ITP(FINALS) PDF - Theories of Learning

CHAPTER 5: THEORIES OF LEARNING What is learning? It refers to relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of practice, experience or training. 1. Connectionism - by Edward Lee Thorndike – all learning is explained by connections or bonds formed between stimuli and responses. Law...

CHAPTER 5: THEORIES OF LEARNING What is learning? It refers to relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of practice, experience or training. 1. Connectionism - by Edward Lee Thorndike – all learning is explained by connections or bonds formed between stimuli and responses. Laws of readiness – Physiologically and psychologically prepared. Laws of exercise – Repetitions and rehearsals Laws of effect - the consequence of a certain response is favorable or satisfying. 2. Classical Conditioning - by Ivan Pavlov – neutral stimulus gains the ability to elicit a response because it has been paired with unconditioned stimulus/ learning through association. II. ELEMENTS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING A. UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS - natural C. CONDITIONED STIMULUS - neutral stimulus stimulus which automatically elicits a response. which at first cannot elicit a response but after pairing (food) with the UCS is able to elicit CR (bell) B. UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE – automatic D. CONDITIONED RESPONSE - learned response response to the unconditioned stimulus (salivation to to the conditioned stimulus (salivation to the bell) the food) CONCEPTS Stimulus generalization - Giving similar response to stimuli that resemble the original stimulus. Stimulus discrimination- Giving different response to different stimuli Extinction - Disappearance of learned response or the unlearning process Spontaneous recovery - The return of the conditioned response, the relearning process. FEAR EXAMPLE: Watson & Raynor (1920) - demonstration 9-month-old child - Little Albert - beginning of of classical conditioning to emotional responses experiment white rat did not elicit in humans. fear, loud noise did elicit crying and distress. COMMON PHOBIAS acrophobia - fear of high places hydrophobia - fear of water agoraphobia - fear of open places mysophobia - fear of dirt claustrophobia - fear of closed places ophidiophobia - fear of nonpoisonous snakes gynophobia - fear of women 3. Operant Conditioning by Burrhus Frederick Skinner - learning through consequences, there is a need for a performance of task before reinforcement is given. Consequences provide either: Reinforcement increases likelihood of behavior Punishment decreases likelihood of behavior Positive reinforcement - Increases the chance that the response will be repeated. (chores=allowance) Negative reinforcement - one that has to be terminated or withdrawn to increase the likelihood that the response will be repeated. (Not giving a quiz because the class behave properly) Primary reinforcement – stimulus naturally rewarding (food satisfies hunger) Secondary reinforcement – one becomes rewarding because of its association to primary reinforcement (tokens or chips which can be exchanged for money) What is best reinforcement schedule? Fixed Ratio Schedule (Specified number of Fixed Interval Schedule (Specified time) responses) Variable Interval Schedule (Unpredictable time) Variable Ratio Schedule (Unpredictable number of responses) OPERANT CONDITIONING CONCEPTS: A. Extinction - unlearning which means learned C. Behavioral Modification - Possible through response would disappear if not reinforced. reinforcement - Positive punishment administered B. Shaping - is slowly and continually modifying behavior 4. Observational or Social Learning by Albert Bandura - Learning from watching others’ behaviors and “Learner” mimics a “role model” Bandura’s Bobo-Doll Experiment - Children learned to act by watching others 4 PROCESSES INVOLVED IN OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING  Attention – the observer focuses his attention to Motor reproduction – able to perform the task of what distinctive features of the model he wants to imitating the model imitate Motivation – if the result of imitating is pleasurable Retention – the observer should remember the such feelings serves as motivation to continue observed behavior of the model imitating THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE Two kinds of intelligence: 1. Crystallized Intelligence – learning from past 2. Fluid Intelligence - the ability to think and experiences and learning. reason abstractly and solve problems. This type of intelligence is based upon facts and Fluid intelligence peaks in adolescence and begins to rooted in experiences. decline progressively beginning around age 30 or 40. 1. Spearman’s General Intelligence - Theorized that a general intelligence factor (g) underlies other, more specific aspects of intelligence. - Based this on how he noticed people who did well on one test tended to do similarly well on others. 2. Louis L. Thurstone - Intelligence is a cluster of abilities. Believed that there were different “primary mental Looked for a pattern of mental abilities like abilities” each independent from the other. Wechsler. 3. Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences - Author of a contemporary theory of multiple intelligences consisting of eight separate kinds of intelligence. Multiple Intelligences – several independent mental abilities that allow a person to solve problems, create products that are valued within one’s culture. Gardner’s Types of Intelligence: 4. Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence - Author of a Triarchic theory of multiple intelligences consisting of 3 mental abilities. Disagrees with Gardner in calling these Stresses both the universal aspects of intelligences. Instead believes these are talents intelligent behavior and the importance of or abilities. Said Intelligence is a general adapting to a certain social and cultural quality Climate. Also called Successful Intelligence Analytic intelligence - mental processes used in learning how to solve problems Creative intelligence - ability to deal with novel situations by drawing on existing skills and knowledge Practical intelligence - ability to adapt to the environment (street smarts) Sternberg’s Types of Intelligence: 1. Analytic – Analyzing, Comparing, and Evaluating 3. Creative – Inventing and designing 2. Practical – Applying and using 5. Emotional Intelligence - The ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions - People high in emotional intelligence are more in touch with their feelings and the feelings of others. The Wechsler Scales: Verbal Subtests Performance Subtests Information Picture Completion Vocabulary Picture Arrangement Arithmetic Block Design MEMORY Memory – is the ability to remember information, events and experiences MEMORY PROCESSES 1. Encoding - transforming sensory input or information into a code so that the nervous system can process it. 3 Codes used in remembering: a. acoustic codes - saying out loud or to ourselves c. semantic codes – making meaning on objects to repeatedly remember it. b. visual codes - keeping a mental image of the object 2. Storage - encoded information is saved over a period of time; it can remain for few seconds or much longer depending on how important it is. 3. Retrieval - also called “recalling”, process of bringing to mind that which has been stored in memory. Three stages of Memory 1. Sensory Memory- brief storage that immediately follow initial stimulation of receptor Capacity - large can hold many items at once. Attention is needed to transfer information to working memory Types of Sensory Memory: A. Iconic memory - visual sensory memory, C. Haptic memory – for touch hold visual information up to a second D. Gustic memory – for taste B. Echoic memory – auditory information for 1 E. Olfactic memory – for smell to 2 seconds 2. Short-Term Memory/Working Memory – Function stores the things we have in our awareness or consciousness. Capacity - limited (holds 7 to 8 items) 3. Long-Term Memory – Function organizes and stores information and preserving unlimited items of info over long period of time Unlimited capacity Duration—thought by some to be permanent Types of Long-Term Memory>>> Explicit memory - memory with awareness; information can be consciously recollected; also called declarative memory. 1. Episodic memory— Memory tied to your own 2. Semantic memory—information about facts, personal experiences within a definite period of time. general knowledge, school work Ex. Birthday, anniversary Ex. What is psychology? Implicit memory - memory without awareness; memory that affects behavior but cannot consciously be recalled; also called nondeclarative memory. Autobiographical Memory - The recollections people have of their own personal experiences and observations. Flashbulb Memories - Highly vivid and enduring Hindsight Bias - The tendency to think after an event memories, typically for events that are dramatic and that one knew in advance what was going to happen emotional. Childhood Amnesia - The inability of most people to recall events from before the age of three or four Why do we forget? Forgetting can occur at any memory stage Sensory memory - The senses momentarily register amazing detail >>> Short-term memory - A few items are both noticed and encoded >>> Long-term storage - Some items are altered or lost >>> Retrieval from long-term memory - Depending on interference, retrieval cues, moods, and motives. MEASURES OF RETRIEVAL Recall - retrieving what is stored in the LTM without any reminder cues. Ex. Essay and enumeration test 2 types of recall>>>  1. Free recall – answers can be given in no particular 2. Serial recall – answer requires specific order. arrangement Recognition—test of LTM that involves identifying correct information from a series of possible choices Ex. Multiple choice Memory Distortion - Memory can be distorted as people try to fit new info into existing schemas Forgetting Theories>>> 1. Encoding Failures - Even though you’ve seen thousands of pennies, you’ve probably never looked at one closely to encode specific features. 2. Interference Theories - “Memories interfering with memories” Two types of interference: 1. Retroactive Interference - New information 2. Proactive Interference - Forgetting the new one blocks our recall of previously learned information because you are used of the old ones. Example: forgetting your old number because of Example: Memories of where you parked your car your new one. on campus the past week interferes with ability find car today. 3. Motivated Forgetting - Undesired memory is held back from awareness. Suppression—conscious forgetting Repression—unconscious forgetting (Freudian) 4. Decay Theories - Memories fade away or decay gradually if unused. Techniques to improve memory Maintenance Rehearsal - mental or verbal Method of Loci – visualizing object in familiar repetition of information. places Chunking - Process of grouping distinct bits of Mnemonics - Memory aids designed to facilitate the information into larger wholes to increase recall of new information. short-term memory capacity. CHAPTER 7: EMOTION AND MOTIVATION Emotion - is a distinct feeling or quality of consciousness, such as joy or sadness, which reflects the personal significance of an emotion-arousing event. ELEMENTS OF EMOTION 1. The body a. Primary emotions - Emotions generally consist of b. Secondary emotions - These are developed with fear, anger, sadness, joy, surprise, disgust, cognitive maturity and vary across individuals and and contempt. cultures. 2. The Mind. It is said that thoughts may create emotions. When a person thinks on something to happen, then the emotion may be involved. The two-factor theory of emotion states that Cognitive labeling (attribute source of arousal to a emotions are brought by physiological arousal cause). (sweaty palms, increased heart rate, rapid breathing) 3. The Culture. Culture determines what people feel angry, sad, lonely, happy, and ashamed or disgusted about. Areas of emotion: 1. Facial expressions for primary emotions are 3. The Autonomic Nervous System - Lie detectors universal expression of human emotions. or Polygraph testing relies on the autonomic nervous 2. Brain Regions and Circuits. The amygdala is system arousal. During situations of agitation, typical responsible for assessing any eminent threat. measures would include galvanic skin response, Left prefrontal cortex - involved in motivation to increase or decrease in pulse. approach others and damage may result in loss of joy. Right prefrontal cortex - involved in withdrawal and escape wherein damage on the area may result in excessive mania and euphoria. Characteristics of emotion: 1. Adaptive. Emotion can be adaptive and help us 3. Emotional Expressions. These are manifestations deal with changing environment or stress, through of what the person feels such as trembling of hands, repression of emotion. contortions of the face, the person may manifest defensiveness.  2. Physiological Changes. Changes within the body 4. Emotional Feelings. The experiences that a person are a major element of fear, anger, joy, and other may gather will reflection his responses when he or emotions. she is placed on different situations. Theories of emotion: 1. James-Lange Theory (1884-1885). The theory 3. Schachter's Cognitive Theory of Emotion argued that emotional feelings follow bodily arousal. (1971). Stanley Schachter realized that cognitive A person, who may see a snake, can shake, is (mental) factors also enter into emotion. The theory aroused, and then feels fear as he becomes aware of assumes that when an individual is aroused; he has a his body reactions. need to interpret his feelings. 2. Cannon-Bard Theory (1927). The theory 4. The Evolutionary Perspective. The evolutionary proposed that emotional feelings and bodily perspective started in the late 19th century with arousal is both organized by the brain. If the snake is Charles Darwin's publication of a book on the seen as dangerous, then bodily arousal, running, and expression of emotions in man, and animals. feelings of fear will all be generated at the same time. Darwin's original idea was that emotions evolved via Cortex - responsible for emotional feelings and natural selection for reasons of warning other emotional behavior creatures about their intentions. Hypothalamus - is responsible for arousing the body. Classification of emotions: 1. Primary Emotions - These are considered as basic emotions because the emotions may blend in together to form other forms of emotions or reactions on different situations. Plutchik explained that these eight are considered as primary on evolutionary grounds, by relating each to behavior with survival value. 2. Mixed Emotions. Plutchik felt that adjacent emotions can be mixed to yield a third, more complex emotion. And other mixture is still possible. Mixture of emotions: Awe - mixture of fear and surprise Optimism - mixture of anticipation and joy Disappointment - mixture of surprise and sadness Contempt - mixture of disgust and anger Remorse - mixture of sadness and disgust Submission - mixture of acceptance and fear Aggression - mixture of anger and anticipation Love- mixture of joy and acceptance Jealousy - could be a mixture of love, anger, and fear Three major functions of emotions: 1. Emotions are used in order to communicate and 3. Emotions can be self-validating influence others. 2. Emotions can be utilized to organize and motivate action. According to the Yerkes Dodson law, the performance on a task depends on the amount of physiological arousal that an individual would expedience at any point together with the perceived difficulty of the task. Motivation - Motivation can be defined as an internal state or condition, sometimes described as a need, desire, or want. Nature of motivation: 1. Everybody is motivated. Contrary to what people 4. Motivation can be Internal or External Locus of think, everyone is motivated but we are not all Control. When an unusual or negative behavior motivated by the same things. occurs, "The devil made me do it.” One person 2. Reasons of behaving. Looking for the reason becomes angry at another. behind behavior is difficult. Internal Locus of Control - a person may manifest 3. Motivation can be conscious or unconscious. negative behavior caused by himself. a. Conscious Motivations are motivations that are External Locus Control - meanwhile relates the willful and we are aware of, thus, we can provide negative behavior to the poor living environment. rationale and an explanation. b. Unconscious Motivations are motivations that we are not aware of. Theories of motivation: 1. Instinct theory - These “forces” are perceived to be automatic, involuntary, and unlearned behavior patterns or reflexive behavior that are elicited when certain stimuli are present. Freud said that the two motivating forces of the human, the libido and Thanatos were innate and instinctual.  Examples of Eros or life instincts: engaging in sex, Examples of Thanatos or death instincts: engaging eating, and other activities to be alive in aggressive behaviors like fights and stunts and not caring about survival 2. Homeostatic Theories - It can be noted that every living thing has certain biological needs, sex, hunger, thirst, that is caused by imbalance because those variables are absent in the physical body. Two Types of Drives: a. Primary drives - One resulting from biological b. Secondary drives - Drives that result from operant needs, known as the innate drive. conditioning and the association with primary reinforcements. 3. Arousal Theory - The Arousal Theory states that rather than all organisms being motivated to seek to reduce arousal, they seek to maintain an optimal level of arousal and this optimal level varies from organism to organism. Like in the case of extroverts, research shows they have lower level of cortical arousal so they are more likely to seek arousal. 4. Incentive Theory - According to this theory, people and animals are likely to be activated because they have the tendency to be pulled toward a specific goal. Thus, people and animals are motivated by hedonism. They would try to maximize their pleasure and minimize their pain. 5. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs - One of the most popular theories in motivation is Abraham Maslow's Sequential Theory of Development. 6. Freudian Concept of Motivation - According to the theory of Sigmund Freud, sexual or libidinal and aggressive wishes are the primary motivating forces in human life. 7. Other Concepts of Motivation An American psychologist Magda B. Arnold stated that there are three (3) components of motivation: Direction - what a person is trying to do Persistence - how long a person keeps on trying Effort - how hard a person is trying motivation Furthermore, she distinguishes (two) 2 types of factors that influence: Intrinsic – these are self-generated factors such as responsibility, freedom to act, scope to use and develop skills and abilities, perform interesting and challenging works, and opportunities for self-enhancement. Extrinsic - these are motivations coming from the people around the individual. 8. Needs Theory - One of the most influential theories based on the content of motives is the needs theory. This is based on the belief that all behaviors are motivated by unsatisfied needs. 9. Alderfer's ERG Theory - Alderfer's ERG Theory is the expansion of Maslow's hierarchy of needs. He categorized the needs for Existence (E), Relatedness (R), and Growth (G). Alderfer categorized physiological and safety as part of the lower order of needs, the category Existence. 10. McClelland’s Needs - The theory of motivation by David McClelland is based on Henry Murray's (1938) theory of personality, which sets out a comprehensive model of human needs and motivational processes. Three (3) most important needs: Achievement – need for competitive success Power - need to control and influence others measured against a personal. Affiliation - need for warm, friendly relationships with others. 11. Herzberg's Two-factor Model - Frederick Irving Herzberg (1923-2000) is most famous for introducing job enrichment and the Motivator-Hygiene theory. Motivators are the factors that really motivate Hygiene factors are dissatisfiers: Essentially, it people. describes the environment to motivate the individual. 12. Expectancy Theory - Victor Vroom's expectancy theory of motivation explained why individuals choose to follow certain courses of action in organizations, particularly indecision-making and leadership. 13. Goal theory - The goal theory could be explained through the identification of the following dichotomies: Mastery/Performance - Mastery orientation is Approach/Avoidance goals - Basically, not all goals described as the individual's desire to become are directed towards approaching a positive outcome. proficient in a certain topic to the best of his/her Goals can also be directed towards avoiding an ability. undesirable outcome (Elliot, 1997). It is thought that Task/Ego Involvement - This mandates that an approach goals contribute positively to intrinsic individual as a task-involved subject who is motivation whereas avoidance goals do not. interested in the task for its own qualities. This  behavior is associated with higher intrinsic motivation. 14. Adams' Equity Theory - John Stacy Adams' theory pertains to the perceptions of people about how they are being treated as compared with others. Based on the theory, there are two forms of equity: Distributive - fairness people feel they are rewarded Procedural - perceptions of employees about in accordance with them contribution and in fairness of company procedures. comparison, with others. 15. Other Theories of Motivation Behavioral Theory by Burrhus Skinner. Behavior Attribution Theory (Guest) has an explanation of is learned from conditioning through operations and performance after we invested considerable effort learning takes place mainly through reinforcement. and motivation in a task there are four (4) types of Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory gives explanations: ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck. significance of reinforcement as a determinant of Motivation depends on the factor used to explain future behavior, importance of internal psychological success or failure. factors. Classification of motives 1. Physiological Motives - these are motives essential for the survival of man for its existence 1.1 need for hunger 1.4 need for proper elimination of waste 1.2 need for thirst 1.5 need for maintaining proper body temperature 1.3 need for sleep and rest 1.6 sex urges 2. Psychological Motives are motives essential for man to function appropriately as a social being. 2.1 affection 2.4 status 2.2 security and safety 2.5 dependency 2.3 affiliation 2.6 social approval 3. Ego-Integrative Motives are motives that enhance the individual's self-concept. 3.1 recognition 3.3 achievement 3.2 power drive General principles of Motivation: 1. Incentives motivate learning. Incentives include 3. Many behaviors result from a combination of privileges and receiving praises. motives. Motivation is necessary for maintaining or 2. Both affiliation and approval are strong enhancing behavior that strategies should motivators. People tend to look for others with be planned to organize a continuous and interactive whom he could compare his abilities, opinions, and motivational dynamic for maximum effectiveness. emotions. Higher Motivations - Creativity and compassion may be found at the other end of the spectrum that may be considered as higher motivations. CHAPTER 8: PERSONALITY Personality psychology - attempts to study similarities and differences in these patterns among different people and groups. Originates from the Latin word persona, which means “mask.” Began with Hippocrates, a physician in ancient Greece, who theorized that personality traits and human behaviors are based on four separate temperaments associated with four fluids of the body known as “humors”, from the theory of humorism. 4 types of personality theories 1. Trait theory – is focused on identifying and measuring individual personality characteristics. A. Raymond Cattell - developed a list of TRAIT FACTORS that he believed were central to understanding human personality and resulting behaviors. He used a statistical technique of FACTOR ANALYSIS to reduce thousands of words used to describe personality into thirty basic SOURCE TRAITS and a test. B. Warren Norman – featured the Big Five Taxonomy of Personality Traits often called as “The Big Five”: His assessment on personality differences relies on the factor analysis like Raymond Cattell. 1. Openness to experience (Inventive/curious vs. 4. Agreeableness (Friendly/compassionate vs. Consistent/cautious) Cold/unkind)  2. Conscientiousness (Efficient/organized vs. 5. Neurotism vs. emotional stability Easygoing/careless) (Sensitive/nervous vs. Secure/confident) 3. Extraversion vs. Introversion (Outgoing/energetic vs. Solitary/reserved) 2. Humanistic theories - In humanistic psychology, it is emphasized that people have free will and determining how they behave. Ultimate concerns were development of human potential, dignity, and worth. 3. Psychodynamic theory – Violence are instincts and drive Psychoanalytic theory – of personality development, formed through conflicts among three fundamentals structures of human mind: the id, ego, and superego. Ego defense mechanisms – The utilization of psychic energy arising from the id in order to protect the ego. Freud stated that the ego employs a range of defense mechanism to operate at an unconscious level and ward off unpleasant feelings. Freud’s defense mechanisms: 1. Repression – Unknowingly replacing an 5. Reaction formation – Acting in exactly the unpleasant memory or thought in the unconscious. opposite way Ex. Not remembering traumatic incident Ex. Being overprotective of and lavishing attention 2. Regression – Reverting back to immature on an unwanted child. behavior 6. Projection – Attributing one’s own unacceptable Ex. Throwing temper tantrums as an adult feelings and thoughts to others and not yourself. 3. Displacement – Redirecting unacceptable feelings Ex. Accusing your boyfriend of cheating on you from the original source. because you have felt like cheating on him. Ex. Taking your anger toward your boss out on your 7. Rationalization – Creating false excuses for one’s spouse or children. unacceptable feelings. 4. Sublimation – Replacing socially unacceptable Ex. Justifying cheating on an exam by saying that impulses with socially acceptable behavior. everyone cheats. Ex. Channeling aggressive drives into playing football or inappropriate sexual desires into art. The ego in post-Freudian theory 1. The body-ego: physical self as different from 3. The ego-identity: Image we have in a variety of others. social roles. 2. The ego-ideal: Image of ourselves in comparison with an established ideal. Eric Erikson States of Psychosocial Development 4. Cognitive theories - In the cognitive theory, behavior is explained as guided by cognitions or expectations about the world, especially those about other people. Individual psychology - Alfred Adler, who held that the main motives of human thought and behavior are individual man’s striving for superiority and power, partly in compensation for his feeling of inferiority. Psychoanalytic social theory – Karen Horney. Built on the assumption that social, and cultural conditions, especially childhood experiences, are largely responsible for shaping personality. Person centered theory (Carl Rogers) - which is also known as client-centered, non-directive, or Rogerian therapy. Rogers challenged belief that clients cannot understand & resolve their own problems with direct help from experts. Personality Assessment - Understanding the behavior of a particular individual. Interview and observation method – are two methods of collecting qualitative data as part of research. Observation method>>> Naturalistic conditions (spontaneously occurs) Home observation - Behavioral coding system developed by Patterson (1977) and his colleagues Jone, Reid. This observational system was designed for use the homes of pre delinquent boy who exhibit problems in the areas of aggressiveness. School observation - Achenbach's (1994) direct observation form of the child behavior checklist, it is used to assess problem behavior that may be observed in school. Hospital observation - Time sample behavior checklist developed by Gordon Paul and his associates. It is a time-sample behavioral checklist that can be used with chronic psychiatric patients.