Interventions for Cognition and Visual Perception PDF

OCT483 Interventions for Cognition and Visual Perception Dr. Husna Ahmad Ainuddin  Learning Outcomes 1 2 3 To understand the To understand To apply the basic theo...

OCT483 Interventions for Cognition and Visual Perception Dr. Husna Ahmad Ainuddin  Learning Outcomes 1 2 3 To understand the To understand To apply the basic theoretical principles and key interventions for foundations of concepts of cognitive cognition and visual cognition and visual and visual percetual percetion for children perception. rehabilitation for children  Cognitive Development in Children Piaget's theory centres on cognitive equilibrium, where individuals aim to balance their understanding of the world. Children develop by either assimilating new information into existing mental frameworks (schemas) or accommodating these frameworks to fit new experiences. Assimilation involves integrating new information into existing schemas, while accommodation means changing schemas to incorporate new information. Cognitive dissonance arises when new information conflicts with existing understanding, driving individuals to resolve this through assimilation or accommodation, which is crucial for cognitive growth and maintaining balance.  https://youtu.be/ IhcgYgx7aAA?si=zbNsgl i4yjUArLBS Abstract thinking emerges, enabling Infants learn about the world Logical thinking develops, Children develop language and adolescents to reason logically through sensory experiences and allowing children to perform use symbols but struggle with about hypothetical situations and motor activities. Key achievements operations on concrete objects logic. They exhibit egocentrism use deductive reasoning. include object permanence and understand the concept of (difficulty in seeing things from (understanding that objects continue conservation (quantity remains others' perspectives) and to exist even when out of sight). the same despite changes in animism (attributing human shape or appearance). characteristics to objects). https://youtu. be/8I2hrSRbmHE?si =ov2QZVuwB1MAuy 6V https://youtu.be/ zvcs32EurNI?si=N MERf3- MDD2UrA15  Cognitive development refers to the mind and how it works. It involves how children think, how they see their world, and how they use what they learn (Dodge et al, 2010). Learning and reasoning, including the development of memory, symbolic thought, and problem solving skills. Cognitive Milestones https://youtu.be/r4QerpKuJsc?si=SRacU9zWhNFb- UgE  Types of Cognitive Skills in Children Attention Memory Visual and Spatial Processing Children develop the ability to Memory helps children store and Children learn to interpret focus on specific tasks or retrieve information: and use visual information: stimuli in their environment. This skill is bifurcated into Short-term Memory: Holding a Visual Discrimination: different subtypes: small amount of information for a Distinguishing between brief period. different shapes, sizes, and Sustained Attention: The colours. capacity to maintain focus on a Working Memory: Manipulating task for an extended period. and using stored information to Spatial Awareness: perform complex tasks. Understanding the Selective Attention: Being able relationship between objects to concentrate on one task Long-term Memory: The ability to in space. despite distractions. retain and recall information over a prolonged period. Divided Attention: The ability to manage multiple tasks simultaneously. 9 Auditory Processing Processing Speed Logical Reasoning Executive Functions This skill helps The speed at which a This skill enables children Executive functions are children decode and child can perceive and to think critically and solve higher-order cognitive interpret sounds: react to information is problems: skills that include: critical: Auditory Inductive Reasoning: Inhibition: Restraining Discrimination: Simple Processing Making generalisations impulses and focusing on Differentiating Speed: The rate of based on specific relevant tasks. between various identifying simple instances. sounds. stimuli. Flexibility: Adapting to Deductive Reasoning: new information or Phonemic Complex Processing Drawing specific changing situations. Awareness: Speed: The ability to conclusions from general Recognising and process complex principles. Planning and using sounds in information quickly. Organisation: Outlining language. steps and organising materials to achieve a goal. 11  The most coherent finding is an accelerated total brain volume growth in early children with ASD around 2~4 years of age. Brain development during early childhood in ASD seems to be predominated by an enlarged brain volume of the frontal and temporal lobes followed by arrested growth and a possible declined volumetric capacity of the brain after around 10~15 years of age. A number of studies using the brain imaging techniques such as fMRI identified abnormal brain connectivity in individuals with ASD. Long-range cortical hypo-connectivity theory has been largely supported by many investigators [66, 67], even there are some opposite reports to show hyper-connectivity in ASD [68, 69]. Using the fMRI, most studies suggested that hypo-connectivity in ASD during the task performance examining language , face processing including emotional face , visuomotor coordination , working memory and executive function. Otherwise, there are some reports to show hyper-connectivity in ASD brains in language , visuomotor processing , selective attention. The default mode network (DMN) (brain region) consistently has shown greater activity during resting-state than during cognitive tasks.  Memory -the process of retaining of knowledge over a period for the function of a ecting future actions. -the term given to the structures and processes involved in the storage and subsequent retrieval of information.  Encoding is the process of learning information by taking, understanding, and modifying it for better storage. There are four main methods of encoding: visual (how something looks), acoustic (how something sounds), semantic (what something means), and tactile (how something feels). While information enters memory in one of these forms, it may be stored differently than it was originally encoded. Storage refers to how and where encoded information is retained in the memory system, as well as its capacity and duration. The model distinguishes between short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM). Information first enters STM, which holds it for 15-30 seconds and has a capacity of 5-9 items. Acoustic encoding is mainly stored in STM. LTM primarily stores semantically encoded information but can also store visual and acoustic data. Retrieval from STM or LTM is crucial for recalling information, which directly impacts academic performance. Retrieval is the process through which individuals access stored information. Due to their differences, information stored in STM and LTM are retrieved differently. While STM is retrieved in the order in which it is stored (for example, a sequential list of numbers), LTM is retrieved through association (for example, remembering where you parked your car by returning to the entrance through which you accessed a shopping mall) (Roediger & McDermott, 1995).  Attention - Cognitive processes that enable the selection of, focus on, and sustained processing of information. The object of attention can either be environmental stimuli actively being processed by sensory systems, or associative information and response alternatives generated by ongoing cognitive activity. Processing Speed Processing speed is a general term representing the speed at which an individual identifies, manipulates, and responds to information. Processing speed encompasses “active” and “automatic” activities. Processing speed is the ability to identify, discriminate, integrate, make a decision about information, and to respond to visual and verbal information.  Executive Functions Refers to a complex cognitive construct in the form of a system organized in functional modules of the mind-a series of processes necessary to maintain an appropriate, organized and flexible planning or problem solving, control and coordination. Higher-order cognitive functions that make it possible to formulate objectives and plans, remember these plans over time, choose and start actions that allow us to reach those goals, monitor the behavior and adjust it so as to arrive at those goals (Aron, 2008). Interventions Take 10  Visual Perception Visual perception is defined as the total process responsible for the reception (sensory functions) and cognition (specific mental functions) of visual stimuli. The sensory function or visual receptive component is the process of extracting and organizing information from the environment, and the specific mental functions that constitute the visual-cognitive component provide the capacity to organize, structure, and interpret visual stimuli, giving meaning to what is seen. Together these two components enable a person to understand what he or she sees, and both are necessary for functional vision. Visual perceptual skills include the recognition and identification of shapes, objects, colors, and other qualities. Visual perception allows a person to make accurate judgments on the size, configuration, and spatial relationships of objects. The visual receptive components are described in the OTPF under client factors of sensory functions and pain, and the visual-cognitive components are described under specific mental functions Anatomy of the Eye  Anatomy Function Sclera The outermost, fibrous, and elastic layer that maintains the shape of the eye and holds its structure in place. Choroid The middle layer, rich in blood vessels, supplies nourishment to the eye Retina The innermost layer containing light-sensitive receptor cells that detect light and initiate visual signals Cones: Responsible for color vision and visual clarity. Rods: Support night and peripheral vision. Pupillary Cells: Regulate the dilation and constriction of the pupil. Fovea Centralis Located in the retina, this is the point of sharpest vision, crucial for daylight vision and transmitting signals to the optic nerve. Optic Nerve Transmits visual information from the retina to the brain. It ensures that visual signals from both visual fields reach the correct hemispheres of the brain. Lateral Geniculate Nucleus Integrates binocular information for depth perception before passing it to the occipital cortex. (in the optic thalamus) Visual Cortex (in the occipital Processes and refines visual information. lobe) Dorsal Stream Analyzes spatial relationships, motion, and depth, focusing on where objects are. Ventral Stream Analyzes object details like color, form, and size for accurate identification, focusing on what objects are. https://youtu.be/fClZoFLSEsQ?si=rWF6Aiq- SBKbXMe7  Visual Perceptive Functions Visual Fixation The ability to maintain focus on a stationary object, which is essential for other visual tasks like scanning and tracking. Pursuit Eye Movements Smooth, continuous eye movements that allow the eyes to follow a moving object, keeping the (Tracking) image stable on the fovea. This can involve both eye and head movements or just the eyes Saccadic Eye Movements Rapid shifts in eye fixation from one point to another in the visual field. These movements can be (Scanning) voluntary (e.g., reading) or involuntary and are important for quickly locating and focusing on new stimuli. Acuity The ability to discern fine details in the visual field, often measured as 20/20 vision, indicating that a person can see objects at 20 feet as clearly as an average person. Accommodation The process by which the eye adjusts to focus on objects at different distances. This involves changes in the lens shape to maintain clear vision when switching between near and far objects. Binocular Fusion The brain’s ability to combine images from both eyes into a single coherent perception. This requires proper alignment of the eyes (motor fusion) and compatibility of image clarity and size (sensory fusion). Stereopsis The perception of depth and three-dimensional structure based on binocular vision, allowing us to judge distances accurately.  Visual Cognitive Functions Visual Attention Involves selecting and processing visual input, guiding it to the primary visual cortex for perception. It relies on key eye movements like localization, fixation, tracking, and gaze shifts. The four main components of visual attention are: Alertness: The transition from being awake to being attentive and ready for learning. Selective Attention: Focusing on relevant visual information while ignoring distractions. Visual Vigilance: The ability to maintain focus and persistence on a visual task. Divided (Shared) Attention: Managing multiple visual tasks at the same time. Visual Memory Visual memory involves the integration of visual information with previous experiences. Long-term memory, the permanent storehouse, has expansive capacity. In contrast, short-term memory can hold a limited number of unrelated bits of information for approximately 30 seconds. Visual Imagery Another important component in visual cognition is visual imagery, or visualization. Visual imagery refers to the ability to “picture” people, ideas, and objects in the mind’s eye even when the objects are not physically present. Developmentally, the child is first able to picture objects that make certain sounds and those that are familiar by taste or smell. The ability to picture what words say while reading is the next step. For example, the child can imagine the character of a book based on the written description. This level of visual-verbal matching provides the foundation for reading comprehension and spelling. Visual Visual discrimination is the ability to detect features of stimuli for recognition, matching, and Discrimination categorization. Recognition is the ability to note key features of a stimulus and relate them to memory; matching is the ability to note the similarities among visual stimuli; and categorization is the ability mentally to determine a quality or category by which similarities or differences can be noted. These three abilities require the capability both to note similarities and differences among forms and symbols with increasing complexity and to relate these findings to information previously stored in long-term memory. Visual Visual discrimination is the ability to detect features of stimuli for recognition, matching, and Discrimination categorization. Recognition is the ability to note key features of a stimulus and relate them to memory; matching is the ability to note the similarities among visual stimuli; and categorization is the ability mentally to determine a quality or category by which similarities or differences can be noted. These three abilities require the capability both to note similarities and differences among forms and symbols with increasing complexity and to relate these findings to information previously stored in long-term memory. Object (Form) Two systems that handle different aspects of form recognition: Perception Abstract Visual Form (AVF) System: Handles abstract processing to recognize general types of forms without focusing on specific details. For instance, when a child searches for a soccer ball, they are scanning for any ball, not a particular one. Specific Visual Form (SVF) System: Processes specific details to differentiate between different instances of the same form. For example, the child identifies their own soccer ball among several after practice. Key aspects of form perception include: Form Constancy: Recognizing objects as the same despite changes in environment, position, or size (e.g., identifying the letter "A" regardless of its format or style). Visual Closure: Identifying objects or forms from incomplete presentations by mentally filling in gaps (e.g., recognizing a partly hidden pencil). Figure-Ground Recognition: Differentiating foreground objects from background information, allowing focus on important details (e.g., finding a favorite toy in a cluttered box). Spatial Involves understanding spatial relationships, divided into two types: Perception Categorical Spatial Relations: Concepts like above-below, right-left, on-off. Coordinate Spatial Relations: Precise location information used for accurate movements. Key aspects include: Position in Space/Visual Spatial Orientation: Understanding the spatial relationship between objects and oneself, important for concepts like in, out, up, down, left, and right. It helps with tasks like letter spacing and distinguishing directional differences (e.g., recognizing "p" versus "q"). Depth Perception: Judging the distance between objects and oneself, crucial for activities like walking down stairs or catching a ball. It relies on binocular vision, monocular cues, and parietal lobe function. Topographic Orientation: Determining locations and routes, using cognitive maps to navigate environments. This ability helps with tasks like finding your way in a building or returning to a specific location. Hierarchy of visual-perceptual skills development (Warren, 1993)  VISUAL-PERCEPTUAL PROBLEMS Visual-Receptive Functions are critical for classroom learning, with more than 70% of a student’s day involving tasks that heavily rely on vision. Students with visual dysfunction may struggle with attention, task completion, and learning. Key Points: Early Grades: Visual demands are less intense, with larger and more spaced-out text. Later Grades: Increased visual e ciency is needed due to smaller, denser text and sustained reading tasks. Learning-Related Vision Problems involve: Visual E ciency: Issues like eye coordination and focusing ability. Visual Information Processing: Di culties in recognizing, matching, and recalling visual stimuli. Children with visual dysfunction may show: Di culty completing tasks, Avoidance of reading, Visual fatigue, Distraction or inattention, Oculomotor Problems (eye movement  Memory and Visual Discrimination: Children with visual memory deficits struggle with recognizing, storing, and retrieving visual information. They may have poor recall of visual sequences or spatial memory, leading to di culties in tasks requiring memory of shapes, numbers, or objects. Object (Form) Vision: Children with form constancy problems have trouble recognizing objects in di erent sizes, orientations, or details, a ecting their ability to recognize letters, words, or transition between print styles. Visual closure deficits hinder the ability to identify incomplete objects, and figure-ground issues prevent distinguishing important details in complex environments. Visual search strategies are essential for e cient perception and involve isolating meaningful figures, hypothesizing, and adjusting focus as needed. Good readers typically use more e ective search patterns, demonstrating flexibility and resilience in processing visual information.  Intervention Strategies Infants Using dim lighting to encourage natural eye-opening and focusing on tactile and vestibular stimulation to support the later development of visual senses. For visual engagement, simple forms and three-dimensional objects are recommended, with mobiles placed around 2 feet above and slightly to the side of the infant for better selective attention. High-contrast black-and-white patterns are suggested for full-term infants with visual impairments, with a transition to lower contrast once a response is elicited. Research indicates that infants aged 3 to 5 months are drawn to toys that reflect or flash light with matching sounds, aiding in memory formation. Preschool and A multisensory approach is particularly beneficial for those struggling with shape, letter, and Kindergarten number recognition. For instance, using textured letters allows children to engage multiple senses, aiding their learning. Activities that promote body-in-space concepts, like Statue or Simon Says, can also improve spatial perception. Additionally, shared storybook reading with a focus on print concepts helps increase children’s visual attention to text. Research suggests that kindergartners' letter writing legibility is not significantly affected by the use of lined versus unlined paper, so experimenting with different types may be helpful. Elementary Reducing visual distractions, controlling glare, and ensuring appropriate lighting can help them focus better. School Using tools like carrels can limit peripheral distractions, while proper seating adjustments and alternative visual positions (e.g., prone or side-lying) can support efficient vision use. Color-coded materials may aid attention but can be problematic for children with color vision issues. Adapting strategies like landmarks and signage from research on topographic orientation can also be beneficial for improving children’s wayfinding skills. To improve visual attention, strategies include using headphones to minimize auditory distractions, ensuring good lighting, and using pastel-colored paper to reduce glare. Engaging children with high-interest visuals, such as "Where's Waldo?" books, can enhance visual search skills. Cueing techniques, like pointing or underlining important information, can help maintain focus. Visual tasks should be scheduled when the child is most alert. Strategy training can address distractibility and impulsivity by teaching children to assess the whole situation, take breaks, manage distractions, and use self-instruction and time-pressure management techniques. Visual memory Chunking: Breaking information into smaller units for easier handling. Maintenance Rehearsal: Repeating information to keep it in short-term memory. Elaborative Rehearsal: Connecting new information to existing long-term memories. Mnemonic Devices: Using language cues like songs and acronyms to aid recall. Visualization: Leveraging distinctive features and visual memory to enhance encoding. Games and activities, such as concentration and memory sequences, can improve visual memory. Gradually increasing task complexity helps build memory skills. External aids, like notebooks and labels, can support memory, and arranging tasks to be less memory-demanding can also help. Visual discrimination Therapists can also assist teachers in organizing worksheets, color-coding, and reducing clutter to improve visual attention. Suggestions include cleaning chalkboards for better contrast, reducing print on pages, and using graph paper for math problems. Masking parts of worksheets and applying color contrast principles can further aid children in focusing and identifying important information.  https://youtu. be/7snGM9VBszY?si=FuHei3Y8wH 1Ef1x7 https://bridgingthegap.com.sg/activities-to-improve-visual-perception-skills/ Any Questions? See you in lab this week!  References https://bridgingthegap.com.sg/activities-to-improve-visual-perception-skills/ Case-Smith's Occupational Therapy for Children and Adolescents, authored by Jane Clifford O'Brien and Heather Miller Kuhaneck 58 Free themes and templates for Google Slides or PowerPoint Sharing is caring! NOT to be sold as is or modified! 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