History of Roman and Anglo-Saxon England (55 BC — AD 1066)

**T1: Roman and Anglo-Saxon England (55 BC -- AD 1066)** **\...Roman Britain\...** When the **Britons (the Celts on the island)** found out that Julius Caesar was marching to subdue their relatives on the continent, they sent over ships and warriors to help their relatives in defence. The Romans i...

**T1: Roman and Anglo-Saxon England (55 BC -- AD 1066)** **\...Roman Britain\...** When the **Britons (the Celts on the island)** found out that Julius Caesar was marching to subdue their relatives on the continent, they sent over ships and warriors to help their relatives in defence. The Romans invaded Celtic Britain for two reasons. On the one hand, "[the Celts of Britain were working with the Celts of Gaul against them" by ensuring the latter with food and shelter]. On the other hand, due to the "[richer, heavier land]" of Britain. The island was known from sources of tin and others precious metals. The island's reputation as an important provider of food, and since the Romans needed supplies for their own army fighting the Gauls (the tribes occupying the territory of today's France). **Julius Caesar's first expedition in 55 BC** wasn't very successful. Romans forces arrived off the coast of Dover, and the Britons have been already alerted by their Gallic friends. The cliffs were besieged with native Britons, and ready to fight. Stormy and windy weather smashed Caesar's fleet, so they had to withdraw. In **54 BC Caesar's retook** expedition. Romans crossed the Thames at Brentford. He was confronted by a coalition of British tribes under the lidership of Cassivellaunus, king of the Catuvellauni. Storms caused damage to the Roman fleet, which gave the Britons time to recover. Romans reached stronghold of Cassivellaunus, and forced to negotiate. Roman achieved temporary success, but didn't attempt to colonize Britain. The Roman conquest of Britain began in **43 AD under Emperor Claudius**. The Roman forces landed on the southeast coast of Britain (Kent). One of the decisive battles during the invasion occurred at the River Medway. The Romans crossed the river and defeated the local British tribes, breaking their resistance and establishing a foothold in southern Britain. The Romans established a permanent occupation across the Southern half of Britain. The Roman method of conquest was to build military roads, forts garrisoned with regular troops. Their found difficulties with the northern frontier. The Romans attempted to conquer Scotland (called **Caledonia**) for over a century but they failed. The Caledonians, the Pictish, and other partly Celtic tribes residing in the inaccessible mountains put up a stiff resistance. **When Emperor Hadrian visited Britain in AD 120 he ordered the construction of a defensive wall (to protect Roman Britain against Scottish tribes).** The final limit to the northern frontier was marked by the wall (**Hardian's Wall 120 AD**) designed by Emperor Hadrian and erected between 122 and 127 AD. It was intended to keep out raiders from the north, but it also marked the border between England and Scotland. The name "Britain" comes from the word "Pretani", the Greco-Roman word for the inhabitants of Britain. The Romans mispronounced the word and called the island "Britannia". The Romans have influenced Britain economically, politically and culturally. They brought the skills of reading and writing,they introduced much of the infrastructure of civilisation. For example, Londinium (London) was made the capital of Britannia. They founded many cities (with the ending -chester, -caster). In the countryside there was the growth of large cottage farms, called villas, which belonged to the richest Britons, who were more Roman than Celt. They influenced: chariot-racing, law, Latin language, theatres, bathing as a social activity, toga, roads, forts, in IV century -Christianity. **The Anglo-Saxon invasion ca. 446-577** **Roman control of Britain came to an end in 410 AD** as the Roman Empire began to collapse and experienced attacks from various directions. The pagan people who invaded the island after the Roman troops had left were the Nordic people from Germany and Scandinavia: **the Saxons, Angles and Jutes.** That migration gave the larger part of Britain its new name, England, "the land of the foreigners". These tribes settled primarily in the southern and eastern parts of the island, establishing new political structures. It is traditionally said that these tribes were invited by the Britons to help defend the island from external threats. One of the most significant events during this period was the **Battle of Mons Badonicus**, which was likely fought around 500 AD. This battle, though its exact location and date remain uncertain, marked a temporary halt to the Anglo-Saxon advance into western Britain. The **legendary King Arthur** is often linked to this battle as a leader of the Britons. By the 6^th^ century, Anglo-Saxon established a number of kingdoms called **Heptarchy** (Kent, Essex, Sussex, Wassex, East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria). Each of these kingdoms had its own rulers, and their existence was characterized by rivalry for dominance in the region. One of the most transformative aspects of the Anglo-Saxon period was the spread of Christianity. The conversion of King Ethelbert of Kent (c. 600 AD) marked the beginning of Christian influence in Anglo-Saxon England. Kent was the first kingdom whose ruler converted to Christianity and was established by Judes. Mercia was the largest one and the last one to convert to Christanity. Starting in the 7^th^ century, Christianity began to spread across Britain. Missionaries, such as **Saint Augustine of Canterbury** sent by Pope Gregory (who arrived in **Kent in 597 AD**), introduced Christianity to the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. St. Augustine established his quarters in Canterbury in Kent, and in **601 he became the 1^st^ Archbishop of Canterbury**. \*The Celtic Church had been established by St. Patrick (in 5^th^ century) who was Romanised Briton who lived in Wales\* \...**The Vikings**\... Near the end of the 8^th^ century **the Vikings** (from Scandinavia: Swedes, Danes, Norwegians) invaded Britain. The first invasion was in 793, when they ruined the Lindisidfarne monastery on the eastern coast of England. During the 9th century, in 865 they began establishing settlements in England, and their influence on the islands grew. They occupied increasingly larger areas, particularly in northern and eastern England. After various battles and wars with Anglo-Saxon kings, the Vikings established the **Danelaw**---regions ruled by them, where Scandinavian law dominated. One of the most famous moments was the attack on Wessex (southern England) under the Viking leader followed by the **victory of King Alfred the Great at the Battle of Edington in 878**, which halted further Viking expansion into southern England. **\*Alfred the Great** was known for his leadership during the Viking invasions in the 9th century. Alfred is remembered for his defence of Wessex against the Vikings. The Vikings had been invading England for decades, and by the late 870s, they had conquered much of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. In 878, Alfred faced the Vikings in a decisive **battle at Edington**, a peace agreement known as the **Treaty of Wedmore** was signed. This treaty divided England into two areas: the southern part, including Wessex, was under the control of Alfred and his descendants, while the northern and eastern parts of England, including the Danelaw (a region ruled by the Vikings), were given to the Danish Vikings. After a hard-fought victory, he forced the Viking leader to retreat and accept a treaty. This victory effectively halted the Viking advance into southern England. He established a network of fortified towns (known as \"burhs\") across Wessex, which provided protection from further Viking raids. These fortifications were an early example of a strategic approach to defence, which later influenced military planning in medieval Europe.\* After Alfred the Great death's, the Crown of Wessex went into hands of his successors **Edward the Elder**. He continued his father's efforts to defend Wessex and expand the Anglo-Saxon kingdom, but the Vikings still controlled a large part of the territory. **Aethelstan**, Edward\'s son, would later be recognized as *[the first king to unite all of England]* (by the 937), although Viking settlements continued to influence much of the kingdom, particularly in the Danelaw. The second phase of Viking invasions escalated in 991, a large fleet of Vikings, led by **Sweyn Forkbeard** (who would later become King of Denmark), raided England. The **Battle of Maldon in 991** occurred when the Vikings attacked the kingdom of Essex. The Anglo-Saxon forces were defeated. The Vikings ravaged the area. This defeat forced the Anglo-Saxons to pay a heavy tribute, called **[Danegeld]**, to the Vikings in order to avoid further attacks. This marked a significant turning point, as paying *Danegeld* became a common practice to placate the Viking invaders. **Sweyn Forkbeard** of Denmark invaded England, taking advantage of internal turmoil. In 1013, after a series of attacks, he succeeded in forcing **King Æthelred the Unready** into exile. **Sweyn Forkbeard** of Denmark had briefly ruled England from 1013 until his death in 1014. After his death, his son, **Canute the Great (rex. 1016-1035) - also Danish king**, initially claimed the English throne, but there was resistance from the Anglo-Saxon nobility. In 1042 **Edward the Confessor** (son of **Æthelred the Unready) was the last Anglo-Saxon king of England. He reign till 1066 and died without an heir.** He was known for his **religious devotion**, earning him the title "**the Confessor**." His reign, while generally peaceful, lacked strong political direction. One of Edward's key achievements was the construction of **Westminster Abbey in 1045**, which he founded and dedicated to St. Peter. This would later become the coronation site for English kings and queens and patron of the Royal Family. - **Alfred the Great (rex. 871-899)** first Anglo-Saxon king - **Edward the Elder** **(rex. 899-924)** the son of Alfred - **Aethelstan (rex. 924-939)** the son of Edward - **Æthelred the Unready (rex. 978-1013 and 1014-1016) unready for Viking's invasion and he fled to Normandy for a time and returned after the death of Sweyn** - **Sweyn Forkbeard (rex. 1013-1014) a Danish King who brefly ruled Englan** - **Canute the Great (rex. 1016-1035) a Danish king who successfuly claimed the throne after the death** of Æthelred, he ruled over a North Sea that included Denmark, England and Norway - **Edward the Confessor (rex. 1042-1066)** the last Anglo-Saxon king of England before the Normand Conquest. **T2: Early Middle Ages (1066-1202)** Edward the Confessor died in 1066 childless and after that three main claimants vied for the throne: Harold Godwinson (Earl of Essex), William I (Duke of Normandy) and Harald Hardrada (King of Norway). **Harold Godwinson (the last Anglo-Saxon king of England)**, the most powerful Anglo-Saxon noble, claimed the throne. He had been one of Edward\'s trusted advisors, and after his death, Harold was crowned king on January 6, 1066, at **Westminster Abbey**. His coronation was contested, however, by several rivals. **William I, Duke of Normandy**, claimed that Edward had promised him the throne. William argued that Harold had broken his oath by seizing the throne. [This claim was backed by Pope Alexander II], who granted William a papal banner to support his invasion of England. **Harald Hardrada, King of Norway**, also had a claim to the English throne, as he was a descendant of the old Viking kings of England. Harold Godwinson successfully defeated Harald Hardrada at the **Battle of Stamford Bridge on 25 September 1066** in northern England. Hardrada and Tostig were both killed, and the Norwegian invasion was crushed. However, this victory left Harold\'s army weakened. After his victory at Stamford Bridge, Harold Godwinson faced the threat of William of Normandy, who had been preparing his invasion for months. William gathered a large force of soldiers, archers, and cavalry, supported by ships, and set sail from Normandy. William\'s forces landed on the southern coast of England, near **Hastings**, and Harold, having marched south from Stamford Bridge, met him in battle. **The Battle of Hastings (14 October 1066)** itself lasted all day, with heavy casualties on both sides. Harold's forces were primarily composed of infantry and were positioned on a hill, using a defensive shield wall. William, however, used a combination of cavalry, archers, and infantry to break the shield wall. The pivotal moment in the battle came when Harold [was struck in the eye by an arrow], leading to his death and the eventual collapse of the Anglo-Saxon resistance. Following Harold\'s death, William\'s army claimed victory, and he became known as **William the Conqueror(was crowded in Westminster Abbey on Christmas day 1066)**. His victory at Hastings marked the end of Anglo-Saxon rule in England and the beginning of Norman rule. After his victory at Hastings, William spent the next few years consolidating his power over England. French became the languages of government and the Church, the ordinary people spoke English. Schools of learning were established such as Oxford and Cambridge University. One of his reform was the division of spiritual and secular courts. From then the Bishops had their own courts, which dealt with clergy's felonies, wills, marriages. This reform set limits to the authority of the church. He faced numerous uprisings and rebellions, particularly in the north of England, where the Anglo-Saxon nobility resisted Norman control. One of William\'s key strategies for maintaining control was the introduction of a **feudal system**. He distributed lands to his loyal Norman nobles, displacing the Anglo-Saxon aristocracy. This created a new ruling class in England, loyal to the king, and secured the social and political structures of the Norman regime. One of William's lasting legacies is the **Domesday Book**, a detailed survey of England\'s landholdings and resources. It was compiled in **1086** [and served as a tool for taxation and governance]. The book provides a detailed account of medieval England's landowners, their estates, and the wealth of the country. [William ruled until his death in 1087]. The Anglo-Saxon aristocracy was replaced by a Norman elite, the feudal system was firmly established, and the English church was reorganized under the influence of the Normans. William the Conqueror had a complex family structure, and his death created a succession crisis due to his decision to divide his empire between his sons. His inheritance was split as follows: **- William II (William Rufus)**: He inherited the kingdom of **England**. William Rufus was the eldest surviving son of William the Conqueror. **- Robert Curthose**: He inherited **Normandy**. Robert was the eldest son of William the Conqueror but was given Normandy instead of England, which caused long-term tensions between the brothers. **- Henry I**: William's youngest son, Henry, initially received no land. However, he would later seize the English throne after William Rufus\'s death in 1100. **William Rufus** was crowned king of England shortly after his father\'s death. His reign was marked by his [authoritarian rule, his conflict with the church, and his heavy-handed treatment of the English nobility]. William Rufus had a contentious relationship with the church, particularly with **the Archbishop of Canterbury**. The king's attempts to control church appointments were met with resistance from the clergy, and there were several tensions between the monarchy and the ecclesiastical authorities. **Robert**, who became [Duke of Normandy], was dissatisfied with his inheritance. He wanted the throne of England, and tensions between him and his brother William II grew over the years. The brothers' relationship deteriorated, with Robert attempting to seize control of England through military means. William Rufus\'s reign ended abruptly in **1100** when he was killed [in a hunting accident in the New Forest]. His death was suspicious and led to speculation that he might have been murdered, possibly by someone with an interest in seeing him gone. Following William Rufus's death, **Henry I (rex. 1100-1135)**, the youngest son of William the Conqueror, seized the throne of England. He quickly acted to secure his rule by securing the support of the nobles and the church. He was crowned king of England on **August 5, 1100**. Henry I worked to consolidate his power and strengthen royal authority. He introduced several legal reforms, including the **Charter of Liberties** ([which outlined the king\'s duties to his subjects]), and he began to reassert royal control over the Anglo-Norman lords. Shortly after his ascension, Henry I married **Matilda of Scotland**, the daughter of Malcolm III of Scotland. The marriage was politically important as it secured his ties with the powerful Scottish royal family and also helped him gain broader support from the Anglo-Saxon nobility. Henry and Matilda had two children. Henry\'s desire to have a male heir became crucial, as the throne would eventually pass to his children. In 1120, disaster struck Henry I's family when his only son, **William Adelin**, died in the **White Ship disaster**. The White Ship, a vessel carrying many of the English court's nobility, sank while crossing the English Channel. The loss of his son left Henry without a male heir, which created a crisis of succession. Henry also managed to outmanoeuvre his older brother **Robert**, who had returned to England to claim the throne. In 1106, Henry defeated Robert at the **Battle of Tinchebrai**, capturing him and imprisoning him for the rest of his life. This effectively ended Robert\'s claim to the English throne and solidified Henry's control over both England and Normandy. After Henry I's death in 1135, his chosen heir, **Matilda**, faced strong opposition to her claim because she was a woman. **Stephen of Blois**, Henry's nephew, seized the throne and was crowned king in 1135. Stephen and Matilda fought for control of the English throne, with both sides gaining and losing power in a brutal and destructive **civil war**. The conflict weakened the monarchy and destabilized the kingdom. During the latter part of the conflict, **Henry Plantagenet**, Matilda\'s son (later **Henry II**) he had grown into a powerful leader and was recognized as a legitimate heir to the throne. By 1153, he controlled much of England and Normandy and was poised to succeed Stephen. The treaty established that **Stephen would remain king for the rest of his life**, but after his death, **Henry Plantagenet** (Matilda's son) would succeed him as king of England. This agreement effectively bypassed Matilda's own claim to the throne and set Henry up to be the next king. Stephen reigned until his death in **1154**, and as per the agreement, **Henry II** became king of England, marking the beginning of the **Plantagenet dynasty**. **The Treaty of Westminster** is often seen as the official end of the **Anarchy**, though many of the tensions and power struggles had already been settled by the time Stephen died. The treaty gave Henry a clear path to the throne, allowing him to consolidate power quickly upon Stephen's death. Matilda married Geoffrey Plantagenet, the Count of Anjou. Their son **Henry II in 1154** become the first King of England of the House of Anjou -- **first English Plantagenet King.** Henry inherited vast territories, including **England, Normandy, Anjou, Maine, and Touraine**. His empire was known as the **Angevin Empire**. One of the most significant events of Henry\'s reign was his conflict with **Thomas Becket**, Archbishop of Canterbury. Henry sought to exert royal control over the church, particularly in legal matters. Becket resisted these efforts, and in **1170**, he was **murdered** by knights loyal to Henry. This caused a huge scandal and led to Henry doing penance for Becket's death. Henry\'s sons: **Henry the Young King**, **Richard (Lionheart)**, **Geoffrey**, and **John**, rebelled against him. Henry II spent much of his later years trying to keep control over his unruly children, especially as they sought power and lands within the realm. Henry II died in **1189**, leaving the throne to his son **Richard I** (**Richard the Lionheart**). **Richard the Lionheart** was crowned king in **1189**. He spent little time in England during his reign, being largely preoccupied with the **Third Crusade (1189--1192)**, an attempt to reclaim Jerusalem from Muslim rule under **Saladin**. Richard was a celebrated military leader, and although he failed to capture Jerusalem, he negotiated a peace with Saladin that allowed Christian pilgrims to visit the holy city. Richard left England in the hands of his brother **John** and various regents. During his absence, England suffered from a lack of effective governance, and John's machinations, as well as the discontent of the barons, contributed to political instability. While returning from the Crusades, Richard was captured by the Duke of Austria in 1192 and held for ransom. His mother, **Eleanor of Aquitaine**, raised the funds to secure his release in 1194. Richard spent much of the remainder of his reign fighting in France to protect his territories. **Richard I** died in **1199** from an infected wound after besieging a castle in France. He was succeeded by his brother **John**. **-William I (The Conqueror)** -- Reigned 1066--1087\ *After defeating Harold II at the Battle of Hastings in 1066, he became the first Norman king of England.* **-William II (Rufus)** -- Reigned 1087--1100\ *The son of William I, he became king after his father\'s death and ruled until his mysterious death while hunting.* **-Henry I** -- Reigned 1100--1135\ *Younger son of William I, Henry I took the throne after his brother William II died and focused on legal reform and strengthening the crown\'s power.* -**Stephen** -- Reigned 1135--1154\ *Nephew of Henry I, Stephen\'s reign was marked by civil war, known as \"The Anarchy,\" between him and Empress Matilda, the daughter of Henry I.* \- **Henry II** -- Reigned 1154--1189\ *The first Plantagenet king, Henry II expanded the English kingdom significantly and established the legal system, though his reign was also marked by tensions with Thomas Becket and his sons.* **-Richard I (The Lionheart)** -- Reigned 1189--1199\ *Famous for his participation in the Third Crusade, Richard spent most of his reign outside of England, leaving his kingdom in the hands of regents.* **-John** -- Reigned 1199--1216\ *The youngest son of Henry II, John's reign was troubled by conflicts with his barons, the loss of Normandy, and his signing of the Magna Carta in 1215.* **T3: Crisis of Royal Authority 1215-1272** King John of England, also known as *John Lackland* (1199--1216), is one of the most infamous monarchs in English history. His reign was marked by numerous failures and conflicts, but also by his involvement in a monumental historical event---the signing of the **Magna Carta**. Below is a summary of the most important points regarding King John\'s reign: **Early Life and the Name \"Lackland\"** The nickname *\"Lackland\"* referred to the fact that John had little land when he was young, as his older brothers were the primary heirs to their father\'s territories. **Accession to the Throne (1199)** When his brother, **Richard the Lionheart**, died in 1199, John ascended to the throne. His accession was controversial, as many believed Richard's nephew (Arthur of Brittany) had a stronger claim. John's reign began with internal strife and challenges to his legitimacy. **Loss of Normandy and French Territories (1204)** One of John's major early failures was the **loss of Normandy** to King Philip II of France. By 1204, John had lost control of most of his father's French territories. This was a huge blow to English power and influence in France, and it led to growing discontent among the English nobility, many of whom had lands in France and now felt they were being undermined by John's failure to defend them. The loss of Normandy became a key issue in the rebellion that eventually led to the Magna Carta. **Conflict with the Church (1205--1213)** John's relationship with the Roman Catholic Church was tumultuous. In 1205, after the death of the Archbishop of Canterbury, there was a dispute between John and Pope Innocent III over who should succeed him. John refused to accept the Pope's choice, which led to his **excommunication** in 1209 and England being placed under an interdict (a religious sanction). This severely damaged John's standing with both the church and many of his subjects. In 1213, after immense pressure, John submitted to the Pope and was absolved, placing England under the Pope's protection. **Heavy Taxation and Oppression** To fund his wars and lavish court, John imposed **heavy taxes** on the nobility and common people. His financial demands were often seen as excessive and arbitrary. This alienated many of his barons and led to widespread resentment. John\'s heavy-handed tactics in dealing with the nobility and his tendency to seize land without justification contributed to the growing unrest among the English aristocracy. **The Magna Carta (1215)** By 1215, King John\'s oppressive rule had reached a breaking point. A group of barons, frustrated by his misrule and abuses of power, rebelled. They captured London and forced John into negotiations. **The Magna Carta**, signed on **June 15, 1215** at Runnymede, was the result of these negotiations. This historic document limited the power of the king, ensured protections against unlawful imprisonment, and laid the groundwork for future legal principles such as the right to a fair trial. While John initially agreed to the Magna Carta, he soon sought to annul it, which led to civil war between the king and the barons. **The First Barons' War (1215--1217)** After John rejected the Magna Carta, the **First Barons' War** broke out. The barons, supported by France, challenged John\'s authority. The conflict ended after John's death in 1216, but not before his reputation had been severely damaged. John died in **1216** of dysentery at the age of 49. He was succeeded by his 9-year-old son, **Henry III**. John's death led to a power vacuum, and a regency was established to guide Henry III until he came of age. Despite his failures, John's signing of the Magna Carta remains one of his most significant legacies. The document became a symbol of the idea that the king was not above the law and laid the foundation for the development of constitutional law in England and, later, other parts of the world. *\...**The most important information about that \...*** **The Magna Carta (1215)** John's heavy taxation, military failures, and conflicts with the Church led to widespread dissatisfaction among the English barons. In 1215, after a rebellion by the barons, King John was forced to sign the Magna Carta at Runnymede. This document aimed to limit the power of the king, asserting that the king was subject to the law and granting certain rights to the barons, including protection from unlawful imprisonment and taxation without representation. The Magna Carta is considered a foundational document for the development of constitutional law in England. **The Regency and Minority of Henry III (1216-1227)** After King John\'s death in 1216, his son, Henry III, ascended to the throne at the age of nine. During Henry's minority, the kingdom was governed by a regency led by trusted nobles. The regency was initially successful in maintaining order, but Henry's personal rule, when he came of age, began to reignite tensions between the monarchy and the barons. Henry's attempts to centralize royal power and his reliance on foreign advisers, particularly his marriage to Eleanor of Provence and his dependence on Italian officials, alienated many of his barons. This set the stage for more conflicts and rebellions. **The Barons\' Wars (1264-1267)** By the 1260s, King Henry III's ineffective leadership and increasing tension with the barons led to the outbreak of the Barons' War. The barons, led by Simon de Montfort, rebelled against the king in 1264. De Montfort\'s forces defeated Henry III\'s army at the Battle of Lewes in 1264, and he took control of the government. This marked a temporary shift in royal authority. De Montfort sought to reform the political system, calling for a broader, more representative form of government, including the inclusion of commoners in Parliament. Although he was killed in 1265 at the Battle of Evesham, the political changes he championed had a lasting influence on the development of English parliamentary systems. **The Provisions of Oxford (1258)** Before the Barons' War, in 1258, a group of barons forced King Henry III to accept the Provisions of Oxford, a set of reforms aimed at curbing the king's power. The Provisions called for a council of barons to oversee royal policies and to advise the king, essentially creating a more participatory government. However, Henry's refusal to fully implement the provisions led to further conflicts and the eventual outbreak of the Barons\' War. **Rise of Parliament** During this period, the concept of Parliament as a regular institution began to take shape. While it initially served as a council of barons advising the king, by the mid-13th century, it began to include a broader range of representatives. In 1265, Simon de Montfort famously called the first English Parliament that included not only barons but also commoners (knights and burgesses) from counties and towns. The idea of Parliament as a legislative body representing various sectors of society slowly gained traction, marking a shift toward more collective governance rather than absolute royal authority. **The Rule of Edward I (1272-1307)** The crisis of royal authority began to resolve during the reign of King Edward I (1272-1307). Edward was able to stabilize the monarchy by successfully asserting royal power over rebellious barons and continuing the process of integrating a more structured and representative parliamentary system. Edward's reign is often seen as a period in which the monarchy regained a stronger position, although his relations with Parliament continued to evolve. Edward\'s military successes, including the conquest of Wales and attempts to assert control over Scotland, also contributed to a sense of royal authority. **T4: Edward I to Edward III (1272-1337)** **Edward I of England**, also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots. He ruled from 1272 to 1307 and was instrumental in shaping the English monarchy, expanding England\'s influence, and consolidating power over Wales and Scotland. **Ascension to the Throne** **Edward I** became heir to the throne after his father's death in 1272, although he was away in the Holy Land at the time, taking part in the Ninth Crusade (1271--1272). His absence led to a brief period of regency in England until he returned. **Welsh Campaigns and Conquest** One of Edward I\'s most notable military achievements was his conquest of Wales. Edward sought to consolidate control over Wales, which had been divided into various small kingdoms and principalities. **-War in Wales (1277--1283):** After a series of Welsh revolts and disputes over the succession to Welsh lands, Edward launched a full-scale invasion of Wales. He defeated the Welsh princes and established English control over the region, building a series of impressive castles (such as Caernarfon, Conwy, and Harlech) to assert dominance. **-Prince of Wales:** In 1301, Edward\'s son, Edward II, was made Prince of Wales, a title that remains to this day, symbolizing English rule over Wales. **Scottish Wars of Independence** Edward is best known for his involvement in the Scottish Wars of Independence, a series of conflicts that began in the late 13th century when Scotland, previously a vassal of England, sought to assert its independence. **-First War (1296--1303):** Edward initially sought to assert English control over Scotland and subjugate its nobility. His campaigns included the sacking of Scottish towns and the capture of the Stone of Scone, which had been used for the coronation of Scottish kings. **-Second War (1306--1328):** Edward\'s efforts to dominate Scotland were met with fierce resistance, particularly from figures like William Wallace and Robert the Bruce. The Battle of Stirling Bridge (1297), where Wallace famously defeated the English army, and the Battle of Falkirk (1298), where Edward retaliated and crushed the Scots, were major events in this war. Despite these victories, Scottish resistance persisted, and the conflict continued after Edward\'s death in 1307. **\*William Wallace "Braveheart"** most notable rebellion took place after the English king, Edward I, claimed sovereignty over Scotland. Wallace\'s resistance grew out of a desire for Scottish independence and was sparked by events like the execution of Scottish patriot Andrew de Moray in 1297. Wallace led several successful raids and victories, with the Battle of Stirling Bridge in 1297 being one of his most significant triumphs. In 1305, however, Wallace\'s rebellion was dealt a major blow when he was betrayed, captured, and handed over to the English. He was tried for treason and brutally executed in London in 1305. Despite his death, Wallace became a symbol of Scottish resistance and nationalism, inspiring future generations in their fight for independence.\* **The English Legal System and Reforms** **Parliament under Edward I:** Edward I\'s reign (1272-1307) is often seen as a transformative period for the English monarchy, especially in terms of its relationship with the nobility and the people. Edward had a somewhat contentious relationship with his barons, constantly needing funds for his various military campaigns, including his wars in Wales and Scotland. To raise money, he often had to summon parliaments that included not only the nobles (the traditional lords and clergy) but also commoners---representatives from towns and counties. Edward\'s frequent convocations of Parliament were partly driven by his need for financial support, but they also helped establish Parliament as a regular institution in English politics. By involving a broader spectrum of society, Edward I started to create a parliamentary structure that had representation beyond just the aristocracy. **The 1295 Model Parliament:** The *Model Parliament* of 1295 is often considered the blueprint for later English parliamentary structures. Edward I called this parliament primarily to gather support for his campaign against Scotland. This parliament, which took place in Westminster, is particularly significant because it included representatives from all three \"estates\" of society: **-The Clergy** -- Bishops and abbots, representing the religious establishment. **-The Nobility** -- Barons and other nobles, representing the landed elite. **-Commoners** -- Representatives (often referred to as \"knights of the shire\" from counties and \"burgesses\" from towns) who were elected to represent the interests of towns and counties. This was the first time that commoners were specifically invited to sit in Parliament, marking a shift from previous convocations, which had mainly included only the nobility and clergy. Edward\'s decision to include commoners was practical---he needed their financial support, especially in the form of taxes for his military ventures. However, it also helped institutionalize a more representative system, laying the groundwork for future parliamentary developments. **The Structure of the 1295 Model Parliament:** The *Model Parliament* of 1295 included: **\*The House of Lords**, consisting of bishops, abbots, and nobles (including barons and earls). **\*The House of Commons**, representing the knights and burgesses (commoners). Though it didn\'t have a permanent, formalized structure like modern parliaments, the 1295 Model Parliament laid the foundations for future parliamentary development by introducing a more inclusive representation system. This was a crucial turning point in the evolution of the English political system, as it marked the start of a more regular and inclusive parliamentary process. **Importance and Legacy:** **-Financial Control**: By involving commoners, Edward I was able to secure the taxes he needed for his wars. The Model Parliament also set a precedent for future monarchs, who would need to gain parliamentary consent to levy taxes, especially when the common people were involved in the decision-making process. **-Representation**: The inclusion of commoners in the 1295 parliament can be seen as a precursor to the more robust system of parliamentary representation that would evolve over the centuries. **-Development of Law**: The parliament of 1295 also contributed to the development of law and governance. Laws were debated, and some were passed during this session that would influence English governance moving forward. The *Model Parliament* is often seen as a key moment in the development of constitutional monarchy in England, paving the way for the eventual shift of power from the crown to a more balanced system of government involving both monarch and parliament. **Personal Life and Family** In 1254, Edward married Eleanor of Castile, the daughter of Ferdinand III of Castile. They had a strong and affectionate marriage, and Eleanor bore him 16 children, although many of them did not survive to adulthood. In 1290, Eleanor died, which deeply affected Edward. In her memory, he ordered the construction of 12 Eleanor Crosses, monumental structures erected at the locations where her body rested on the way to her burial place at Westminster Abbey. Edward's son, Edward II, succeeded him to the throne. However, Edward II's reign was marked by failure and conflict, leading to his eventual deposition. **\...Edward II\...** **Ascension to the Throne:** Edward I died in 1307, and Edward II succeeded him at the age of 23. His reign began with hope for the future, but it quickly became clear that he was not as capable as his father. One of Edward II\'s first major decisions was to distance himself from his father\'s advisers, replacing them with men who were more loyal to him personally. **Struggles with Nobility:** Edward's relationship with the nobility, especially the barons, was fraught with tension. His favoring of certain individuals, particularly Piers Gaveston, a close companion, caused great resentment. Gaveston was a knight who Edward made Earl of Cornwall, and their closeness led to suspicions of favoritism and even accusations of a romantic or inappropriate relationship, though this is debated by historians. In 1312, the barons had had enough of Gaveston\'s influence and forced Edward to exile him. However, Edward brought him back in 1315, leading to further conflict. Eventually, Gaveston was captured by the rebellious barons and executed in 1312. **Military Failures and Scotland:** Edward II\'s reign was also marked by military struggles, particularly with Scotland. **In 1314,** he faced the Scottish forces led by Robert the Bruce at the Battle of Bannockburn. Edward\'s army was decisively defeated, and the battle is considered one of the greatest Scottish victories. This defeat severely weakened Edward's position and further eroded his authority both at home and abroad. **Queen Isabella and the Descent into Crisis:** One of the most famous and tragic aspects of Edward II\'s reign is his relationship with his wife, Isabella of France. Isabella had married Edward II in 1308 to secure a political alliance, but their relationship was never strong. Edward\'s favoritism toward his male companions (such as Gaveston and later Hugh Despenser) alienated her. He was deposed by wife, the French Princess Isabella and her lover -- Mortimer- and English Barons whom the King ignored in favour of low-born favourites. By the early 1320s, Isabella had become involved in a conspiracy with Roger Mortimer, a powerful nobleman. In 1326, Isabella and Mortimer invaded England, and Edward II was captured. In 1327, under pressure, Edward II was forced to abdicate in favor of his son, Edward III, and was imprisoned in Berkeley Castle. **Death and Legacy:** Edward II died in September 1327 under mysterious circumstances. While it was officially claimed that he died of natural causes, rumors persisted that he was murdered, possibly through a brutal method involving a red-hot poker, although this remains speculative. His death marked the end of his turbulent reign. His son, Edward III, ascended the throne and went on to have a much more successful and politically stable reign. Edward II is often remembered for his inability to govern effectively, his reliance on unpopular favorites, and his failures in battle. However, his reign also saw the rise of the power of Parliament and the increasing influence of the English nobility. **\...Edward III\...** **Edward III (rex. 1327-1377)** was a significant and influential monarch who ruled England from 1327 until his death in 1377. He was one of the longest-reigning English kings and played a crucial role in shaping the medieval period. **Ascension**: Edward III became king at the age of 14, following the deposition of his father, Edward II, in 1327. His mother, Isabella, and her lover, Roger Mortimer, effectively ruled as regents until Edward III took control of the throne in 1330. He seized power from his mother Isabella and her lover Mortimer. In 1333 Edward III renewed claims of English sovereignty over Scotland. Scotland backed by France, when the French King Philil VI declared the confiscation of England's last contintntal possessions (Gascony) Edward decided to openly confront the French King: to everyone's great surprise Edward III laid claim to the French crown 1337 -- beginning of Hundred Years' War. **Military Campaigns and the Hundred Years\' War:** Edward III is perhaps best known for his involvement in the **Hundred Years\' War** (1337--1453) with France. The conflict was sparked by a dispute over the French throne, which Edward claimed through his mother, Isabella. **-Battle of Crécy (1346)**: A decisive English victory during the war. Edward\'s army, using longbowmen, defeated a larger French force. **-Siege of Calais (1347)**: Edward\'s forces captured the French port of Calais, which remained under English control for over a century. **-Battle of Poitiers (1356)**: Another major victory, where the French king, John II, was captured by the English. **Political and Social Reforms:** Edward III was instrumental in **strengthening the monarchy** and centralizing power. His reign saw the formation of the **English Parliament** as a more important body, with the king seeking their consent for taxes and other matters. The **Black Death** (1347-1351) devastated England during his reign, killing a large portion of the population. This led to significant social and economic changes, including a shortage of labor and a shift in the power dynamic between workers and landowners. Edward III founded the **Order of the Garter** in 1348, one of the most prestigious chivalric orders. The order is still in existence today and is the highest order of knighthood in Britain. **Family and Succession:** Edward III married Philippa of Hainault in 1328, and they had several children. His eldest son, **Edward the Black Prince**, was a notable military leader and heir apparent. Edward III had a total of 12 children, and his descendants would play key roles in future English monarchies. **Decline and Legacy:** In the later years of his reign, Edward III's health began to decline, and his son, the Black Prince, had already taken a prominent role in the war efforts. After Edward III\'s death in 1377, his grandson, **Richard II**, ascended to the throne, marking a shift toward the end of the medieval period in England. **T5: England during the Hundred Year's War 1337-1453** ***Causes of the Hundred Years\' War*** After the death of **Charles IV of France** without a male heir, the French crown passed to **Philip VI**, which was disputed by **Edward III** of England. Edward was the grandson of **Philip IV of France**, through his mother Isabella, and therefore claimed the right to the French throne. The French, however, chose Philip VI over Edward III, which caused tensions. In response, Edward III initially swore fealty to Philip VI but later escalated the issue, claiming the throne for himself. ***The Phases of the Hundred Years' War*** **Phase 1: The Early Stages (1337--1360)** The war began with Edward III's formal claim to the French throne in 1337. Edward initially sought to conquer French territory to strengthen his claim, starting with **Aquitaine** and **Flanders**, which were important economically and strategically. - **Battle of Crécy 1346**: Edward III led a campaign through France. The English, using longbowmen as their primary force, decisively defeated the French army. The battle was significant for showcasing the **power of the English longbow**, which would become a dominant force in medieval warfare. - **The Siege of Calais 1346- 47**: In 1347, after a long siege, the town surrendered, and England gained control of **Calais**, which remained an English possession until 1558. Calais became a crucial base for English operations in France. At the same time the Scots attacked from the north but were defeated in England at the Battle of Neville's Cross (October 1346) **Phase 2 (1356-1360)** **Battle of Poitiers 1356:** The battle took place in south-central France, near the town of Poitiers. The English forces, led by **Edward, the Black Prince** (son of King Edward III), faced a much larger French army commanded by **King John II of France**. One of the most significant outcomes of the battle was **the capture of King John II of France**. He was taken prisoner along with many of his knights, which severely weakened the French leadership. The battle led to the signing of the **Treaty of Brétigny** in 1360, where the French had to agree to significant territorial concessions to the English. However, despite this, the war would drag on for several more decades. Edward III regained most of the Plantagenet estates in southern France, and was to hold them without doing homage to the French King. **The Black Death (1348--1351)** The **Black Death**, which struck England, had a profound impact on the social and economic structure. It killed an estimated one-third to one-half of England's population, leading to labor shortages and a dramatic shift in the workforce. It also affected the outcome of the Hundred Years\' War, as both the French and English were weakened by the devastating impact of the plague on their populations. **\...Richard II\...** **Early Life and Ascension to the Throne** Richard III (rex. 1377-1399) was Edward III grandson and son of Edward the Black Prince. When he was 9 years old he became king. Richard's uncle, John of Gaunt, was the de facto ruler of England. **When Richard began to take over the business of government himself he intended to follow a policy of peace with France and he sidelined many important nobles who wanted to continue the war.** **Richard's Early Reign and Challenges to His Authority** One of the earliest and most significant challenges to Richard's authority occurred when the **Peasants\' Revolt** broke out in 1381. The revolt was triggered by high taxes imposed to fund the ongoing wars with France, as well as general discontent with the feudal system. The rebels, led by **Wat Tyler**, marched on London, and Richard met with them, famously offering promises of reform. However, the revolt was suppressed when Wat Tyler was killed, and the rebels' demands were not met. In the wake of the revolt, Richard's monarchy became more determined to assert control, using harsh measures against any further uprisings. However, the revolt also highlighted the growing tensions between the monarchy and the lower classes, and the need for greater stability and reform. **Richard's Increasing Power and Conflict with the Nobility** In 1389, when Richard reached the age of 22, he took full control of the monarchy after the regency ended. One of the central issues of Richard's reign was his conflict with the **Lords Appellant**---a group of powerful nobles who had gained significant influence over the monarchy during Richard's minority. These nobles were critical of Richard's growing authority and his decisions, such as his close association with certain advisers and his lack of respect for the nobility's traditional role. In 1388, a group of lords led by the Appellants forced Richard to sign an agreement known as the "**Merciless Parliament**." This was a pivotal moment in Richard's reign, as the parliament took a harsh stance against his supporters, executing several of his closest allies. The Appellants gained significant influence, but Richard was not content to be sidelined. **Richard's Increasing Despotism** By the early 1390s, Richard began to assert his authority more aggressively. He took actions to undermine the power of the nobility and consolidate his own power, leading to increased tensions with the powerful families of the realm. Richard\'s behaviour became more authoritarian, and he began to make decisions that appeared to be against the advice of the nobility, including making unwise alliances with certain court figures and granting excessive power to a close-knit group of advisers. One of the most significant moves in Richard\'s reign was the banishment of **Henry Bolingbroke**, the son of **John of Gaunt**, from England in 1399. Bolingbroke was a prominent member of the aristocracy, and his banishment was widely seen as an overreach of Richard's power. This action would prove to be a major factor in Bolingbroke's eventual return to England in 1399 to challenge Richard's rule. **\...Henry IV\...** **Henry IV** (reigned 1399--1413) was the first king of the **Lancastrian** dynasty, following his usurpation of the throne from **Richard II**. **Early Life and Background** Henry IV was the son of **John of Gaunt**, the Duke of Lancaster, and as such, a member of the **Plantagenet** family. He was a direct descendant of **Edward III** but had no immediate claim to the throne, as the crown was held by Richard II, the grandson of Edward III. Henry was primarily known as the Duke of Lancaster until his dramatic rise to power. **The Usurpation of Richard II (1399)** In 1399, while Richard II was in **Ireland**, Henry returned to England, claiming he had come to reclaim his inheritance. However, as he gathered support from discontented nobles, he quickly escalated his actions, and before long, he was leading an armed rebellion against Richard. Henry\'s forces marched on **London**, where Richard II was captured and forced to abdicate. **\...Henry V\...** **Ascension to the Throne** After the death of **Henry IV** in 1413, Henry V ascended the throne. His succession was peaceful, as there were few challenges to his claim, especially after the **Lancastrian** line had been solidified by his father's earlier actions. Henry\'s early reign was marked by efforts to consolidate his rule, both by asserting authority over unruly nobles and by presenting himself as a strong and capable monarch. He quickly moved to restore order, remove corruption, and reinforce his legitimacy, which had been undermined by the chaos surrounding his father's rise to power. **The Hundred Years\' War** **Henry V's Ambitions**: Henry V's claim to the French throne was based on the marriage of his grandfather, **Edward III**, to the daughter of the French king, and his assertion that he was the legitimate heir. By 1415, Henry began to pursue an aggressive foreign policy, aiming to reclaim English territories in France and assert his claim to the French throne. **The Battle of Agincourt (1415)** Henry's most famous military achievement came during his campaign in France, where he sought to enforce his claim to the French throne and secure his kingdom's interests. On **October 25, 1415**, near the town of **Agincourt**, Henry V's army encountered a much larger French force. Despite being outnumbered, Henry's army, largely composed of **archers**, inflicted a devastating defeat on the French. The French knights were bogged down in the muddy battlefield, and the English archers played a crucial role in decimating the French forces, leading to the capture of many French nobles. The victory at Agincourt was a pivotal moment in the **Hundred Years\' War** and solidified Henry V's reputation as one of England's greatest military leaders. His success led to widespread English dominance in France, and his victory was celebrated across England. **\...Henry VI\...** **Reign and Early Challenges** Henry VI formally assumed the throne in 1437, when he came of age. However, despite his royal bloodline, he lacked the strong leadership qualities of his father, Henry V, and found it difficult to assert control over his kingdom. Henry VI's reign was characterized by a series of struggles with royal authority. He had a weak and indecisive character, which left him vulnerable to manipulation by powerful courtiers and nobles. This weakness allowed rival factions to grow in power and influence. One of the most significant failures of Henry VI's reign was the loss of most English territories in France during the **Hundred Years\' War**. Under his rule, the English lost **Normandy** (except for Calais) and other key territories in France after several significant defeats. By 1453, England\'s control in France had been reduced to Calais, and the war effectively ended with the French victory. **\*Joan of Arc** was a French peasant girl who claimed to have received visions and messages from saints telling her to support Charles VII and help him reclaim his throne from English control. **In 1429**, she convinced Charles to allow her to lead an army to lift the siege of Orléans, which was a pivotal victory for the French. This success boosted the morale of the French forces and helped lead to Charles\' coronation as king of France. Unfortunately, Joan was captured by the Burgundians, who were allied with the English, in 1430. She was put on trial for charges including heresy, witchcraft, and cross-dressing (she wore men\'s military attire). Joan was found guilty and burned at the stake in Rouen in 1431, at the age of 19. Joan of Arc was canonized as a saint by the Catholic Church in 1920, and she is now regarded as a national heroine of France and a symbol of courage and faith.\* \***The Battle of Castillon** was fought on July 17, **1453**, during the Hundred Years\' War. It was a decisive French victory that effectively ended English control over most of their French territories, marking the conclusion of the war in France. The battle took place near the town of Castillon in southwestern France. The French forces, commanded by Jean Bureau, laid siege to the English garrison in the town of Castillon, which had been a stronghold for the English. End of Hundred Years' War exactly 116 years\* **Consequences of the Hundred Years' War** **Political Changes** **England**: The war significantly weakened the monarchy\'s direct control over its territories in France. The loss of French territories, including Aquitaine, led to political instability back home. The war contributed to the rise of Parliament\'s power in England, particularly after events like the *Peasants' Revolt* (1381) and the *Wars of the Roses* (1455--1485). **France**: Despite early setbacks, France eventually triumphed under the leadership of figures like Joan of Arc. The war helped solidify the power of the French monarchy, especially under Charles VII, who strengthened royal control over the kingdom. By the end of the war, France had regained almost all of its territories. **Economic Strain** Both England and France faced significant economic hardship. The costs of prolonged war drained resources, leading to heavy taxation and inflation. In France, widespread devastation (especially in northern regions) led to decreased agricultural output, contributing to economic stagnation. **England**, losing income from French lands, faced economic decline, including a series of famines and plague outbreaks that compounded the misery. **Social Changes** The war contributed to major social unrest, especially in England. The financial burden of the war and the loss of territory led to dissatisfaction among the lower classes, culminating in revolts like the *Peasants\' Revolt*. In France, the war and its aftermath led to significant depopulation and poverty in certain regions, which, in turn, sparked tension between different social classes. **Military Evolution** The Hundred Years\' War saw the decline of feudal knights and the rise of professional armies. Innovations in military technology, such as the longbow, played a crucial role in battles like Agincourt (1415), where English archers defeated French knights. The war also marked the increasing importance of infantry over cavalry. **National Identity and Nationalism** The war fostered a sense of national identity, particularly in France. Figures like Joan of Arc became symbols of French unity and resistance against foreign invaders. In England, the war\'s long duration and the eventual loss of French territories contributed to a shift toward a more distinct English national identity. **The Decline of the Plantagenet Dynasty** The war weakened the Plantagenet monarchy in England, which led to internal conflicts like the *Wars of the Roses*. The Lancaster and York factions fought for the throne, severely disrupting English politics for several decades. **Impact on the Church** The war also affected the relationship between England and the Catholic Church. England, which had been in frequent conflict with papal authority during the war, saw a weakening of the Church's influence over its political affairs. **T6: The Tudor Age 1485-1603** **\...Henry VII\...** **Consolidating Power** Henry VII\'s first major political act as king was to marry **Elizabeth of York**, the daughter of **Edward IV** (a Yorkist king). This marriage symbolized the union of the two warring houses of Lancaster and York, ending the dynastic conflict and establishing the **Tudor dynasty**. He focused on financial reforms, the centralization of power, and maintaining tight control over the nobility. - He utilized the **Star Chamber**, a royal court, to deal with rebellious nobles and keep them in check. - Henry carefully managed the power of the nobility. He often used bonds and recognizances (loans from nobles) to ensure loyalty. - His reign was marked by careful management of the royal finances. Unlike his successors, Henry did not spend recklessly on wars. He also increased income through **customs duties**, **taxes**, and more direct control of royal lands. **Foreign Policy and Alliances** Henry's marriage to Elizabeth of York not only united the warring factions but also provided him with a more secure claim to the throne. Their children---**Arthur**, **Henry VIII**, **Margaret**, and **Mary**---would all play key roles in European politics. **Arthur** married Catherine of Aragon, Princess of newly-united Spanish Kingdom (1479). Later, after Arthur died in 1502, Catherine married his younger brother -- Henry VIII. **Margaret** was married to King James IV of Scotland. *James IV of Scotland and Margaret Tudor were the grandparents of Mary, Queen of Scots.* James IV was the king of Scotland, and Margaret Tudor was the daughter of Henry VII of England. They were the parents of James V of Scotland**,** who was Mary\'s father. James V\'s marriage to Mary of Guise produced Mary, who became queen of both Scotland and France. **...Henry VIII...** **Early Reign and Personality** Henry VIII was young, athletic, and charismatic. Early in his reign, he was loved by the people for his energy and enthusiasm. He was highly educated, with interests in music, theology, and the arts. His court was a centre of culture and entertainment, and he was known for his love of lavish displays. In 1509, shortly after his father's death, Henry married **Catherine of Aragon**, the widow of his older brother Arthur. Their marriage was initially a political alliance, and Catherine gave birth to several children, though only one---**Mary I**---survived infancy. Henry's desire for a male heir was one of the key drivers of his later actions. **The Quest for a Male Heir and the English Reformation** Henry had become desperate for a male heir. After nearly two decades of marriage to Catherine, and after their only surviving child -**Mary**, Henry became convinced that the marriage had been cursed by God due to his union with his brother's widow. He began to seek an annulment of the marriage. Henry became infatuated with **Anne Boleyn**, a lady-in-waiting to Queen Catherine. Anne refused to become his mistress, insisting instead on marriage. Henry's infatuation with Anne played a critical role in his decision to break with the **Roman Catholic Church**. He sought an annulment from Pope Clement VII, but the Pope refused, leading Henry to take drastic steps. In 1534, in what became known as the **English Reformation**, Henry broke with the **Roman Catholic Church** and declared himself **Supreme Head** of the newly created **Church of England**. This was formalized by the **Act of Supremacy**, and it allowed him to annul his marriage to Catherine and marry Anne Boleyn. The **Church of England** became a separate entity from Rome. **The Six Marriages** **-Catherine of Aragon -- daughter:** Mary I, their marriage was annulled in 1533 after 23 years, which led to the split with the Catholic Church. **-Anne Boleyn -- daughter:** Elizabeth I, Anne gave birth, but she failed to provide a male heir. **-Jane Seymour --** son: Edward VI, Jane was the only wife to give Henry the male heir he so desperately sought. She died of complications just days after giving birth to **Edward VI**. **-Anne of Cleves -- no children, marriage was annulled after** just six months because Henry found her unattractive and unsuitable as his queen. **-Catherine Howard -- no children,** Catherine was executed for committing adultery, and Henry had her beheaded after less than two years of marriage. **-Catherine Parr -- no children** Break with Roman Church Henry VIII married Catherine of Aragon. They had one surviving child, Mary, but no male heir. Henry wanted a divorce to marry Anne Boleyn and hoped to have a male heir. However, the Pope refused to annul his marriage to Catherine. The Pope's refusal to annul the marriage infuriated Henry. He believed that the Pope, who was based in Rome, should not have the authority to make decisions about English matters. Henry began to seek ways to bypass papal authority. In **1534,** Parliament passed the **Act of Supremacy**, declaring Henry the *\"Supreme Head of the Church of England.\"* This was the legal foundation for England's separation from Rome. After the break with Rome, Henry initiated the **Dissolution of the Monasteries** (1536--1541), which involved the closure and destruction of monastic institutions in England. This was partly to seize their wealth and land but also to diminish the influence of the Catholic Church in England. [In 1533 the Anglican Church was established]. The **Act of Succession** recognized Anne Boleyn's children as legitimate heirs to the throne and excluded Catherine of Aragon's daughter, Mary, from the succession. These acts solidified Henry\'s control over both religious and political matters, requiring all subjects to swear loyalty to his authority as head of the Church. The **Treason Act** made it punishable by death to deny the king's supremacy or to reject his marriage to Anne Boleyn. ### Thomas Cromwell role in the English Reformation Cromwell's role in the Break with Rome was central. He was instrumental in helping Henry VIII navigate the political and legal challenges of separating from the Catholic Church and establishing the Church of England. Cromwell masterminded the **Act of Supremacy (1534)**, which declared Henry VIII as the Supreme Head of the Church of England. He also helped with the **Dissolution of the Monasteries**, which involved the closure and destruction of monastic institutions across England. This move not only reduced the power of the Catholic Church in England but also enriched the crown. Cromwell was also an advocate for Protestant reform, and although he wasn't a radical reformer himself, he promoted Protestant ideas at court. He promoting the translation of the Bible into English, which allowed the people to read and interpret scripture for themselves, further distancing England from Rome. \*[Thomas Cranmer] (someone different !!!) [was made by Henry VIII Archbishop of Canterbury]. As Archbishop, he was instrumental in supporting Henry\'s divorce from Catherine of Aragon and the subsequent marriage to Anne Boleyn. He is famous for his work on the **Book of Common Prayer**, a foundational text that set the liturgical and doctrinal framework for English Protestantism. During the reign of Edward VI**,** he helped introduce more Protestant reforms in the Church, such as the use of the English language in church services instead of Latin and the promotion of Protestant doctrine. However, after the death of Edward VI in 1553, when **Mary I** ascended to the throne and sought to restore Catholicism in England, Cranmer was arrested and tried for heresy. He was convicted and, in 1556, burned at the stake.\* **The Six Articles 1539** The **Six Articles** of 1539 were a set of laws issued by Henry VIII. They were intended to clarify the Church of England's position on key theological issues. The articles affirmed **transubstantiation**, the belief that the bread and wine in the Eucharist become the actual body and blood of Christ, rejecting Protestant views of the Lord\'s Supper. They also upheld the traditional practices of celibacy for clergy and private confession, which were central to Catholic doctrine. The articles condemned married clergy and insisted that vows of chastity should be upheld by priests and monks. They prohibited the denial of the sacrifice of the Mass and reinforced the importance of good works for salvation. **\...Others in Europe conflicts\...** Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, was the nephew of Catherine of Aragon. Catherine and Charles V were related through her mother, Isabella of Castile, making her the emperor's aunt. This relationship became highly significant during the King\'s struggle for a divorce from Catherine, as Charles V opposed Henry's desire to annul his marriage. Since Charles V was a staunch Catholic, he strongly influenced the Catholic Church\'s refusal to grant Henry's annulment. This conflict played a critical role in Henry\'s break from the Roman Catholic Church and his establishment of the Church of England. Henry's desire to marry Anne Boleyn created a diplomatic crisis, as it challenged the papacy's authority, especially with Charles V's influence over Pope Clement VII. The **Sack of Rome in 1527** by Charles V's troops further solidified his power in Italy, showing his dominance over the papacy and extending his control in the region. This event led to Pope Clement VII's eventual capitulation to Charles V, influencing Catholic politics across Europe. **\...Edward VI\...** Edward VI was the son of King Henry VIII and his third wife, Jane Seymour. He became King of England at just nine years old, following his father\'s death in 1547. His reign, though short, was marked by significant religious reforms, as Edward was a strong Protestant. Under his leadership, England moved further away from Catholicism, with the introduction of the Book of Common Prayer and the enforcement of the Act of Uniformity. Edward\'s health was frail throughout his life, and he died in 1553 at the age of 15, possibly from tuberculosis. His death led to a brief succession crisis and the eventual rise of his Catholic half-sister, Mary I. **\...Mary I (Bloody Mary)\...** **Mary I** (1516--1558), also known as **Mary Tudor**, was the daughter of Henry VIII and his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. She became queen of England in 1553 after the death of her half-brother, Edward VI, and her cousin Lady Jane Grey\'s brief reign. Mary\'s reign is most famous for her attempts to restore Catholicism in England after the Protestant reforms of her father and brother. In her effort to reverse the English Reformation, she married Philip II of Spain, which was unpopular with many English subjects due to his foreign status and their shared Catholic agenda. Mary\'s reign was marked by the execution of over 300 Protestants in what became known as the Marian persecutions, nickname **\"Bloody Mary.\"** Her efforts to re-establish Catholicism, however, were ultimately unsuccessful, and her reign failed to bring lasting religious unity to England. During her rule, England faced military difficulties, notably the loss of Calais to France in 1558, which was a blow to English pride and prestige. Despite her religious zeal, her marriage to Philip was unpopular, and it was childless, which left England without a direct Catholic heir. Mary\'s reign was overshadowed by her inability to secure a stable religious settlement and her failure to produce an heir, which led to her death in 1558. After her death, her sister **Elizabeth I** succeeded her and reinstated Protestantism, marking the end of Mary\'s Catholic restoration efforts. **\...Queen Elizabeth I\...** **Elizabeth I** (1533--1603), often called the Virgin Queen, was the daughter of Henry VIII and his second wife, Anne Boleyn. She became queen of England in 1558 after the death of Mary I, and reigned for 45 years. Elizabeth\'s rule, known as the **Elizabethan Era**, is often considered a golden age in English history, marked by political stability, cultural flourishing, and the strengthening of Protestantism. Elizabeth reasserted Protestantism in England after the Catholic restoration under her sister, Mary I, by establishing the Church of England as the national religion. Her reign saw the defeat of the **Spanish Armada** in 1588. She also encouraged the expansion of trade and exploration, supporting famous figures like **Sir Francis Drake** which helped lay the foundations for the British Empire. Culturally, Elizabeth's reign witnessed the flourishing of English literature, with the works of **William Shakespeare** and other playwrights becoming central to the nation\'s cultural identity. Elizabeth's court was a centre of intellectual and artistic activity, and she herself was highly educated, fluent in several languages, and deeply involved in the affairs of state. Her decision not to marry earned her the title of the \"Virgin Queen\" and allowed her to maintain power without the political complications of a royal consort. Elizabeth was known for her diplomatic skill, forming strategic alliances with European powers like France and the Dutch Revolt while keeping Spain, her greatest rival, at bay. Her reign also witnessed the rise of English nationalism, as the queen became a symbol of unity and strength. When Elizabeth died in 1603 without a heir, she was succeeded by her cousin **James VI of Scotland**, who became **James I of England**, marking the beginning of the Stuart dynasty. Elizabeth\'s death marked the end of the Tudor era. **The Act of Uniformity 1559** The **Act of Uniformity** was passed in **1559** during the reign of **Elizabeth I**, and it aimed to establish a uniform practice of worship across England. It required all English subjects to attend church services in the newly established Church of England, adhering to the **Book of Common Prayer** as the standard for liturgical practices. The Act sought to settle the religious conflict between Catholics and Protestants by enforcing Protestant liturgical reforms while retaining some traditional Catholic elements to appease moderate factions. Those who refused to comply faced penalties, including fines or imprisonment, with **recusants** (Catholics who refused to attend Anglican services) facing harsher punishments. The Act of Uniformity was a key element of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, which aimed to create religious stability and consolidate Elizabeth's authority as head of the Church of England. **80 Year's War in the Netherlands 1568** In **1568**, the **Eighty Years\' War** began in the **Netherlands** as a revolt against Spanish rule under King Philip II. Tensions had been rising for years due to harsh Spanish taxation, religious persecution of Protestants, and political discontent. The rebellion was sparked by **the** iconoclast riots in 1566, in which Dutch Protestants destroyed Catholic images, prompting a harsh response from the Spanish crown. In 1568, William of Orange, the leader of the Dutch resistance, launched a military campaign against Spanish forces, marking the formal beginning of the war. The conflict would last until 1648, as the Dutch fought for independence, leading to the eventual creation of the Dutch Republic after Spain's formal recognition of their sovereignty in the Treaty of Westphalia. **Treaty of Nonsuch 1585** The **Treaty of Nonsuch** was signed in **1585** between **Elizabeth I of England** and the **Dutch rebels** fighting against **Spanish rule** in the **Netherlands**. This treaty marked the formal alliance between England and the Dutch Revolt, which had been ongoing since 1568. The treaty was signed in response to the increasing Spanish threat in the Netherlands and the strategic need for England to support the Dutch Protestant cause, both to weaken Philip II of Spain and to curb his expanding influence in Europe. Under the terms of the treaty, Elizabeth I agreed to send military aid to the Dutch, including troops and funds, led by the English general **Robert Dudley**. The treaty also recognized the Dutch rebels' struggle for independence, though it stopped short of an official recognition of full Dutch sovereignty. In exchange, the Dutch promised to repay England\'s support, including a promise to return the town of Brill, which had been seized by Spanish forces. The treaty escalated England\'s involvement in the conflict, leading to English participation in the **Eighty Years\' War**. **English involvement in the Eighty Years\' War** **contributed to England\'s war with** **Spain**: By signing the **Treaty of Nonsuch** in 1585, **Elizabeth I** agreed to provide military and financial aid to the Dutch rebels, who were fighting for independence from **Spanish rule**. This was seen as a direct challenge to **Philip II of Spain**, as England's support for the Dutch Protestants undermined his authority and power in the Netherlands, a region Spain considered critical to its empire. England, under Elizabeth, was Protestant, while Spain, under Philip II, was staunchly Catholic. The religious divide made their involvement in the conflict even more bitter, as Spain viewed English support for Protestant rebels as a direct attack on Catholicism and Spanish influence in Europe. Spain was also eager to suppress Protestantism and viewed England\'s actions as promoting heresy. English pirates and privateers, notably **Sir Francis Drake**, frequently targeted Spanish ships and colonies during the late 16th century. They raided Spanish treasure fleets and seized Spanish holdings in the Americas, adding to the tension between the two countries. These actions were unofficially supported by Elizabeth, which angered Philip II and contributed to rising hostilities. Philip II viewed England as a significant threat to Catholicism and Spanish imperial power. In 1588, this culminated in the **Spanish Armada**, a large naval fleet sent to invade England and restore a Catholic monarch. Elizabeth\'s support of the Dutch and defiance of Spain made it inevitable that Philip would attempt to invade England to eliminate the threat to his empire. On a broader level, England and Spain were competing for influence and power in Europe and overseas. Spain had a vast empire in the Americas, and England sought to challenge Spanish dominance, especially in trade and exploration. **\*Sir Francis Drake** (c. 1540--1596) was an English explorer, known for his voyages around the world and his role in England's naval successes against Spain. He rose through the ranks of the English navy, gaining a reputation for his daring expeditions and successful raids on Spanish possessions in the Americas. Drake was one of the most famous privateers of his time, receiving royal backing from Queen Elizabeth I, who granted him a letter of marque to raid Spanish ships and colonies. His most notable achievement was becoming the second person to circumnavigate the globe, completing the journey between 1577 and 1580, which also involved raiding Spanish settlements in the Pacific. Drake's raids were part of the ongoing Anglo-Spanish rivalry, and his actions greatly angered Spain, contributing to the tensions that led to the **Spanish Armada** in 1588. As a commander during the Armada\'s defeat, Drake played a key role in the destruction of the Spanish fleet, solidifying his status as a national hero. His legacy, however, is controversial, as his privateering was seen as piracy by the Spanish, and his actions led to brutal conflicts in the Americas.\* ***\... Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots\...not English!!!*** **Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots** becoming Queen of Scotland when she was six days old after her father's death. As a child, she was sent to France for safety and education, where she was betrothed to Francis, Dauphin of France, the heir to the French throne. In **1558**, Mary married Francis, and upon his accession to the throne in **1559** as **Francis II**, she became **Queen Consort of France**. While in France, Mary was encouraged by the French court to declare herself the rightful **Queen of England**, as she was a legitimate Catholic claimant to the English throne through her grandmother, Margaret Tudor. Mary's claim to the English throne was controversial, as [Elizabeth I, the Protestant Queen of England], opposed it. Despite this, Mary remained a devout Roman Catholic, and her religious stance further complicated her political position, especially with the rise of Protestantism in England and Scotland. After Francis II's death in 1560, Mary returned to Scotland in 1561 to rule, facing a kingdom deeply divided by religion, with Catholics supporting her and Protestants opposing her. In **1565**, Mary married her cousin, **Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley**, a match that strengthened her claim to the English throne. However, the marriage quickly soured, and Darnley's behaviour, which included an affair with one of Mary's servants created a volatile relationship. The situation worsened when **Darnley** was implicated in the **murder of David Rizzio**, a close Italian servant and secretary to Mary, who was stabbed to death in front of her in **1566** by Darnley and his associates. The scandal of Darnley's murder deepened when Mary married **James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell**, who was widely suspected of being involved in Darnley's death. This marriage alienated the Scottish nobility and led to a political crisis in **1567**. The nobles turned against Mary, forcing her to abdicate in favor of her infant son, **James VI** of Scotland, who would later become **James I of England**. After her abdication, Mary was imprisoned in **Loch Leven Castle**. In **1568**, Mary managed to escape from her prison, though her efforts to regain the throne were unsuccessful. She sought refuge in England, hoping for Elizabeth's support, but instead, she was arrested by Elizabeth\'s forces. Elizabeth, fearing the political ramifications of Mary's presence, kept her imprisoned for the next 19 years. **The Babington Plot 1586 and Execution of Mary Stuart of Scots** In **1586**, Mary was implicated in the **Babington Plot**, a Catholic conspiracy to assassinate Elizabeth and put Mary on the throne. Although Mary had denied involvement, evidence of her participation in the plot was uncovered, and she was tried for treason. In **1587**, after a lengthy trial, Mary was found guilty and executed by beheading at **Fotheringhay Castle**, marking the tragic end of her tumultuous reign. Mary\'s execution further deepened the animosity between England and Catholic Europe, and she became a martyr in the eyes of many Catholics. Her son, **James VI**, eventually succeeded Elizabeth I as **James I of England**, uniting the crowns of Scotland and England. **Spain declares war on England 1585** In **1585**, King **Philip II of Spain** formally declared war on England in response to English support for the Dutch rebels fighting for independence from Spanish rule in the Netherlands. The English, led by **Queen Elizabeth I**, had provided military aid to the Dutch Protestants, which angered Philip, who saw this as a direct challenge to his authority and the Catholic faith. Additionally, English privateers, such as **Sir Francis Drake**, had been raiding Spanish ships and colonies, further escalating tensions. The conflict was also driven by Philip\'s desire to restore Catholicism in England, which had become Protestant under Elizabeth's rule. The declaration of war set the stage for the famous conflict, culminating in the **Spanish Armada** of **1588**, an attempt by Spain to invade and overthrow Elizabeth. **Spanish Armada 1588** In **1588**, following the execution of **Mary, Queen of Scots**, and the ongoing tension between **Catholic** and **Protestant** powers in Europe, **King Philip II of Spain** launched the **Spanish Armada** in an attempt to depose **Queen Elizabeth I** of England. Philip believed that Mary\'s death, along with England\'s Protestant policies, had created an opportunity to restore Catholic rule in England and secure Spanish dominance. The Armada, a large fleet of ships, was intended to transport Spanish troops from the Netherlands to invade England, overthrow Elizabeth, and replace her with a Catholic monarch. However, despite its formidable size, the Spanish Armada faced severe setbacks, including poor weather conditions, strategic miscalculations, and strong resistance from the English navy, led by figures like **Sir Francis Drake**. The defeat of the Armada marked a turning point in the conflict, as England\'s naval strength was solidified and Spain\'s dominance in European waters began to wane. The failure of the invasion also bolstered Elizabeth's position and secured Protestant rule in England for the foreseeable future. **9 Years War in Ireland** The **Nine Years\' War** in Ireland (1594--1603) was a conflict between the Irish Gaelic lords and the English Crown, largely led by **Hugh O\'Neill**, the Earl of Tyrone. O\'Neill, a prominent leader of the Irish resistance, sought to preserve Irish autonomy and protect the traditional Gaelic way of life from English encroachment and Protestantism. In 1595, he and his allies in the Confederation of the Nine Years launched a rebellion against English rule, gaining initial successes with strong support from Spain, who were keen to weaken England. O\'Neill\'s forces were able to inflict significant defeats on the English, most notably at the Battle of the Yellow Ford in 1598. Despite this, the English eventually regained the upper hand, particularly after the death of key Spanish reinforcements in 1601. By 1603, after O\'Neill\'s surrender at Melifont, the English had crushed the rebellion, marking the end of Gaelic power in Ireland and further solidifying English control over the country. **T7: Charles I, the English Civil War 1625-1660** **\...Charles I\...** Charles I, King of England from 1625 to 1649, was a monarch who struggled with Parliament over his belief in the divine right of kings and his control over the government. His reign was marked by a series of conflicts with Parliament, particularly over the limits of royal prerogative. Charles believed in the absolute power of the monarchy, which led him to assert that his authority should not be questioned by Parliament. One of his early struggles was with the issue of taxation, as he attempted to levy taxes without Parliament's consent, such as through \"ship money\" taxes, which were met with strong opposition. In 1629, frustrated by repeated confrontations, Charles dissolved Parliament and ruled without it for eleven years, a period known as the \"Personal Rule.\" During this time, he faced increasing resentment from both Parliament and the public as his policies became increasingly unpopular. His decisions to marry Henrietta Maria, a Catholic, also stirred religious tensions in a predominantly Protestant England. The Scottish rebellion in 1637 over religious reforms further weakened his position, leading to the need for funds and the eventual calling of Parliament in 1640. However, when Parliament reconvened, it demanded reforms that limited the king\'s power, including the abolition of the controversial \"star chamber\" and the king\'s control over the military. Charles\' refusal to accept these demands escalated tensions, eventually leading to the outbreak of the English Civil War in 1642. The war pitted the royalists, or Cavaliers, against the Parliamentarians, or Roundheads. After years of fighting and several defeats, Charles was captured, tried, and ultimately executed in 1649, marking the end of the monarchy for a brief period. **The English Civil War** The English Civil War, fought between 1642 and 1651, was a conflict between the supporters of King Charles I (Royalists or Cavaliers) and the forces of Parliament (Parliamentarians or Roundheads). It was sparked by ongoing tensions over the power of the monarchy vs parliamentary authority, as well as issues of religion and governance. The immediate cause was Charles I's attempts to impose his will on Parliament, leading to his raising an army to fight those who opposed him. The war was fought in three main phases: the first (1642--1646), the second (1648), and the third (1649--1651). The Parliamentarians, led by figures like **Oliver Cromwell**, gained crucial victories with their New Model Army, a well-disciplined force that proved more effective than the Royalist troops. The first phase ended in Charles\' defeat and forced surrender, but he later escaped and reignited the conflict in 1648. In the second phase, Charles' efforts to regain power were undermined by Parliament's victories, and he was eventually captured. The Parliamentarians, now increasingly radical, decided that Charles I was a threat to the nation and put him on trial for treason. His execution in 1649 marked a dramatic shift in English governance, temporarily abolishing the monarchy and establishing the Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell. The war also had religious undertones, as the Puritans in Parliament sought to eliminate Catholic practices, while the Royalists were often associated with more traditional, Anglican beliefs. The third phase saw Charles II, son of Charles I, attempt to reclaim the throne, but his defeat at the Battle of Worcester in 1651 solidified Parliament's power. ***William Laud -- Archibishop of Canterbury*** William Laud was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1633 to 1645, serving under King Charles I during a turbulent period in English history. Laud was a staunch supporter of the king's authority, particularly in religious matters, and sought to enforce uniformity within the Church of England. He attempted to impose stricter conformity to Anglican practices, favouring ornate ceremonies and rituals, which alienated many Puritans and other religious dissenters. One of his most controversial policies was his persecution of those who refused to recognize the king as the Supreme Head of the Church, as mandated by the monarchy. Laud viewed this refusal as a direct challenge to royal authority, and he pursued harsh measures against non-conformists, particularly Puritans, who believed in a more simplified and reformed worship style. He was responsible for the imprisonment and punishment of several religious leaders who opposed his policies. Laud\'s reforms, which included the promotion of Episcopal hierarchy and the use of elaborate liturgy, were deeply unpopular among many Protestants, particularly in the Puritan faction. His efforts to suppress dissent and impose religious uniformity were seen by many as a threat to the freedoms of conscience and worship. His policies, combined with his close association with Charles I, contributed to the mounting tensions that led to the English Civil War. In 1645, Laud was arrested and eventually executed by beheading, marking the end of his influence in English religious and political life. **First Bishops' War 1438** The First Bishops\' War of 1639 was a conflict between King Charles I of England and the Scottish Presbyterians, triggered by Charles\' attempts to impose Anglican-style bishops on the Church of Scotland. The Scots had long rejected the episcopal system, preferring a Presbyterian structure that did not recognize bishops as the central authority in the church. In 1638, the Scots formally abolished the episcopal system and adopted a national covenant, which was a declaration of their refusal to accept Charles\' religious reforms, including his attempts to impose the Book of Common Prayer. Charles I saw this as a direct challenge to his authority, as he believed the king was the supreme head of the church in both England and Scotland. In 1639, Charles attempted to collect taxes to fund a military campaign against the Scottish Presbyterians, who had refused to acknowledge the changes and were now in open rebellion. This taxation effort, known as \"ship money\" and other levies, was heavily opposed, and it further exacerbated tensions between the king and his subjects. The war itself was relatively short, as Charles\' forces were unable to defeat the well-organized Scottish army. A peace treaty, the Pacification of Berwick, was signed in June 1639, which temporarily ended hostilities but left many issues unresolved. The First Bishops\' War was a key precursor to the larger conflicts of the English Civil War, as it highlighted the religious and political divisions in both England and Scotland. The unresolved tensions and Charles\' continued attempts to exert control over religion and governance played a significant role in the escalation of conflict. **The "Short" and "Long" Parliament** The Short and Long Parliaments of 1640 were pivotal moments in the lead-up to the English Civil War. The Short Parliament was convened by King Charles I in April 1640, after he faced military failure in the First Bishops\' War against Scotland. Charles needed funds to raise an army for a second war against the Scots, but Parliament refused to grant him taxes unless he addressed their grievances, particularly over his unpopular policies. Tensions mounted, and after just three weeks, Charles dissolved Parliament, hoping to rule without it as he had done before. This quick dissolution only worsened his relationship with Parliament and his subjects. In November 1640, facing the threat of Scottish invasion and mounting pressure, Charles reconvened Parliament, which became known as the Long Parliament. This time, Parliament was determined to assert its power, and it quickly moved to limit the king\'s authority. Key reforms included the Triennial Act, which required Parliament to be convened at least once every three years, and the abolition of the \"evil\" courts like the Star Chamber and High Commission. Members of Parliament, led by figures like Pym and Hampden, sought to restrict the king's power over taxation and religious issues, particularly his attempts to impose Anglican practices on Scotland and England. Charles' attempts to retain control and dismiss Parliament were futile, as the Long Parliament began to challenge the monarchy's role in governance. As the months passed, the tensions between king and Parliament escalated, eventually leading to the outbreak of the English Civil War in 1642. The Long Parliament marked the beginning of a period where Parliament increasingly took charge, setting the stage for radical political and religious changes in England. **The Irish Rebellion 1641** The Irish Rebellion of 1641 was a significant uprising in Ireland, driven by grievances from Irish Catholics who were angered by the English Protestant ascendancy and the centralization of royal power under King Charles I. The rebellion began in October 1641 and saw Irish Catholics rising up against English Protestant settlers and their allies in Ireland. The insurgents sought to reclaim land and influence, and the violence quickly spread across the country. The rebellion led to widespread atrocities, with thousands of English and Scottish settlers being killed, and many others forced to flee. The rebellion had a profound impact on England, especially as King Charles I was already embroiled in political conflict with Parliament. Parliament, eager to raise an army to suppress the rebellion, found itself in a difficult position, as the king was reluctant to grant the funds necessary to raise an army. The Irish crisis also intensified the growing divide between the king and Parliament. In response, the Parliamentarians, who were already suspicious of the king's motives and authority, attempted to pass the Militia Bill in 1641, which would give them control over the army, effectively depriving Charles of military power. Charles I strongly opposed the Militia Bill, viewing it as a direct threat to his prerogative and authority as king. The standoff over the bill further escalated tensions between the monarchy and Parliament, and the Irish rebellion became a flashpoint for these disputes. While Parliament did manage to raise taxes to fund an army to fight in Ireland, the king's refusal to cooperate only deepened the political crisis. This struggle over control of the military and the king's reluctance to compromise with Parliament contributed to the outbreak of the English Civil War in 1642, as both sides prepared for an inevitable confrontation. The Irish rebellion thus played a crucial role in accelerating the political and military confrontations that would define the years to come. **War between King and Parliament 1642** The war between King Charles I and Parliament in 1642, known as the English Civil War, began after years of escalating tensions between the monarchy and Parliament. The conflict stemmed from issues of royal authority, taxation, and religion, with Charles' belief in the divine right of kings clashing with Parliament's desire for greater political influence. In January 1642, Charles attempted to arrest five members of Parliament who were critical of his policies, but this action failed and only further enraged Parliament and the public. On August 22, 1642, Charles raised his royal standard in Nottingham, signaling the start of the war, while Parliament raised its own army to challenge the king's forces. The conflict split the country into two factions: the Royalists (Cavaliers), who supported the king, and the Parliamentarians (Roundheads), who sought to limit the monarchy's power and defend parliamentary privileges. The Parliamentarians were led by figures like Oliver Cromwell, who would later play a pivotal role in the outcome of the war. The early battles of the war were largely indecisive, with both sides gaining and losing ground. However, the Parliamentarians gradually gained the upper hand, especially with the formation of the New Model Army in 1645, a disciplined and effective fighting force. The Royalist army, despite early successes, struggled with internal divisions and logistical challenges. The war also became a battle for religious control, as the Royalists tended to support the Anglican Church, while the Parliamentarians included Puritans who wanted a more reformed church. In 1645, the decisive Battle of Naseby marked a turning point in favor of the Parliamentarians, as the Royalist forces were decisively defeated. Over the next few years, Charles' position weakened, and in 1646, he was forced to surrender to the Scots. The war did not end there, as political divisions among the Parliamentarians led to further conflicts, but the capture and eventual execution of Charles in 1649 marked the ultimate collapse of the monarchy, at least temporarily. The war fundamentally altered the English political landscape and set the stage for the establishment of the Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell. **The Irish Cessation** The Irish Cessation was a truce signed in September 1643 between King Charles I and the Irish Catholic rebels, who had been in rebellion since 1641. The truce was meant to last for one year and was primarily aimed at allowing Charles to free up his Irish army to fight in the English Civil War. At the time, Charles was struggling against the Parliamentarians and needed additional forces to bolster his position in England. The Irish rebels, who were fighting for greater rights and freedoms, agreed to halt hostilities in exchange for a temporary cessation of hostilities and certain concessions, though the terms were not fully favorable to either side. The signing of the truce, however, was controversial and deeply divisive. Many in England, including Parliamentarians, viewed the Cessation as a betrayal, as it seemed to imply a recognition of the Irish rebels\' cause and their demands for greater autonomy. The truce also created suspicion within England, with many English people feeling uneasy about the king\'s dealings with the Irish rebels, whom they considered enemies of the crown. As a result, the agreement caused a split among those still undecided about which side to support in the civil war, with some seeing the king's actions as a pragmatic move, while others viewed it as a sign of weakness. Additionally, the Irish Cessation led to political complications within the king\'s own ranks, as some of his supporters were uncomfortable with aligning with the Irish rebels. Despite the truce, the political and military situation in England continued to deteriorate, and the agreement did not significantly alter the trajectory of the English Civil War. The Cessation eventually expired in 1646, but by that time, Charles had already been defeated in England, and the war had turned decisively against him. **Oliver Cromwell** Oliver Cromwell was an English military and political leader who played a central role in the English Civil War and the establishment of the Commonwealth. Born in 1599, Cromwell was a devout Puritan who believed strongly in the need for religious reform and a godly government. Initially, he was a member of Parliament, but he became a key figure in the Parliamentarian cause during the Civil War, particularly due to his leadership and military acumen. Cromwell's most significant contribution to the war effort was the formation of the New Model Army in 1645. This highly disciplined and well-organized force, made up of soldiers who were often motivated by religious zeal, proved decisive in the defeat of the Royalist forces. Cromwell h