A Sociological Perspective PDF

Chapter 1 A Sociological Perspective The school is a social world because human beings live in it. —Willard Waller Preparing to become a music teacher requires command of a diversity of knowledge and skil...

Chapter 1 A Sociological Perspective The school is a social world because human beings live in it. —Willard Waller Preparing to become a music teacher requires command of a diversity of knowledge and skills. As a teacher or future teacher, you may ask, “How does sociology contribute to becoming a teacher?” Many music education students want to study methodology, applied music, or other courses they perceive as providing information that is more practical and applicable to rehearsals and classrooms. However, sociology is practical and directly applicable to music education. An awareness of basic sociological material enables teachers to understand different perspectives and experiences encountered every day involving parents, administrators, community members, race, political agendas, religion, and gender. While it is important to learn “tricks of the trade,” a sociological perspective helps music teachers recognize the array of experiences affecting inter- relationships between students, school environments, communities, and home environments (Kelly, 2002). A basic awareness of sociological information enables teachers to better discrimi- nate between facts and bias within the complex world of teaching. Thus, a sociological under- standing becomes very practical and applicable to the success of all music teachers. Chapter 1 presents basic sociological information and concepts and their applications to music education. Much of the material will be re-introduced in different contexts throughout other chapters. The initial material begins with ideas concerning foundations, roles, benefits, and rela- tionships, reflecting what teachers may believe. The material provides a rationale for understand- ing sociological issues within classrooms from which a philosophical perspective can be formed. A teacher’s philosophical beliefs affect instruction with regards to how and what information is presented, and who will be the recipient. A Rationale for Sociological Understanding A sociological analysis provides educators with a deeper understanding and awareness of the purposes of education and interactions within educational settings. These benefits contribute to informed decision-making and change in education institutions. Examining social foundations enables teachers to have a broader perspective about themselves, the world in which they teach, and how they “fit” into that world. Many social factors influence what, who, and how individu- als teach, and subsequently affect their philosophical beliefs. For example, many music educa- tion majors initially view themselves as performers, not educators (Froehlich, 2007; Froehlich & L’Roy, 1985; L’Roy, 1983; Madsen & Kelly; 2002; Roberts, 1991, 2000). How might this initial perspective influence the teaching philosophy? Can music educators effectively be both perform- ers and teachers? 2 A Sociological Perspective Furthermore, teachers increasingly need an awareness of how political and social issues inter- relate with education. For instance, what effects do policies such as Race to the Top, the Indi- viduals with Disabilities Education Act, or state mandated testing have on music participation and curricular development? How do social issues such as school violence, teenage pregnancy, or religious freedom influence school music curricula and the role music may have in addressing these issues? Other cultural information influencing teachers includes knowledge of a student’s age, socioeconomic status, students with disabilities, and the effects of immigration on educa- tion institutions. These issues not only influence the delivery of instruction, but they also affect non-instructional aspects of teaching (Woodford, 2005). For example, policies such as student dress codes or fees for participating in music can have immediate effects on how students react to or the extent they participate in music classes. The need for teachers to have a sociological understanding is supported in most state depart- ments of education across the United States. Because sociology deals with human interactions, it is not surprising that many state teacher certification exams contain a strong sociological emphasis (Henry, 2005; Spring, 2006). Teacher certification exams often require knowledge of cultural diversity, such as the effects of racial or gender expectations, the influence of stereotypes on learning, and the effects of socioeconomic status on school dropout rates, graduation rates, ethics, and academic achievement (Spring, 2006). Classroom issues such as creating a safe learn- ing environment, motivating students, and assessing student performance influenced by social factors are included on teacher certification exams. Additional topics frequently include social factors that may influence a teacher’s attitude, appropriate dress, and proper student/teacher interactions (Lortie, 2002; Waller, 1965). In demonstrating a broader national prospective, the need for understanding sociological aspects is reflected in both the original National Standards for Arts Education (Music Educators National Conference, 1994) and the newly revised standards known as the National Core Arts Standards (National Association for Music Education, 2014a). The original music standards reflected social issues by stating, “those who construct arts curricula should attend to issues of eth- nicity, national custom, tradition, religion, and gender...” (p. 14). Content Standard Nine spe- cifically called for an “understanding of music in relation to history and culture” (pp. 29, 45, 63). The newly revised standards, introduced in 2014, are based on national common core curricula. In promoting the arts as connectors, the new standards state, “Understanding artwork provides insights into individuals’ own and others’ cultures and societies, while also providing oppor- tunities to access, express, and integrate meaning across a variety of content areas” (National Association for Music Educators, 2014b, p. 10). Furthermore, the new standards acknowledge the social aspects of music education by stating in Anchor Standards #11 that music education should be able to “relate artistic ideas and works with societal, cultural, and historical context to deepen understanding” (National Association for Music Educators, 2014a). Fundamentally, sociology in music education investigates the interaction of music, people, and culture in an educational setting. The interactions of musical and social components can be seen throughout history. The foundations may be discovered in ancient Greek civilizations, where the social aspects of education gained through developing the mind, body, and soul were valued and considered essential (Grout & Palisca, 1988). Music instruction was included in the original seven liberal arts, in which knowledge was essential for an individual to be educated in order to contribute to society. Music was cherished for its ability to develop the human soul and prepare citizens for higher good within society. Plato (1995) believed music helped to civilize humans and was essential to their success in society. Plato placed great importance on music training to maintain critical cultural values and develop moral behavior. More recently, U.S. President Ronald Regan stated, “The arts and humanities teach us who we are and what we can be. They lie at the very core of the culture of which we are a part” (Mark, 2008, p. 72.).  A Sociological Perspective 3 An increased interest in a sociological awareness within music education was cited by McCa- rthy (2002), who stated that a better understanding and application of sociological skills in education, and specifically music education, has arisen. McCarthy provided five reasons for this growth: (1) the move by schools toward a more inclusive curriculum reflecting students’ social, cultural, and musical diversity; (2) an increasing awareness of music education’s relationship to music overall reflecting the diversity of cultural values and meanings within society; (3) a growing theoretical perspective of how social constructivism and critical theory are providing new insight into music teaching and learning; (4) an increasing tolerance for diversity and the perceived need for incorporating a variety of perspectives beyond traditional processes and prod- ucts involved in music instruction; and (5) a growing commitment within the music education research community to advance a sociocultural agenda to better understand social and cultural influences in music education settings. Despite calls for a sociological awareness, music teachers may not realize the influence of this perspective on teaching. Few music teacher-training programs offer insight into social issues that affect teachers such as: (a) students with different cultural backgrounds than their own, (b) music students listen to and participate in that symbolizes cultural values different from the teacher’s, and (c) student, community, and educational attitudes, dress, and languages considered normal by students, yet very unfamiliar to the teacher. Much of what is taught and experienced in music classrooms reflects the community the school serves, its holidays, celebrations and ceremonies, moral and civic values, and cultural understandings. These social interactions can affect educa- tional expectations and experiences. By including a sociological perspective in teacher-training curricula, music teachers can better implement instructional and musical approaches that inter- relate school music with community music experiences, thus making the study of music more meaningful and relevant. Sociological Benefits for Music Educators Explain the relationship of music to different cultural points of view Make better connections from music in the schools to music in society Help teachers understand and relate to students from different backgrounds Assist teachers in developing instructional and rehearsal strategies to become more effective Help to connect school music programs to school and community expectations Help teachers better understand their role in educational processes Sociology and Education It is difficult to imagine a society without some system of education. Not surprisingly, sociologists are interested in school environments and individuals within education. They are especially concerned with the interactions of people within educational structures (Ballantine & Spade, 2012). Teaching is a human behavior involving human interactions that affect education experi- ences in many venues, including music classrooms, hallways, during lunch period, at school foot- ball games or dances, and on school busses. Understanding the diversity of interactions requires knowledge of cultural variance, including an awareness of a student’s family background, musical interests, expectations, and previous music experiences. 4 A Sociological Perspective Sociologists are less interested in how to teach than in what and why we teach. They are interested in learning experiences of all types because of education’s relation to life in general. An understanding of social and cultural influences has always been important to understanding teaching and learning processes (McCarthy, 2002). Education is frequently considered a formal process involving individuals attending structured schools. However, education is a constantly evolving entity reflecting the perpetual change in society. Subsequently, education is a lifelong process achieved formally and informally in many different manners and places. Our education begins the day we are born and ends the day we die. Experiences between birth and death make Photo Figure 1 World music ensembles are excellent opportunities for teaching cultural norms.  A Sociological Perspective 5 each of us as diverse as the situations and people we encounter throughout our lives. Because of our diversity, humans have the capacity to learn all the time in any setting and in multiple manners (Gollnick & Chinn, 2002; Valsiner, 1989). Our parents, or parental figures are our first teachers, our home environment our first school. Siblings and peers are our first classmates. We learn by watching others and listening, interacting with the world around us. Sociologists view formal education as the social institution that guides a society’s transmission of knowledge to its members. From a social perspective, education may center on skill develop- ment, helping students to engage and function successfully in society. For example, as children learn roles in their social world, they also become aware of how different their world can be from other children’s worlds. Education helps children confront differences and effectively cope with diverse cultural expectations such as gender roles, age, religion, geographic differences, language, and other cultural views (Gollnick & Chinn, 2002; Swift, 1976). Globally, education is a vital part of every society, including industrial and non-industrial communities, rural and urban settings, and literate and non-literate cultures. Behaviors involved in teaching and learning are social phenomena influenced by various societal expectations. Con- sequently, education serves different purposes, depending on social and cultural standards and expectations. Despite this, it essentially serves the same function in all societies: transmitting a wide range of cultural knowledge and skills in order to be successful. Sociology and Music Education Music education also involves human interactions influenced by a variety of ever-changing cultural variables. Learning music reflects a social perspective, involving the development and interactions of cognitive, psychomotor, and affective social skills. Concepts of music instruction vary greatly in our society, as music is learned both informally and formally. While many may think learning occurs through formal lessons, our first music lessons begin informally, in home environments. As our first teachers, parents introduce us to music, and our homes are frequently our first performance stages. We learn our first musical values, including our sense of musical preference and ability, through our homes and families (Gordon, 1971; LeBlanc, 1982). These informal experiences fre- quently influence us to pursue (or not to pursue) music in a more traditional formal school setting. Having a social perspective enables music educators to recognize they face the same challenges educators in other subjects confront, including: student poverty at-risk behaviors immigration budget/funding accountability school violence racism discrimination inequality passivity achievement assessment Music educators ask the same questions as colleagues in other academic areas, including: 1. What are the implications of required testing and accountability of students and teachers? 2. What types of teachers and classroom environments provide the best learning experiences? 3. What are the effects of teacher expectancy on student achievement? 4. What effect is technology having on social development? 5. Should schools be responsible for the selection, training, and placement of individuals in society? 6 A Sociological Perspective 6. To what extent do schools have the responsibility for the socialization of students into society? 7. How can schools overcome cultural expectations and standards while providing equal edu- cational opportunities for all students? 8. Why is there seemingly constant tension between what society expects education to accom- plish and what educators deem necessary to teach? As in education, the role of music education is perpetually changing, reflecting evolving cultural standards and expectations, including music within societies. Like general education, music edu- cation’s essential purpose is to transmit a variety of cultural skills and knowledge for individuals to be successful in society. Perhaps music education’s primary goal is to enable students to func- tion musically in a very musically diverse world. Sociological Basics Teaching is a social process reflective of the most basic sociological principles. To appreciate a social perspective, it is important for teachers to begin with basic sociological principles and foundations. The study of sociology may be defined as the systematic study of human behavior: its origins, organization, institutions, and the general development of human society (Macionis, 1997). As part of the social sciences (like music education), sociology is an interdisciplinary field containing aspects of other studies, such as psychology, biology, anthropology, history, and phi- losophy. These fields contribute to a better understanding of human beings by seeking answers to questions involving the development and influences of topics such as self-identity, self-concept, racial interactions, religion, socioeconomic status, marriage and divorce, the media and technol- ogy, gender, ethnicity, education, and musical experiences (Valsiner, 1989). Sociologists study human interactions in wherever they are found, including neighborhood streets, workplaces, prisons, shopping malls, homes, churches, recreational activities, concert halls, and schools (Macionis, 1997). They are curious about how social order is derived from ordinary human behaviors. This curiosity presents a great challenge, as human beings are very unpredictable due to their constantly changing behavior, which is influenced by a variety of fac- tors. For example, the time of day can influence students’ attention and behavior, which may be different in the morning than just before lunch. Behavior may change again just after lunch and again minutes before the end of the school day. Therefore, learning can be influenced by different periods during the day, and activities within that day. Other social factors influencing students include the amount of sleep received, whether they have practiced or completed homework, if they have had breakfast, if they have had a disagreement with a friend or other teacher, or the excitement of an upcoming sport or musical activity. Sociology attempts to address the challenge of multiple influences by approaching human behav- ior from a broad context. It tries to explain human societies less by universal rules than by contex- tual parameters highlighted by the uniqueness of each society and its cultures (Macionis, 1997; Valsiner, 1989). The considerable variety of unique social and cultural characteristics affecting humans has made sociology an inexact science with few absolute answers. As a result, sociological researchers look for trends and objective generalizations while gathering data from a large variety of sources. Sociological research contributes a wealth of information to educators by providing a broad base of information, both instructional and non-instructional, from which decisions can be made. Society Sociologists study human societies. A society may be defined as a community of people having common traditions, behaviors, values, beliefs, and interests (Macionis, 1997). The word common  A Sociological Perspective 7 is key. Every society is complex in that it is comprised of many different institutions, structures, and individuals, yet commonalities exist (Fulcher & Scott, 2011). The United States is a soci- ety that, while reflecting diverse characteristics, is comprised of common traits. Our common- alities include a love of democracy and freedom, an understanding of governmental structure and laws, a belief in capitalism and the opportunity to make oneself financially better, and an understanding of American symbols such as the flag, the “Pledge of Allegiance,” and music such as America (“My Country, ’Tis of Thee”), America the Beautiful, and the Star-Spangled Banner. These symbols represent common characteristics many individuals consider to be “American.” However, symbols of America can be interpreted very differently. Individuals from Miami may perceive symbols of America differently than citizens in Kansas City or Seattle. Consequently, traditional symbols are not the sole representations of “American,” as many diverse groups of people comprise our society. Cultural variability in our country fascinates sociologists, yet challenges many individuals in our society. Sociologists state that there is no universally accepted definition of a society (Macionis, 1997). A society is as unique and diverse as its members, and this characteristic is very apparent in American society. For example: “What is an American?” There are many responses to this question but no absolute resolution. Historically, the United States has been comprised of native Indians, but also of immigrants from around the world. Individuals came and assimilated their traditions, behaviors, dress, language, and other life aspects to live their, or someone else’s, concept of what it is to be a citizen of the United States. One unified culture was viewed as neces- sary for national strength. This approach is known as the melting pot, where individuals would meld together their behaviors, values, attitudes, even language, music, and dress to form a single view of America (Goodenough, 1987). However, around the late 1950s, a change in how many individuals viewed our society began to occur. The growing number of different groups altered how our society was viewed (Goll- nick & Chinn, 2002; Goodenough, 1987). Though immigrants continued to come to the United States, they desired to maintain their native traditions, values, dress, language, and music. Still, these individuals wanted to be United States citizens. They valued the American lifestyle, its characteristics and behaviors; however, they wanted to maintain their native customs. This concept became known as a pluralistic society (Goodenough, 1987). Pluralism recognizes the acceptance of differences among various groups, while incorporating traditional American val- ues. Our pluralistic society embraced diversity, even expanding characteristic behaviors and val- ues considered “American” by many individuals in our country (Banks & Banks, 2001; Oakes & Lipton, 1999). However, embracing diversity has not always been met with approval. For example, according to the U.S. Census (2013), international migration to the United States is projected to surpass natural increase sometime between 2027 and 2038. This demographic shift is resulting in the end of the historical role of White Americans in our society as other racial populations increase (Ross & Bell, 2014). According to the Council on Foreign Relations (Lee, 2013), this perceived loss of power has caused great concern and unrest in many parts of the country. In 2014, one school district in Minnesota attempted to redraw school zoning lines to create more diversity with the district’s schools. The redistricting bid resulted in tremendous anger and resentment among the community, forcing many school board members to resign (Toppo & Overberg, 2014). Characteristics of society’s diversity will become even more evident in school classrooms as students not only reflect differences in race, gender, ethnicity, social class, language, ability, reli- gion, and age, but also in attitudes, motivation, desire, self-concept and self-esteem, physical, cognitive, and emotional development, and music interests. For example, Dillon (2006) reported that the number of students of color in U.S. public schools grew from 22 to 43 percent in the 30-year period from 1973 to 2004. A more recent report indicated that schools in the United States were preparing to teach up to 50,000 new migrant students 2014 alone (Lee, 2014). With 8 A Sociological Perspective so many different groups of people, resulting in a variety of views of what constitutes United States society, debates over values, ideas, language, behaviors, dress, and even music has caused great divisions among our population. These debates have had a tremendous effect on American education, because our society views schools as the principle source of training in the American way of life (Banks, 2001). Thus, a dichotomy and debate exists between pluralism and the melt- ing pot that often places schools in the middle regarding which societal concept of the United States should be taught and which groups within our country should be represented. Cultures Diversity usually centers on different groups of people who share some form of behavior, trait, or thought. Different groups of people within a society are known as cultures (Erickson, 2001) and may be thought of as subsets of society. A culture is a group of people who share a way of life (Gollnick & Chinn, 2002). Everyone has a culture and is a member of at least one cultural group. A person’s culture determines how the individual perceives, believes, evaluates, and behaves in society, explaining why all societies have diverse thinking and behaviors. Thus, a sociological view of life, including music, is that “beauty is in the eyes of the beholder.” What is considered “good” can only be evaluated to the extent that the properties are familiar and understood in that particular culture. Subsequently, culture determines many of our behaviors and expectations. Like societies, cultures include common characteristics, such as beliefs, values, behavior, and materials possessions that interact with each other. Cultures are created by humans and are not genetic; rather they are learned through interactions with other members of that culture (Macionis, 1997). Through culture, humans learn language, accepted ways of dressing, religion, family life, economics, and even music. Since humans create their culture, these characteristics are constantly changing to reflect shifting ideas and needs. Thus, culture contributes to the plu- ralistic concept of our society through its diverse interactions (Gollnick & Chinn, 2002). Our society is comprised of numerous cultural groups, some similar, some very different, and yet all contributing to a concept of America. An individual is often a member of multiple cul- tural groups. For example, an individual can be an African-American Catholic adolescent, with a middle class socioeconomic status, playing tuba in the public school band. Each group repre- sents has its own norms, which are cultural expectations and attitudes, including behaviors, dress, language, jargon, beliefs, and musical interests. Norms help determine how people within a cul- ture think and behave (Fulcher & Scott, 2011). Individuals adapt to their desired cultural norms in order to be accepted and successful with others within that culture. Behavioral norms are actions or events known as folkways (Macionis, 1997). Folkways are behaviors not required, but expected by a group. In music, orchestra members standing as the concertmaster or conductor walks onto stage is an example of a folkway. As people move from one cultural group to another, an individual’s norms change to reflect the expected characteristics. For example, college stu- dents respond differently to a lecture style class than to an ensemble, and differently to a private lesson setting than with friends at the end of the day. Thus, humans are accepted and can suc- cessfully function within multiple cultural settings. As we move from one culture to another, we become proficient at behaving, speaking, and thinking differently to meet the expected norms of each group. People who do not meet cultural norms are considered abnormal and countercultural (Banks & Banks, 2001; Valsiner, 1989). They have difficulty interacting with members of an existing culture and must search for a group that shares their cultural ideals. Societies are usually comprised of many cultures and are therefore known as multicultural societies (Goodenough, 1987). A multicultural society is a society encompassing many various ways of life that blend (and sometimes clash) together in ordinary life. Due to the diversity of its population, the United States (and most other countries as well) is considered a multicultural  A Sociological Perspective 9 society (Goodenough, 1987). Multiculturalism is not confined to differences based on race, eth- nicity, or geographic location. Like any culture, multiculturalism includes race and ethnicity, but also other common factors such as interests, abilities, traditions, language, religion, family life, occupation, economics, and music. Consequently, multiculturalism is a normal human experi- ence, and indeed is represented in every American classroom. It is an indicator that individuals are different because they participate in more than one culture. Thus, all humans are in a sense multicultural. Multiculturalism is present in music. Different cultural groups have different musi- cal expectations and standards. Sounds defined by one group as “good” music may be considered noise by another. Consequently, our society is not only multicultural; we are multi-musical by way of our multiculturalism. Sociological Basics Sociology—the systematic study of human behavior through the study of human societies Society—a community of people having common traditions, behaviors, values, beliefs, and interests; no universal definition of society as they are as unique as are their members Melting pot society—individuals meld together behaviors, values, attitudes, even lan- guage, music, and dress to form a single view of America Pluralistic society—acceptance of differences among various groups, while incorporating traditional American values as well; embraces diversity Culture—a group of people who share a way of life, including beliefs, traditions, values, and possessions Subset of society Constantly changing Created by humans Music is an important part of any culture Multicultural society—a society encompassing many various ways of life that blend (and sometimes clash) together in ordinary life Multicultural Education The multicultural nature of our society is reflected in the population diversity of schools and the development of multicultural education. Multicultural education is a strategy that uses students’ cultural backgrounds as the basis for classroom instruction and curriculum (Banks & Banks, 2001). Achieving a true multicultural experience in American schools is no easy task. A multicultural educational approach supports and extends the concepts of culture, diversity, and equality of opportunity for all students. Incorporating diversity throughout the learning process is a requirement. Multicultural education seeks to achieve four primary goals: (a) build accept- ance of other cultures, (b) eliminate discrimination, (c) teach different cultural perspectives, and (d) teach students to view their world from differing frames of references (Gollnick & Chin, 2002). Multicultural education extends to music teaching and opportunities for students. In a 21st-century music class, every teacher will encounter multiculturalism that differs to some extent from their own cultural background (McKoy, 2013). Considering the role of students’ cultures will result in a more culturally responsive classroom (Abril, 2013). Traditionally, teaching music has been based on a Western European art music perspective. As American society has taken on 10 A Sociological Perspective a more pluralistic composition, social attitudes have sought to include a diversity of cultural per- spectives that include ethnicity, race, gender, religion, sexual orientation, special needs, and age, among other cultural groups (Campbell, 2004; Fung, 1995; Kelly & VanWeelden, 2004). New attitudes toward a more diversified music experience have led to the inclusion of rock and roll ensembles, world music ensembles, steel drum bands, gospel choirs, music by women composers, mariachi bands, midi ensembles, and fiddle groups, among the innovative curricula being offered to students (Bakan, 2012; Kelly & VanWeelden, 2004). It is not surprising that some research suggests that more diverse school music curricula help students connect school music to music outside of the classroom (Hoffman, 2012; Kelly-McHale, 2013; Kuntz, 2011; Shaw, 2012). Multicultural education, including multicultural music education, is controversial in our country. Many citizens believe schools should teach only “American” values, frequently reflect- ing a narrow personal perception of these ideals (Banks & Banks, 2001; Olsen, 1997). One national poll found that 90 percent of American adults endorsed the teaching of diversity in public schools (National Conference for Community and Justice, 1994). Yet social discrimina- tion toward all cultural groups and in many forms appears to remain an issue of debate (National Conference for Community and Justice, 2008, 2011). For example, the issues of social justice for all groups of people and the elimination of acts of bullying have increased in prominence within American schools. Frequently, the debate surrounding multicultural education is affected by: (a) concern that non-citizens do not pay taxes to support schools, and (b) the fact that many individuals do not speak English, which is the primary language used in this country (Cartledge, 1996; Olsen, 1997). Critics (reflecting a more melting pot perspective) argue schools should focus on American val- ues, traditions, and behaviors, which they believe best represent our country (Oakes & Lipton, 1999). Berstein (1971) argued that schools should present specific curricular activities specifi- cally designed for different social classes in order to prepare students for predetermined roles in society. Proponents (reflecting a more pluralistic perspective) contend multicultural education creates a broader experience for all students, which contributes to a better understanding and tolerance of other cultures both within the United States and outside our country. Multicultural education proponents seek to teach students to view the world from differing cultural frames of reference with the goal of helping students from all cultural backgrounds succeed (Banks, 2001; Oakes & Lipton, 1999). Enculturation and Socialization For teachers, the sociological perspective offers a unique approach toward teaching and learn- ing. A basic tenet of sociological research is that everything humans know and are able to do is learned through observing and interacting with other humans (Macionis, 1997; Valsiner, 1989). Interactions provide knowledge regarding language, feelings, attitudes, biological functions, and even perceptions of music ability. Unlike other living species whose behavior is biologically set, sociologists believe humans rely on social experiences to learn the nuances of their culture in order to survive (Geertz, 1965; Hughes, Sharrock, & Martin, 2003). Thus, knowledge and skills are not genetically determined, but learned through the process of enculturation. Enculturation is the process of acquiring characteristics of a particular culture (Oakes & Lip- ton, 1999). It is society’s way of teaching necessary skills and behaviors. Through enculturation, individuals become aware of the cultural norms and expectations that impact their lives. Sociali- zation is the part of the enculturation process that involves learning how to be members of a soci- ety. Socialization is the process of experiences and interactions through which individuals learn patterns of accepted behaviors and attitudes from other humans (Hughes, Sharrock, & Martin, 2003; Macionis, 1997). It is the act of learning social norms. Stated otherwise, socialization is  A Sociological Perspective 11 Photo Figure 2 Socialization is an important component of classroom experiences. learning expectations associated with a particular culture in order to be accepted and function effectively. Through socialization, we learn our expected roles, such as mother, father, teacher, banker, student, child, and musician. Indeed, one study demonstrated how students can be encul- turated into the expectations of musicians, thus teaching individuals how to behave and think within a musical culture (Vat-Chromy, 2010). Because cultural characteristics are learned through interactions, enculturation and sociali- zation begin at birth. Due to socialization, humans become products of their culture (Hughes, Sharrock, & Martin, 2003). Our initial “teachers” or socialization agents include parents, paren- tal figures, siblings, teachers, peers, and the media. These “teachers” demonstrate acceptable forms of behavior, dress, religion, and values according to the patterns and symbols of the culture in which we are raised. Through interactions, we learn cultural norms. Community holidays and celebrations, languages, food, arts, socioeconomics, and religious views are all reflected in schools. Sharing customs and behaviors binds like-minded people together as an identifiable group. As our environmental conditions, information, and resources change, we adapt to the situation. Enculturation and Schools In Western societies, next to the family, schools are often considered the most important social- izing agents (Ballantine, 2001; Feinberg & Soltis, 1998). According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2014a), there were approximately 98,817 elementary and secondary public schools housing 49.5 million students in the United States during the 2011–2012 school year. The number of enrolled students in public schools is expected to increase to over 52 million by 2024. Within all schools, students are enculturated into the society and culture expectations. 12 A Sociological Perspective With such large numbers, it is easy to understand that schools in the United States are micro- cosms of many different cultural groups (Feinberg & Soltis, 1998). Schools are not autonomous, isolated entities free to chart their own course. Public schools reflect the larger society they serve and are subject to community influences from citizens, busi- nesses, government, traditions, and laws. A reciprocal relationship exists between schools and community groups where each influences and reflects the socialization of the other. Students bring community knowledge, views, norms, and folkways into schools. In turn, students return to their communities with new knowledge and experiences from schools. Learning through Sociology Basic tenet of sociology—that everything humans know and are able to do is learned through observing and interacting with other humans Enculturation—the process of teaching and acquiring characteristics of a particular culture Socialization—the process of experiences and interactions through which individuals learn patterns of accepted behaviors and attitudes from other humans; part of enculturation How humans learn expected cultural expectations Begins at birth Through socialization, humans become products of their culture In Western societies, next to the family, schools are often considered the most important socializing agents Can the impact of schools overcome the influence of students’ enculturation? An individual’s cultural background can have tremendous effect on school success (Gollnick & Chinn, 2002; Oakes & Lipton, 1999). Society’s expectations of what and how information should be taught do not always align with what schools perceive as the needs of the group and individual student. Because of the variety of cultural diversity in United States, its schools are inherently pluralistic. Due to vast cultural differences, universal rules frequently fail. Diverse students learn in multiple ways, at varying times, and have assorted expectations, behaviors, attitudes, and values, result- ing in potentials unique to each individual. Students from diverse populations come from a variety of home environments with different views of what is defined as education and success. Hence, schools often find it difficult to effectively manage the multitude of ideas considered part of a normal education. Consequently, schools frequently have difficulty in overcoming cultural backgrounds such as family influences, religious beliefs, political views, and gender stereotypes. For example, diversity issues relating to genres of religious music performed during holidays are a challenge in music education. Summary Sociologists recognize that music is an important part of any culture (Etzkorn, 1989). An awareness of sociological basics and creating a social perspective can help music teachers understand how communal forces influence classrooms (Froehlich, 2007). Because of social diversity, it is easy to understand that every school is a miniature society comprised of many  A Sociological Perspective 13 different cultures all having commonalities reflective of the school in general. Cultural diver- sity requires successful teachers to understand the power of enculturation and socialization. Much of what and how students learn is a result of human interactions in the hallways, lunch- rooms, on school buses, and during school-sponsored activities such as dances or football games. Interactions from these processes lead to an awareness that humans learn by actively doing. Due to differences in students, there are no absolute answers and no universal rules to what teaching approach works best. A social perspective helps teachers realize that schools reflect a broad student diversity, requiring a pluralistic teaching approach rather than a single education model. This perspective demands multiple teaching approaches due to the variety of learning styles. Teachers in the 21st century must be aware of ever-changing societal forces within school dynamics. The American society is constantly changing. Trends demonstrate that we are becoming more diverse ethnically, racially, socioeconomically, religiously, and musically. We tend to live in different cities than our parents, come from more single parent families, and work more hours each week than other industrial countries (National Center for Education Statistics, 1999). All of these factors contribute to an increasingly diverse and constantly changing society. Schools in the United States are required to manage an increasingly diverse student population reflective of population trends across America. An implication of classroom diversity is that, for many students, schools will be their only exposure to cultures different from their own. This multicultural experience helps break down stereotypes and foster acceptance of different lifestyles. Music and music education are certainly affected by cultural diversity. Our multicultural, multi-musical society is saturated with music representing all facets of society and its diverse cultures. Music students bring this diversity to schools. Music classes reflect the diversity of the general school student population (Kelly & Heath, in press). Music is often viewed as a primary tool in bringing different factions of society together, and yet is so individually valued. Music is a symbol of our different cultures that serves to unify us as a group, while still preserving our indi- viduality. Simply stated, we participate in music in ways as diverse as our cultural norms require. A sociological perspective can provide music teachers with a broader cultural knowledge base to enhance the presentation of skills and information, thus making music experienced in schools more relevant to music outside of schools. Being aware of the wide variety of sociological factors influencing society is a challenge for teachers. Understanding their role as socialization agents requires teachers to view student behav- iors from different cultural perspectives. The noted anthropologist Clifford Geertz (1965) said to understand human diversity we must understand the diversity of human cultures. Thus, from a social perspective, it is important that effective teachers learn the culture of their students, the schools, and the community the school serves. Teachers must recognize that each student brings a different background of social, musical, and academic experiences into every class. To meet this demand, effective music teachers understand their role in an active, dynamic classroom full of social interactions, each a learning experience in itself. Key Items Sociology Culture Society Melting Pot Society Pluralistic Society Norms Socialization Folkway Enculturation Multiculturalism Education Diversity Social Justice National Core Arts Standards 14 A Sociological Perspective Questions for Consideration 1. Why have sociological issues become more prevalent in schools? How can music curricula be more reflective of cultural and musical diversity? 2. According to the sociological perspective, everything that humans know is learned. If music is not a genetic endowment, why is it part of every known culture? 3. How do schools resemble a multicultural society? What characteristics of music classes may define them as a culture with a school society? 4. If society embraces the concept of cultural diversity, should schools expect every student to achieve at the same level? 5. To what extent should music teachers impose their cultural values on the music their stu- dents listen to and participate in? 6. How do educators handle situations where the values learned in school conflict with values learned at home? 7. Do schools reflect the product of society or does society reflect the product of schools? Web Resources Changing Population Demographics U.S. Census Bureau: http://www.census.gov/ National Core Arts Standards http://www.nationalartsstandards.org/ http://www.nationalartsstandards.org/sites/default/files/NCCAS%20%20Conceptual%20 Framework_2.pdf Social Justice & Bullying National Conference for Community and Justice: http://www.nccj.org/ Sociology American Sociological Association: http://www.asanet.org/about/sociology.cfm International Sociological Association: http://www.isa-sociology.org/