would have come into existence at 11:56 pm and civilisations at 11:57. The development of modern societies would get underway only at 11:59 and 30 seconds! Yet perhaps as much change has taken place in the last thirty seconds of this human day as in all the time leading up to it. From: Anthony Giddens,2004 Sociology, 4th edition, p.40. 2024-25 22 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY Activity 1 big impact spread over a large sector of society – in order to qualify as social Talk to your elders and make a list change. of the things in your life that: (a) did not exist when your parents were Even after this kind of your age; and (b) did not exist when specification, social change still your grandparents were your age. remains a very broad term. Attempts Eg: Black & white/colour TV; to further qualify it usually try to milk in plastic bags, zip fasteners classify it by its sources or causes; by on clothes; plastic buckets; etc. – its nature, or the kind of impact it has did it exist in your parents’/ on society; and by its pace or speed. grandparents’ childhood? For example, evolution is the name Can you also make a list of things given to a kind of change that takes that existed in your parents’/ place slowly over a long period of time. grandparents’, time but don’t exist in your time? This term was made famous by the natural scientist Charles Darwin, who proposed a theory of how living SOCIAL CHANGE organisms evolve – or change slowly ‘Social change’ is such a general term over several centuries or even millenia, that it can be, and often is, used to by adapting themselves to natural refer to almost any kind of change not circumstances. Darwin’s theory qualified by some other term, such as emphasized the idea of ‘the survival of economic or political change. the fittest’ – only those life forms Sociologists have had to work hard to manage to survive who are best limit this broad meaning in order to adapted to their environment; those make the term more specific and that are unable to adapt or are too slow hence useful for social theory. At the to do so die out in the long run. Darwin most basic level, social change refers suggested that human beings evolved to changes that are significant – that from sea-borne life forms (or varieties is, changes which alter the ‘underlying of fish) to land-based mammals, structure of an object or situation over passing through various stages the a period of time’ (Giddens 2005:42). highest of which were the various Thus social change does not include varieties of monkeys and chimpanzees any and all changes, but only big ones, until finally the homo sapiens or changes which transform things human form was evolved. Although fundamentally. The ‘bigness’ of Darwin’s theory referred to natural change is measured not only by how processes, it was soon adapted to the much change it brings about, but also social world and was termed ‘social by the scale of the change, that is, by Darwinism’, a theory that emphasised how large a section of society it affects. the importance of adaptive change. In In other words, changes have to be contrast to evolutionary change, both intensive and extensive – have a change that occurs comparatively 2024-25 SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY 23 quickly, even suddenly, is sometimes previous chapter.) For example, the called ‘revolutionary change’. It is used emergence of paper money as mainly in the political context, when currency marked a major change in the power structure of society changes the organisation of financial markets very rapidly through the overthrow of and transactions. Until this change a former ruling class or group by its came about, most forms of currency challengers. Examples include the involved precious metals like gold and French revolution (1789-93) and the silver. The value of the coin was Soviet or Russian revolution of 1917. directly linked to the value of the gold But the term has also been used more or silver it contained. By contrast, the generally to refer to sharp, sudden and value of a paper currency note has no total transformations of other kinds as relationship to the value of the paper well, such as in the phrase ‘industrial it is printed on, or the cost of its revolution’ or ‘telecommunications printing. The idea behind paper revolution’, and so on. money was that a medium or means for facilitating the exchange of goods Activity 2 and services need not itself be Refer to the discussions about the intrinsically valuable. As long as it French Revolution and the Industrial represents values convincingly — i.e., Revolution which you have come as long as it inspires trust — almost across before in your textbooks. anything can function as money. This What were the major kinds of change idea was the foundation for the credit that each brought about? Would market and helped change the these changes qualify to be called structure of banking and finance. ‘social change’? Were these changes These changes in turn produced fast enough and far reaching enough further changes in the organisation of to qualify as ‘revolutionary change’? What other kinds of social change economic life. have you come across in your books Changes in values and beliefs can which might not qualify as also lead to social change. For revolutionary change? Why would example, changes in the ideas and they not qualify? beliefs about children and childhood have brought about very important Types of change that are identified kinds of social change, there was a by their nature or impact include time when children were simply structural change and changes in considered small adults — there was ideas, values and beliefs. Structural no special concept of childhood as change refers to transformations in such, with its associated notions of the structure of society, to its what was right or wrong for children institutions or the rules by which to do. As late as the 19th century for these institutions are run. (Recall the example, it was considered good and discussion of social structure from the proper that children start to work as 2024-25 24 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY soon as they were able to. Children some industries in our country that were often helping their families at even today depend on child labour at work from the age of five or six; the least partially (such as carpet weaving, early factory system depended on the small tea shops or restaurants, match- labour of children. It was during the stick making, and so on), child labour 19th and early 20th centuries that is illegal and employers can be ideas about childhood as a special punished as criminals. stage of life gained influence. It then But by far the most common way became unthinkable for small of classifying social change is by its children to be at work, and many causes or sources. Sometimes the countries passed laws banning child causes are pre-classified into labour. At the same time, there inter nal (or endogenous) and emerged ideas about compulsory exter nal (or exogenous) causes. education, and childr en were There are five broad types of sources supposed to be in school rather than or causes of social change: at work, and many laws were passed environmental, technological, for this as well. Although there are economic, political and cultural. Students in a classroom 2024-25 SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY 25 Students in a Vocational Training Lab Source: https//www.msde.gov.in/sites/default/files/2019-09/National%20Skill%20Development %20Mission.pdf Environment their environment. The same was true for people living in very cold climates, Nature, ecology and the physical or in port towns, along major trade environment have always had a significant influence on the structure routes or mountain passes, or in fertile and shape of society. This was river valleys. But the extent to which particularly true in the past when the environment influences society human beings were unable to control has been decreasing over time with the or overcome the effects of nature. For increase in technological resources. example, people living in a desert Technology allows us to overcome or environment were unable to practise adapt to the problems posed by settled agriculture of the sort that was nature, thus reducing the differences possible in the plains, near rivers and between societies living in different so on. So the kind of food they ate or sorts of environments. On the other the clothes they wore, the way they hand, technology also alters nature earned their livelihood, and their and our relationship to it in new ways patterns of social interaction were all (see the chapter on environment in determined to a large extent by the this book). So it is perhaps more physical and climatic conditions of accurate to say that the effect of 2024-25 26 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY The earth caves in after heavy floods nature on society is changing rather than simply declining. But how, you might ask, does this affect social change? The environment may have shaped societies, but how did it play any role in social change? The easiest and most powerful answer to this question can be found in natural disasters. Sudden and catastrophic events such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods, or tidal waves (like the tsunami that hit Indonesia, Sri Lanka, the Andaman Islands and parts of Tamil Nadu in December 2004) can change societies quite drastically. These changes are often irreversible, that is, they are permanent and don’t allow a return to the way things were. For example, it is quite possible that many of those whose livelihoods were destroyed by the tsunami will never be able to return to them again, and that many of the coastal villages will have their social structure completely altered. There are numerous instances of natural disasters leading to a total transformation and sometimes total destruction of societies in history. Environmental or ecological factors need not only be destructive to cause change, they can be constructive as well. A good example is the discovery of oil in the desert regions of West Asia (also called the Middle East). Like the discovery of gold in California in the 19th century, oil reserves in the Middle East have completely transformed the societies in which they were found. Countries like Saudi Arabia, Kuwait or the United Arab Emirates would be very different today without their oil wealth. 2024-25 SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY 27 Technology and Economy thereby changing the dynamics of international trade and migration. The combination of technological and economic change has been responsible Both these developments created for immense social changes, specially gigantic ripples of change which in the modern period. Technology affected not only the economy but also affects society in a wide variety of ways. the social, cultural and demographic As seen above, it can help us to resist, dimensions of world society. control, adapt to or harness nature in The importance and impact of different ways. In combination with the steam power became visible relatively very powerful institution of the market, quickly; however, sometimes, the technological change can be as social impact of technological changes impressive in its social impact as becomes visible only retrospectively. natural factors like a tsunami or the A technological invention or discovery discovery of oil. The most famous may produce limited immediate instance of massive and immediately effects, as though it were lying visible social change brought about by dormant. Some later change in the technological change is the Industrial economic context may suddenly Revolution itself, which you have change the social significance of the already read about. same invention and give it recognition You will surely have heard of the as a historic event. Examples of this massive social impact made by the are the discovery of gunpowder and steam engine. The discovery of steam writing paper in China, which had power allowed emerging forms of large only limited impact for centuries until scale industry to use of a source of they were inserted into the context of energy that was not only far stronger modernising Western Europe. From than animals or human beings, but that vantage point, given the was also capable of continuous advantage of enabling circumstances, operation without the need for rest. When harnessed to modes of transport gunpowder helped to transform the like the steam ship and the railway, it technology of warfare and the paper- transformed the economy and social print revolution changed society geography of the world. The railroad forever. Another example closer to enabled the westward expansion of home is the case of technological industry and trade on the American innovations in the textile industry in continent and in Asia. In India too, Britain. In combination with market the railways have played a very forces and imperial power, the new important role in shaping the spinning and weaving machines economy, specially in the first century destroyed the handloom industry of after their introduction in 1853. the Indian subcontinent which was, Steamships made ocean voyages until then, the largest and most much faster and much more reliable, advanced in the world. 2024-25 28 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY Activity 3 Politics Have you noticed other such In the old ways of writing and technological changes which have recounting history, the actions of social consequences in your own life? kings and queens seemed to be the Think of the photo-copying machine most important forces of social and its impact. Have you ever change. But as we know now, kings thought of what things were like and queens were the representatives before photo-copying became so of larger political, social and economic cheap and freely available? Another example could be the STD telephone trends. Individuals may indeed have booths. Try to find out how people had roles to play, but they were part communicated before these of a larger context. In this sense, telephone booths had appeared and political forces have surely been very few homes had telephone among the most important causes of connections. Make a list of other social change. The clearest examples such examples. are found in the history of warfare. When one society waged war on Sometimes changes in economic another and conquered or was organisation that are not directly conquered, social change was usually technological can also change society. an immediate consequence. In a well-known historical example, Sometimes, conquerors brought the plantation agriculture — that is, the seeds of change and planted them growing of single cash crops like wherever they went. At other times, sugarcane, tea or cotton on a large scale — created a heavy demand for the conquered were actually labour. This demand helped to successful in planting seeds of change establish the institution of slavery and among the conquerors and the slave trade between Africa, Europe transformed their societies. Although and the Americas between the 17th there are many such examples in and 19th centuries. In India, too, the history, it is interesting to consider a tea plantations of Assam involved the modern instance — that of the United forced migration of labour from States and Japan. Eastern India (specially the Adivasi The United States won a famous areas of Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh). victory over Japan in the Second World Today, in many parts of the world, War, partly through the use of a changes in customs duties or tariffs weapon of mass destruction never brought about by inter national seen before in human history, the agreements and institutions like the nuclear bomb. After the Japanese World Trade Organisation, can lead to surrender, the United States occupied entire industries and occupations and ruled over Japan for several years, being wiped out or (less often) sudden bringing about lots of changes, booms or periods of prosperity for including land refor m in Japan. other industries or occupations. Japanese industry, at that time, was 2024-25 SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY 29 trying very hard to copy American through the redistribution of power industry and learn from it. By the across different social groups 1970s, however, Japanese industrial and classes. techniques, specially in fields like car Considered from this viewpoint, manufacturing, had gone far ahead of universal adult franchise — or the ‘one the Americans. Between the 1970s person, one vote’ principle — is and 1990s, Japanese industry probably the single biggest political dominated the world and forced change in history. Until modern changes in the industrial organisation democracies formally empowered the of Europe and specially the United people with the vote, and until States. The industrial landscape of elections became mandatory for the United States in particular was exercising legitimate power, society decisively altered by the impact of was structured very differently. Kings Japanese industrial technology and and queens claimed to rule by divine production organisation. Large, right, and they were not really traditionally dominant industries like answerable to the common people. steel, automobiles and heavy Even when democratic principles of engineering suffered major setbacks voting were first introduced, they did and had to restructure themselves not include the whole population — according to Japanese technological in fact only a small minority could and management principles. vote, or had any say in the formation Emerging fields like electronics were of the government. In the beginning, also pioneered by the Japanese. In the vote was restricted to those who short, within the space of four were born into high status social decades, Japan had turned the tables groups of a particular race or ethnicity, on the United States, but through or to wealthy men who owned economic and technological means property. All women, men of lower rather than warfare. classes or subordinated ethnicities, and Political changes need not only be the poor and working people in general inter national — they can have were not allowed to vote. enormous social impact even at home. It is only through long struggles Although you may not have thought that universal adult franchise came to of it this way, the Indian independence be established as a norm. Of course, movement did not only bring about this did not abolish all the inequalities political change in the form of the end of previous eras. Even today, not all of British rule, it also decisively countries follow democratic forms of changed Indian society. A more recent rule; even where elections are held, instance is to be found in the Nepali they can be manipulated; and people people’s rejection of monarchy in can continue to be powerless to 2006. More generally, political influence the decisions of their changes bring about social change government. But despite all this, it 2024-25 30 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY cannot be denied that universal adult of cultural values on economic and franchise serves as a powerful norm social change. In India too we find that exerts pressure on every society many examples of religion bringing and every government. Governments about social change. Among the best must now at least appear to seek the known are the impact of Buddhism on approval of the people in order to be social and political life in ancient India, considered legitimate. This has and the widespread influence of the brought massive social changes in Bhakti Movement on medieval social its wake. structure including the caste system. A different example of cultural Culture change leading to social change can Culture is used here as a short label be seen in the evolution of ideas about for a very wide field of ideas, values, the place of women in society. In the beliefs, that are important to people modern era, as women have struggled and help shape their lives. Changes for equality, they have helped change in such ideas and beliefs lead naturally society in many ways. Women’s to changes in social life. The struggles have also been helped or commonest example of a socio- hindered by other historical cultural institution that has had circumstances. For example, during enormous social impact is religion. the Second World War, women in Religious beliefs and norms have western countries started to work in helped organise society and it is hardly factories doing jobs that they had surprising that changes in these never done before, jobs which had beliefs have helped transform society. always been done by men. The fact So important has religion been, that that women were able to build ships, some scholars have tended to define operate heavy machinery, manufacture civilisations in religious terms and to ar maments and so on, helped see history as the process of establish their claims to equality. But interaction between religions. it is equally true that, had it not been However, as with other important for the war, they would have had to factors of social change, religion too struggle for much longer. A very is contextual — it is able to produce different instance of change produced effects in some contexts but not in by the position of women can be seen others. Max Weber’s study ‘The in consumer advertising. In most Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of urban societies, it is women who take Capitalism’ showed how the religious most of the everyday decisions about beliefs of some Christian Protestant what to buy for their households. This sects helped to establish the capitalist has made advertisers very sensitive to social system. It remains one of the the views and perspectives of women most famous examples of the impact as consumers. Significant proportions 2024-25 SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY 31 of advertising expenditure are now (Australia) against the dominant directed at women, and this in turn upper class centre of authority has effects on the media. In short, the (England). Similarly, the complete economic role of women starts a chain world dominance of the West Indies of changes which can have a larger cricket team during the 1970s and social impact. For example, 1980s, was also an expression of advertisements may tend to show racial pride on the part of a colonised women as decision-makers and as people. In India, too, beating England important people in ways that would at cricket was always seen as not have been considered or something special, particularly before encouraged before. More generally, independence. At another level, the most advertisements used to be immense popularity of cricket in the addressed to men; now they are Indian sub-continent has altered the addressed as much to women, or, in commercial profile of the game which some sectors like household is now driven by the interests of South appliances and consumer goods, Asian fans, specially Indians. mainly to women. So it is now As will be clear from the above economically important for advertisers discussion, no single factor or theory and manufacturers to pay attention can account for social change. The to what women think and feel. causes of social change may be Yet another instance of cultural internal or external, the result of change bringing about social change deliberate actions or accidental can be found in the history of sports. events. Moreover, the causes of social Games and sports have always been change are often interrelated. expressions of popular culture that Economic and technological causes sometimes acquire a lot of may also have a cultural component, importance. The game of cricket politics may be influenced by began as a British aristocratic environment. It is important to be pastime, spread to the middle and aware of the many dimensions of working classes of Britain, and from social change and its varied forms. there to British colonies across the Change is an important subject for world. As the game acquired roots us because the pace of change in outside Britain, it often turned into a modern and specially contemporary symbol of national or racial pride. times is much faster than what it The very different history of intense used to be before. Although social rivalry in cricket shows the social change is better understood importance of sport in a very telling retrospectively — after it has already manner. The England-Australia occurred — we also need to be aware rivalry expressed the resentment of the of it as it happens, and to prepare for socially subordinated colony it in whatever ways we can. 2024-25 32 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY SOCIAL ORDER Activity 4 The meaning of social events or We are used to thinking of sameness processes often becomes clear through as boring and change as exciting; this is also true, of course — change contrasts, just as the letters on the can be fun and lack of change can page that you are reading become be really dull. But think of what life legible because they contrast against would be like if you were forced to the background. In the same way, change all the time… What if you social change as a process acquires never, ever got the same food for meaning against the backdrop of lunch — every day something continuity or lack of change. It may different, and never the same thing twice, regardless of whether you sound odd, but change makes sense liked it or not? Here is a scarier as a concept only if there are also some thought — what if every time you things that are not changing, so that came back from school there were they offer the possibility of comparison different people at home, different or contrast. In other words, social parents, dif ferent br others and change has to be understood together sisters…? What if whenever you with social order, which is the played your favourite game — football, cricket, volleyball, hockey tendency within established social and so on — the rules were different systems that resists and regulates each time? Think of other areas of change. your life where you would like things Another way of looking at the to not change too quickly. Are there relationship between social change and areas of your life where you want social order is to think about the things to change quickly? Try to possible reasons why society needs to think about the reasons why you want or don’t want change in prevent, discourage, or at least control particular instances. change. In order to establish itself as a strong and viable social system, every The above argument was an society must be able to reproduce itself abstract and general one about the over time and maintain its stability. possible reasons why societies may Stability requires that things continue need to resist change. But there are more or less as they are — that people usually more concrete and specific continue to follow the same rules, that reasons why societies do in fact resist similar actions produce similar results, change. Remember what you read and more generally, that individuals about social structure and social and institutions behave in a fairly stratification in Chapter 1. Most predictable manner. societies most of the time are stratified in unequal ways, that is, the different 2024-25 SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY 33 strata are differently positioned with may be more or less efficient in respect to command over economic dif fer ent contexts, but however resources, social status and political efficient it is, it can never completely power. It is not surprising that those erase the will of the individual. In who are favourably placed wish for other words, socialisation cannot turn things to continue as they are, while people into programmed robots — it those who are suffering disadvantages cannot produce complete and are anxious for change. So the ruling permanent consent for all norms at or dominant groups in society all times. You may have experienced generally resist any social changes this in your own lives: rules or beliefs that may alter their status, because which seem very natural and right at they have a vested interest in stability. one point of time, don’t seem so On the other hand, the subordinated obviously correct at other times. We or oppressed groups have a vested question things we believed in the interest in change. ‘Normal’ conditions past, and change our minds about usually favour the rich and powerful, what we regard as right or wrong. and they are able to resist change. Sometimes, we may even return to This is another broad reason why beliefs we once held and then societies are generally stable. abandoned, only to rediscover them However, the notion of social order afresh at some later stage of life or in is not restricted to the idea of different circumstances. So, while resistance to change, it also has a socialisation does take on much of the more positive meaning. It refers to the burden of producing social order, it is active maintenance and reproduction never enough by itself. of particular pattern of social relations Thus, most modern societies must and of values and norms. Broadly also depend on some form of power or speaking, social order can be achieved coercion to ensure that institutions in one of two ways — when people and individuals conform to established spontaneously wish to abide by a set social norms. Power is usually defined of rules and norms; or when people as the ability to make others do what are compelled in various ways to obey you want regardless of what they such norms. Every society employs a themselves want. When a relationship combination of these methods to of power is stable and settled, and the sustain social order. parties involved have become Spontaneous consent to social accustomed to their relative positions, order derives ultimately from shared we have a situation of domination. If values and nor ms which are a social entity (a person, institution internalised by people through the or group) is routinely or habitually in process of socialisation. (Revisit the a position of power, it is said to be discussion of socialisation in dominant. In normal times, dominant Introducing Sociology). Socialisation institutions, groups or individuals 2024-25 34 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY exercise a decisive influence on society. propriety and justice. We have already It is not as though they are never seen how power is defined in society; challenged, but this happens only in power in itself is simply a fact — it can abnormal or extraordinary times. Even be either legitimate or not. Authority though it implies that people are being is defined by Max Weber as legitimate forced to do things they don’t power — that is, power considered to necessarily want to do, domination in be justified or proper. For example, a normal times can be quite ‘smooth’, in police officer, a judge, or a school the sense of appearing to be without teacher all exercise different kinds of friction or tension. (Revisit the authority as part of their jobs. This discussion of ‘forced cooperation’ from authority is explicitly provided to them Chapter 1. Why, for example, did by their official job description — there women not want to claim their rights are written documents specifying their in their families of birth? Why did they authority, and what they may and may ‘consent’ to the patriarchal norm?) not do. The fact that they have authority Domination, Authority and Law automatically implies that other How is it that domination can be non- members of society — who have confrontational even when it clearly agreed to abide by its rules and involves unequal relationships where regulations — must obey this authority costs and benefits are unevenly within its proper domain. The domain distributed? Part of the answer we have of the judge is the court room, and already got from the discussion of the when citizens are in the court, they are previous chapter — dominant groups supposed to obey the judge or defer to extract cooperation in unequal her/his authority. Outside the relationships because of their power. courtroom, the judge is supposed to But why does this power work? Does be like any other citizen. So, on the it work purely because of the threat of street, S/he must obey the lawful the use of force? This is where we come authority of the police officer. When to an important concept in sociology, on duty, the policeman or woman has that of legitimation. authority over the public actions of all In social terms, legitimacy refers citizens except her/his superior to the degree of acceptance that is officers. But police officers do not have involved in power relations. Something jurisdiction over the private activities that is legitimate is accepted as proper, of citizens as long as they are not just and fitting. In the broadest sense, suspected of being unlawful. In it is acknowledged to be part of the different way — different because the social contract that is currently nature of the authority involved is less prevailing. In short, legitimacy implies strictly or explicitly defined — the conformity to existing norms of right, teacher has authority over her/his 2024-25 SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY 35 pupils in the classroom. The authority apply to all citizens. Whether or not I of the teacher does not extend into the as an individual agree with a particular home of the pupil where parents or law, it has binding force on me as a guardians have primary responsibility citizen, and on all other citizens and authority over their children. similarly regardless of their beliefs. There may be other for ms of So, domination works through authority that are not so strictly power, but much of this power is defined, but are nevertheless effective actually legitimate power or authority, in eliciting consent and cooperation. a large part of which is codified in law. A good example is the authority Consent and cooperation are obtained wielded by a religious leader. Although on a regular and reliable basis because some institutionalised religions may of the backing of this structure of have partly formalised this authority, legitimation and formal institutional but the leader of a sect or other less- support. This does not exhaust the institutionalised minor religious group domain of power or domination — may wield enor mous authority there are many kinds of power that are without it being formalised. Similarly effective in society even though they reputed scholars, artists, writers and are illegitimate, or if legitimate are not other intellectuals may wield a lot of codified in law. It is the mix of authority in their respective fields legitimate, lawful authority and other without it being formalised. The same kinds of power that determines the is true of a criminal gang leader — he nature of a social system and also its or she may exercise absolute authority dynamics. but without any formal specifications. The difference between explicitly Contestation, Crime and Violence codified and more informal authority is relevant to the notion of the law. A The existence of domination, power, law is an explicitly codified norm or legitimate authority and law does not rule. It is usually written down, and imply that they always meet with there are laws that specify how laws obedience and conformity. You have are to be made or changed, or what is already read about the presence of to be done if someone violates them. conflict and competition in society. In A modern democratic society has a a similar way, we need to recognise given body of laws created through its more general forms of contestation in legislature, which consist of elected society. Contestation is used here as representatives. The laws of the land simply a word for broad forms of are enacted in the name of the people insistent disagreement. Competition of that land by the people’s and conflict are more specific than representatives. This law forms the this, and leave out other forms of formal body of rules according to dissent that may not be well described which society will be governed. Laws by such terms. 2024-25 36 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY One example is that of ‘counter Although it generally carries a cultures’ among youth or ‘youth strong moral charge, the notion of rebellion’. These are protests against crime is strictly derived from the law. or refusal to conform to prevalent A crime is an act that violates an social norms. The content of these existing law, nothing more, nothing protests may involve anything from less. The moral worth of the act is not hairstyles and clothing fashions to determined solely by the fact that it language or lifestyle. More standard violates existing law. If the existing law or conventional forms of contestation is believed to be unjust, for example, include elections — which are a form a person may claim to be breaking it of political competition. Contestations for the highest moral reasons. This is also include dissent or protest against exactly what the leaders of the laws or lawful authorities. Open and Freedom Movement in India were democratic societies allow this kind of doing as part of their ‘Civil dissent to different degrees. There are Disobedience’ campaign. When both explicit and implicit boundaries Mahatma Gandhi broke the salt law defined for such dissent; crossing of the British government at Dandi, these boundaries invites some form of he was committing a crime, and he reaction from society, usually from the was arrested for it. But he committed law enforcement authorities. this crime deliberately and proudly, As you know very well, being and the Indian people were also proud united as Indians does not prevent us of him and what he stood for. Of from disagreeing with each other. course, these are not the only kinds Different political parties may have of crime that are committed! There are very different agendas even though many other kinds of crime that cannot they may respect the same claim any great moral virtue. But the Constitution. Belief in or knowledge important point is that a crime is the of the same set of traffic rules does breaking of the law — going beyond not prevent heated arguments on the the boundary of legitimate dissent as road. In other words, social order need defined by the law. not mean sameness or unanimity. On The question of violence relates at the other hand, how much difference the broadest level to the basic definition or dissent is tolerated in society is an of the state. One of the defining features important question. The answer to of the modern state is that it is this question depends on social and supposed to have a monopoly over the historical circumstances but it always use of legitimate violence within its marks an important boundary in jurisdiction. In other words, only the society, the boundary between the state (through its authorised legitimate and the illegitimate, the functionaries) may lawfully use legal and the illegal, and the violence — all other instances of acceptable and the unacceptable. violence are by definition illegal. (There 2024-25 SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY 37 are exceptions like self defense meant of the major changes in social for extraordinary and rare situations). structure brought about by the Thus, technically, every act of violence transition from nomadic ways of life is seen as being directed against the based on hunting, gathering food and state. Even if I assault or murder some transient agriculture to a more settled other individual, it is the state that form of life. With the development of prosecutes me for violating its sedentary forms of agriculture — or monopoly over the legitimate use of forms that did not involve moving from violence. place to place — social structure also It is obvious that violence is the changed. Investment in land and enemy of social order, and an extreme technological innovations in form of contestation that transgresses agriculture created the possibility of not only the law, but important social producing a surplus – something over norms. Violence in society is the and above what was needed for product of social tensions and survival. Thus, settled agriculture indicates the presence of serious meant that wealth could be problems. It is also a challenge to the accumulated and this also brought authority of the state. In this sense it with it social differences. The more also marks the failure of the regime of advanced division of labour also legitimation and consent and the open created the need for occupational outbreak of conflicts. specialisation. All of these changes together shaped the emergence of the SOCIAL ORDER AND CHANGE IN VILLAGE, village as a population settlement TOWN AND CITY based on a particular form of social Most societies can be divided into rural organisation. and urban sectors. The conditions of In economic and administrative life and therefore the forms of social terms, the distinction between rural organisation in these sectors are very and urban settlements is usually made different from each other. So also, on the basis of two major factors: therefore, are the forms of social order population density and the proportion that prevail in these sectors, and the of agriculture related economic kinds of social change that are most activities. (Contrary to appearances, significant in each. size is not always decisive; it becomes We all think we know what is difficult to separate large villages and meant by a village and by a town or small towns on the basis of population city. But how exactly do we size alone.) Thus, cities and towns differentiate between them? (see also have a much higher density of the discussion in Chapter 5 on Village population — or the number of persons Studies in the section on per unit area, such as a square km — M.N. Srinivas). From a sociological than villages. Although they are point of view, villages emerged as part smaller in terms of absolute numbers 2024-25 38 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY of people, villages are spread out over expected to increase to 66 per cent by a relatively larger area. Villages are also 2050 (United Nations, Department of distinguished from towns and cities by Economc and Social Affairs, Population the larger share of agricultural activities Division, 2014, World Population in their economic profile. In other prospects). Indian society is also words, villages will have a significant experiencing urbanisation: the proportion of its population engaged percentage of the population living in in agriculture linked occupations, urban areas has increased from a little much of what is produced there will be less than 11 per cent in 1901 to a little agricultural products, and most of its more than17 per cent in 1951, soon income will be from agriculture. after independence. The 2001 Census The distinction between a town and shows that almost 28 per cent of the city is much more a matter of population lives in urban areas. administrative definition. A town and According to 2011 Census report, city are basically the same sort of 37.7 per cent population of India lives settlement, differentiated by size. An in urban areas. ‘urban agglomeration’ (a term used in Censuses and official reports) refers to Social Order and Social Change in a city along with its surrounding sub- Rural Areas urban areas and satellite settlements. Because of the objective conditions in A ‘metropolitan area’ includes more villages being different, we can expect than one city, or a continuous urban the nature of social order and social settlement many times the size of a change to be different as well. Villages single city. are small in size so they usually permit Given the directions in which more personalised relationships; it is modern societies have developed, the not unusual for members of a village process of urbanisation has been to know all or most other members by experienced in most countries. This is sight. Moreover, the social structure the process by which a progressively in villages tends to follow a more larger and larger proportion of the traditional pattern: institutions like country’s population lives in urban caste, religion, and other forms of rather than rural areas. Most customary or traditional social practice developed countries are now are stronger here. For these reasons, overwhelmingly urban. Urbanisation unless there are special circumstances is also the trend in developing that make for an exception, change is countries; it can be faster or slower, but slower to arrive in villages than in towns. unless there are special reasons There are also other reasons for this. blocking it, the process does seem to A variety of factors ensure that the occur in most contexts. According to subordinate sections of society have United Nations report (2014), 54 per much less scope for expressing cent of the world's population lives in themselves in rural areas than their urban areas, a proportion that is counterparts in cities. The lack of 2024-25 SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY 39 anonymity and distance in the village agrarian social relations have a very makes it difficult for people to dissent major impact on rural societies. Thus, because they can be easily identified measures like land reform which alter and ‘taught a lesson’ by the dominant the structure of land ownership have sections. Moreover, the relative power an immediate impact. In India, the first of the dominant sections is much more phase of land reforms after because they control most avenues of independence took away proprietary employment, and most resources of all rights from absentee landlords and kinds. So the poor have to depend on gave them to the groups that were the dominant sections since there are actually managing the land and its no alternative sources of employment cultivation in the village. Most of these or support. Given the small population, groups belonged to intermediate castes, it is also very difficult to gather large and though they were often not numbers, particularly since efforts themselves the cultivators, they towards this cannot be hidden from the acquired rights over land. In powerful and are very quickly combination with their number, this suppressed. So, in short, if there is a factor increased their social status and strong power structure already in place political power, because their votes in a village, it is very difficult to dislodge mattered for winning elections. M.N. it. Change in the sense of shifts in power Srinivas has named these groups as the are thus slow and late to arrive in rural ‘dominant castes’. In many regional areas because the social order is contexts, the dominant castes became stronger and more resilient. very powerful in economic terms and Change of other sorts is also slow dominated the countryside and hence to come because villages are scattered also electoral politics. In more recent and not as well connected to the rest of times, these dominant castes are the world as cities and towns are. Of themselves facing opposition from the course, new modes of communication, assertive uprisings of castes further particularly the telephone and the television have changed this. So the below them, the lowest and the most cultural ‘lag’ between villages and backward castes. This has led to major towns is now much shorter or non- social upheavals in many states like existent. Communication links of other Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh sorts (road, rail) have also generally and Tamil Nadu. improved over time so that few villages In the same way, changes in the can really claim to be ‘isolated’ or technological organisation of ‘remote’, words often unthinkingly agriculture also has a large and attached to villages in the past. This immediate impact on rural society. has also accelerated the pace of change The introduction of new labour saving somewhat. machinery or new cropping patterns For obvious reasons changes may alter the demand for labour and associated with agriculture or with thus change the relative bargaining 2024-25 40 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY strength of different social groups like natural advantage. So did cities that landlords and labourers. Even if they were well located from the point of don’t directly affect labour demand, view of military strategy. Finally, technological or economic changes can religious places attracted large change the economic power of different numbers of pilgrims and thus groups and thus set in motion a chain supported an urban economy. In of changes. Sudden fluctuations in India too we have examples of such agricultural prices, droughts or floods old cities, including the well known can cause havoc in rural society. The medieval trading towns of Tezpur on recent spate of farmer suicides in India the Brahmaputra river in Assam or is an example of this. On the other Kozhikode (formerly known as hand, large scale development Calicut) on the Arabian Sea in programmes aimed at the rural poor northern Kerala. We also have many can also have an enormous impact. examples of temple towns and places A good example of this is the of religious pilgrimage, such as Ajmer Mahatma Gandhi National Rural in Rajasthan, Varanasi (also known as Employment Guarantee Act of 2005 Benaras or Kashi) in Uttar Pradesh, (MGNREGA). or Madurai in Tamil Nadu. As sociologists have pointed out, Activity 5 city life and modernity go very well together; in fact, each may be Find out more about the Mahatma considered an intimate expression of Gandhi National Rural Employment the other. Though it houses large and Guarantee Act (MGNREGA). What very dense populations, and though it does it aim to do? Why is it considered such an important development has been known throughout history programme? What problems does it as the site for mass politics, the city is face? What would be the likely also the domain of the modern consequences if it succeeds? individual. In its combination of anonymity and the amenities and Social Order and Social Change in institutions that only large numbers Urban Areas can support, the city of fers the individual boundless possibilities for It is well known that though the city fulfillment. Unlike the village, which itself is very old — even ancient discourages individuality and cannot societies had them — urbanism as a offer much, the city nurtures the way of life for large segments of the individual. population is a modern phenomenon. But while the many artists, writers, Before the modern era, trade, religion and scholars who have celebrated the and warfare were some of the major city as the haven of the individual are factors that decided the location and not wrong, it is also true that freedom importance of cities. Cities that were and opportunity are available only to located on major trade routes, or had some individuals. More accurately, suitable harbours and ports had a only a socially and economically 2024-25 SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY 41 privileged minority can have the luxury Most of the important issues and of a predominantly free and fulfilling life. problems of social order in towns and Most people who live in cities have only cities are related to the question of limited and relative freedoms within space. High population density places larger constraints. These are the familiar a great premium on space and creates economic and social constraints very complex problems of logistics. It imposed by membership in social is the primary task of the urban social groups of various kinds, already known order to ensure the spatial viability of to you from the previous chapter. The the city. This means the organisation city, too, fosters the development of and management of things like: group identities — based on factors like housing and residential patterns; mass race, religion, ethnicity, caste, region, transit systems for transporting large and of course class — which are all well numbers of workers to and fro for work; represented in urban life. In fact, the arranging for the coexistence of concentration of large numbers in a residential, public and industrial land- relatively small space intensifies use zones; and finally all the public identities and makes them integral health, sanitation, policing, public safety to strategies of survival, resistance and monitoring needs of urban and assertion. governance. Each of these functions A doctor checking a patient 2024-25 42 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY is a huge undertaking in itself and the emergence of slums. Though official presents formidable challenges of definitions vary, a slum is a congested, planning, implementation and overcrowded neighbourhood with no maintenance. What adds to the proper civic facilities (sanitation, water complexity is that all of these tasks have supply, electricity and so on) and to be performed in a context where the homes made of all kinds of building divisions and tensions of class, ethnicity, materials ranging from plastic sheets religion, caste and so on are also present and cardboard to multi-storeyed and active. concrete structures. Because of the For example, the question of urban absence of ‘settled’ property rights of housing brings with it a whole host of the kind seen elsewhere, slums are the problems. Shortage of housing for the natural breeding ground for ‘dadas’ poor leads to homelessness, and the and strongmen who impose their phenomenon of ‘street people’ — those authority on the people who live there. who live and survive on the streets and Control over slum territory becomes footpaths, under bridges and flyovers, the natural stepping stone to other abandoned buildings and other empty kinds of extra-legal activities, including spaces. It is also the leading cause for criminal and real estate-related gangs. A girl child looking after the sibling 2024-25 SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY 43 A commercial centre in a city Women at work in cotton field 2024-25 44 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY The worldwide phenomenon of Activity 6 ‘gated communities’ is also found in Have you come across such ‘gated Indian cities. This refers to the communities’ in your town or city, creation of affluent neighbourhoods or in one you have visited? Find that are separated from their out from your elders about such a surroundings by walls and gates, with community. When did the gates and controlled entry and exit. Most such fences come up? Was there any communities also have their own opposition, and if so by whom? What parallel civic facilities, such as water reasons might people have for wanting to live in such places? and electricity supply, policing and What effects do you think it has on security. urban society and on the neighbourhoods surrounding it? Various kinds of transport in an urban area 2024-25 SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY 45 Shopping in a city 2024-25 46 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY Finally, housing patterns are linked The form and content of social to the economy of the city in crucial change in urban areas is also best ways. The urban transport system is understood in relation to the central directly and severely affected by the question of space. One very visible location of residential areas relative to element of change is the ups and industrial and commercial workplaces. downs experienced by particular If these are far apart, as is often the case, neighbourhoods and localities. Across an elaborate mass transit system must the world, the city centre – or the core be created and maintained. area of the original city – has had many Commuting becomes a way of life and changes of fortune. After being the an ever present source of possible power centre of the city in the 19th disruption. The transport system has and early 20th century, the city centre a direct impact on the ‘quality of life’ of went through a period of decline in the working people in the city. Reliance on latter half of the 20th century. This road transport and specially on private was also the period of the growth of rather than public modes (i.e., cars suburbs as the af fluent classes rather than buses) creates problems of deserted the inner city for the suburbs traffic congestion and vehicular for a variety of reasons. City centres pollution. As will be clear to you from are experiencing a revival now in many the above discussion, the apparently major western cities as attempts to simple issue of distribution of living regenerate community life and the arts space is actually a very complex and bear fruit. A related phenomenon is multi-dimensional aspect of urban ‘gentrification’, which refers to the society. conversion of a previously lower class neighbourhood into a middle and Daily long distance commuters can upper class one. As real estate prices become an influential political rise, it becomes more and more constituency and sometimes develop profitable for developers to try and elaborate sub-cultures. For example, effect such a conversion. At some the sub-urban trains of Mumbai — point, the campaign becomes self- popularly known as ‘locals’ — have many informal associations of fulfilling as rental values increase and commuters. Collective on-train the locality acquires a critical activities include singing bhajans, minimum of prosperous businesses celebrating festivals, chopping and residents. But sometimes the vegetables, playing card and board effort may fail and the neighbourhood games (including tournaments), or goes back down the class scale and just general socialising. returns to its previous status. 2024-25 SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY 47 city life and can shape the social Activity 7 character of a city apart fr om Have you noticed any ‘gentrification’ influencing its economic fortunes. or ‘up-scaling’ taking place in your Many scholars have written on the neighbourhood? Do you know of difference between cities based on such instances? Find out what the public transport like London or New locality was like before this York and cities that depend mainly happened. In what ways has it changed? How have these changes on individualised car -based affected different social groups and transport like Los Angeles. It remains classes? Who benefits and who to be seen, for example, whether the loses? Who decides about changes new Metro Rail in Delhi will of this sort — is there voting, or some significantly change social life in that form of public discussion? city. But the main issue regarding social change in cities, specially in Changes in modes of mass rapidly urbanising countries like transport may also bring about India, is how the city will cope with significant social change in cities. constant increase in population as Affordable, efficient and safe public migrants keep streaming in to add to transport makes a huge difference to its natural growth. GLOSSARY Customs Duties, Tariffs: Taxes imposed on goods entering or leaving a country, which increase its price and make it less competitive relative to domestically produced goods. Dominant Castes: Term attributed to M.N. Srinivas; refers to landowning intermediate castes that are numerically large and therefore enjoy political dominance in a given region. Gated Communities: Urban localities (usually upper class or affluent) sealed off from its surroundings by fences, walls and gates, with controlled entry and exit. Gentrification: The term used to describe the conversion of a low class (urban) neighbourhood into a middle or upper class neighbourhood. 2024-25 48 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY Ghetto, Ghettoisation: Originally from the term used for the locality where Jews lived in medieval European cities, today refers to any neighbourhood with a concentration of people of a particular religion, ethnicity, caste or other common identity. Ghettoisation is the process of creation of ghettoes through the conversion of mixed composition neighbourhoods into single community neighbourhoods. Legitimation: The process of making legitimate, or the grounds on which something is considered legitimate, i.e., proper, just, right etc. Mass Transit: Modes of fast city transport for large number of people. EXERCISES 1. Would you agree with the statement that rapid social change is a comparatively new phenomenon in human history? Give reasons for your answer. 2. How is social change to be distinguished from other kinds of change? 3. What do you understand by ‘structural change’? Explain with examples other than those in the text. 4. Describe some kinds of environment-related social change. 5. What are some kinds of changes brought about by technology and the economy? 6. What is meant by social order and how is it maintained? 7. What is authority and how is it related to domination and the law? 8. How are a village, town and city distinguished from each other? 9. What are some features of social order in rural areas? 10. What are some of the challenges to social order in urban areas? 2024-25 SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY 49 REFERENCES GIDDENS, Antony. Sociology. 4th edition. GERTH, HANS and C. WRIGHT MILLS. (eds) from Max Weber. KHILNANI, SUNIL. 2002. The Idea of India, Penguin Books, New Delhi. Patel, Sujata and Kushal Deb (eds). 2006. Urban Sociology, Readings in Sociology and Social Anthropology series). Oxford University Press, New Delhi. SRINIVAS, M.N. Social Change in Modern India. 2024-25