ITP Reviewer: Chapter 7-10 PDF

NAME/TERM MEANING OTHER INFORMATION EXPLANATION NI MAAM CHAPTER 7: THINKING, LANGUAGE, AND INTELLIGENCE THINKING - means paying attention to information, representing it mentally, reasoning about it, and making judgments and decisions about it. - Thinking refers to conscious, planned at...

NAME/TERM MEANING OTHER INFORMATION EXPLANATION NI MAAM CHAPTER 7: THINKING, LANGUAGE, AND INTELLIGENCE THINKING - means paying attention to information, representing it mentally, reasoning about it, and making judgments and decisions about it. - Thinking refers to conscious, planned attempts to make sense of and change the world. - Mental processes such as dreaming and daydreaming do not represent thinking; they may be unplanned and proceed more or less on their own. CONCEPTS - mental categories used to group together objects, relations, events, abstractions, or qualities that have common properties. - Concepts are crucial to cognition. - They can represent objects, events, and activities— and visions of things that never were or cannot be measured. - Labels for objects depend on one’s experience with them and on one’s cultural setting - Building blocks of our thinking; how do you explain things; how do you see something PROTOTYPES - good examples.  - They best match the key features of categories ❖ Exempler - a specific example (ex: Which animal seems more birdlike to you: a robin or an ostrich?) Positive instances - We point to a dog and say to a child “dog” or “This is a dog.”; exact example Negative instances - things that are not dogs—are then shown to the child while we say, “This is not a dog.”; not exact example Over-extension - In language development, such over-inclusion of instances in a category (reference to horses as dogs); A child learns the word "dog" and then starts calling all four-legged animals, like horses or cows, "dog. METHODS OF PROBLEM SOLVING Understanding the problem 1. The parts of our mental representation of the problem relate to one another in a meaningful way. 2. The elements of our mental representation of the problem correspond to the elements of the problem in the outer world 3. We have a storehouse of background knowledge that we can apply to the problem. ALGORITHMS - a specific procedure for solving a type of problem. - An algorithm invariably leads to the solution—if it is used properly, that is. - Mathematical formulas like the Pythagorean theorem are examples of algorithms. - They yield correct answers to problems as long as the right formula is used. - Standard procedure or formula to solve problem Anagrams are scrambled words; The task in anagram problems is to try to reorganize jumbles or groups of letters into words. Systematic random search - you would list every possible letter combination, using from one to all five letters. You could use a dictionary or a spell-checking program to see whether each result is, in fact, a word. The method might take awhile, but it would work HEURISTICS or HEURISTIC DEVICES - people use shortcuts to “jump to conclusions”—and these are often correct conclusions. - The shortcuts are called heuristics, or heuristic devices—rules of thumb that help us simplify and solve problems - heuristics do not guarantee a correct solution - Trial and error; fastest way to solve a problem - A heuristic device for solving the anagram problem would be to look for familiar letter combinations and then check the remaining letters for words that include these combinations. In DWARG, for example, we find some familiar combinations: dr and gr. We may then quickly find draw, drag, and grad.  Means-end analysis - In using this heuristic device, we assess the difference between our current situation and our goals and do what we can to reduce this difference. Let’s say that you are out in your car and have gotten lost. One heuristic device based on analysis of what you need to do to get to where you want to go might be to ask for directions; to achieve our goals. ANALOGY - partial similarity among things that are different in other ways. - The analogy heuristic applies the solution of an earlier problem to the solution of a new one. - We use the analogy heuristic whenever we try to solve a new problem by referring to a previous problem. FACTORS THAT AFFECT PROBLEM SOLVING EXPERTISE - Experts solve problems more efficiently and rapidly than novices do. - Generally speaking, people who are experts at solving a certain kind of problem. - Novick and Coté (1992) found that the solutions to the anagram problems seemed to “pop out” in under two seconds among experts. Parallel processing - they dealt simultaneously with two or more elements of the problems. Serial Processing - to handle one element of the problem at a time MENTAL SETS - the tendency to respond to a new problem with the same approach that helped solve similar problems. - Mental sets usually make our work easier, but they can mislead us when the similarity between problems is illusory. - Like sticking to what we know (solution) instead of thinking of new solutions. INSIGHT - in Gestalt psychology, a sudden perception of relationships among elements of the mentally represented elements of a problem that permits its solution. - Capacity to use anything around us INCUBATION - in problem solving refers to standing back from the problem for a while as some process within may continue to work on it. Later, the answer may come to us in a flash of insight. - Give time to refresh our mind then balikan nag problem FUNCTIONAL FIXEDNESS  - tendency to think of an object in terms of its name or its familiar function. - may hinder problem solving - Fixated na yong tingin na ang purpose na dito lang pwede gamitin (ex: scissors) JUDGMENT AND DECISION MAKING HEURISTICS IN DECISION MAKING Representativeness Heuristic - according to this decision-making heuristic, people make judgments about events (samples) according to the populations of events that they appear to represent (ex: coins - T H H T H T) Availability Heuristics - according to this heuristic, our estimates of frequency or probability are based on how easy it is to find examples of relevant events; sariling frequency o own statistics na mayroong available sa utak mo Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristics - in forming opinions or making estimates, we have an initial view, or presumption. This is the anchor. As we receive additional information, we make adjustments, sometimes grudgingly; may bias; it can sway your opinion. (ex: religion) FRAMING EFFECT - refers to the way in which wording, or the context in which information is presented, affects decision making (ex: political groups, ads) - choosing right words to persuade people OVERCONFIDENCE - Whether our decisions are correct or incorrect, most of us tend to be overconfident about them. - We also tend to view our situations with 20/20 hindsight. - When we are proven wrong, we frequently find a way to show that we “knew it all along.” - We also become overconfident that we would have known the actual outcome if we had had access to the information that became available after the event MOTIVATED REASONING - something like a vacuum cleaner. - making decisions and judgments on the basis of emotion rather than careful evaluation of all the available evidence. INTELLIGENCE - is the underlying ability to understand the world and cope with its challenges - a general mental capability that involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly, and learn from experience - Ability to think positively and negatively Factor theories - argue that intelligence is made up of a number of mental abilities, ranging from one kind of ability to hundreds. Charles Spearman - British psychologist, suggested that the behaviors we consider intelligent have a common underlying factor that he labeled: G - “general intelligence” or broad reasoning and problem-solving abilities. S - specific or factors account for specific abilities PRIMARY MENTAL ABILITIES - according to Thurstone, the basic abilities that make up intelligence examples include word fluency and numerical ability Visual and spatial abilities - Visualizing forms and spatial relationships Perceptual speed - Grasping perceptual details rapidly, perceiving similarities and differences between stimuli Numerical ability - Computing numbers Verbal meaning - Knowing the meanings of words Memory - Recalling information (e.g., words and sentences) Word fluency - Thinking of words quickly (e.g., rhyming and doing crossword puzzles) Deductive reasoning - Deriving examples from general rules Inductive reasoning- Inferring general rules from examples THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES - the theory of multiple intelligences proposes, instead, that there are a number of intelligences, not just one. - Gardner refers to each kind of intelligence in his theory as “an intelligence” because they can differ so much. 9 TYPES OF INTELLIGENCES 1. language ability 2. logical–mathematical ability 3. bodily–kinesthetic talents (of the sort shown by dancers and athletes) 4. musical talent 5. spatial– relations skills 6. awareness of one’s own inner feelings (personal intelligence) 7. sensitivity to other people’s feelings (personal intelligence) 8. naturalist intelligence - ability to look at natural events, such as kinds of animals and plants, or the stars above, and to develop insights into their nature and the laws that govern their behavior. 9. existential intelligence - dealing with the larger philosophical issues of life. THE TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE - Psychologist Robert Sternberg (2000; 2016) has constructed a three-pronged or triarchic theory of intelligence  1. Analytical intelligence - can be defined as academic ability. - It enables us to solve problems and acquire new knowledge. - It is the type of intelligence measured by standard intelligence tests. - Problem-solving skills include encoding information, combining and comparing bits of information, and generating a solution. 2. Creative intelligence - defined by the ability to cope with novel situations and generate many possible solutions to problems. - It is creative to quickly relate novel situations to familiar situations (i.e., to perceive similarities and differences) - Magaling sa decision-making 3. Practical intelligence (“street smarts”) - enables people to deal with other people, including difficult people, and to meet the demands of their environment. - Street smarts appear to help people get by in the real world, especially with other people, but are not particularly predictive of academic success. THE MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE 1. THE STANFORD–BINET INTELLIGENCE SCALE  - The commonsense notion that academic achievement depends on children’s intelligence led Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon to invent measures of intelligence. - Binet assumed that intelligence increases with age, so older children should get more items right than younger children. - The Binet–Simon scale yielded a score called a mental age (MA). The MA shows the intellectual level at which a child is functioning.For example, a child with an MA of 6 is functioning intellectually like the average six-year-old. In taking the test, children earned “months” of credit for each correct answer. Their MA was determined by adding up the years and months of credit they attained - The SBIS also yielded an intelligence quotient (IQ). The IQ reflects the relationship between a child’s mental age and his or her actual or chronological age (CA). 2. THE WECHSLER SCALES - David Wechsler developed a series of scales for use with children and adults. The Wechsler scales group test questions into a number of separate subtests. Each subtest measures a different intellectual task. - Wechsler scales highlight people’s relative strengths and weaknesses, as well as measure overall intellectual functioning. DIFFERENCES IN INTELLECTUAL FUNCTIONING 1. SOCIOECONOMIC AND ETHNIC DIFFERENCES - There is a body of research suggestive of differences in intelligence—or, more precisely, intelligence test scores—between socioeconomic and ethnic groups. - Most psychologists believe that such ethnic differences reflect cultural attitudes toward education rather than inborn racial differences (Nisbett et al., 2012). That is, the Asian children may be more motivated to work in school. Research shows that Chinese and Japanese students and their mothers tend to attribute academic successes to hard work (Bae et al., 2008). European Americans are relatively more likely to attribute their children’s academic successes to “natural” ability (Bae et al., 2008). 2. GENDER DIFFERENCES - It was once widely believed that males were more intelligent than females because of their greater knowledge of world affairs and their skills in science and industry. But these differences did not reflect differences in cognitive ability. Rather, they reflected exclusion of females from world affairs, science, and industry. Moreover, intelligence tests do not show overall gender differences in cognitive abilities (Miller & Halpern, 2014). - Reviews of the research suggest that girls are somewhat superior to boys in verbal abilities, such as vocabulary, ability to generate sentences and words that are similar in meaning to other words, spelling, knowledge of foreign languages, and pronunciation (Andreano & Cahill, 2009; Halpern, 2012)  - Males seem to do somewhat better at manipulating visual images in working memory. Males as a group excel in visual– spatial abilities of the sort used in math, science, and map-reading (Gold et al., 2018; Yazzie, 2010). - In most cases, gender differences in cognitive skills are small. NATURE AND NURTURE IN INTELLIGENCE Nature - Genes and heredity GENETICS INFLUENCES ON INTELLIGENCE - studies generally suggest that the heritability of intelligence is between 40% and 60% (Neisser et al., 1996; Plomin et al., 2013). In other words, about half of the difference between your IQ score and the IQ scores of other people can be explained by heredity. Nurture - nadedevelop through experiences ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON INTELLIGENCE THE HOME ENVIRONMENT - The home environment and styles of parenting also affect IQ scores (Bradley, 2006). Children of parents who are emotionally and verbally responsive, furnish appropriate play materials, are involved with their children, encourage independence, and provide varied daily experiences obtain higher IQ scores later on. EDUCATION - Although intelligence is viewed as permitting people to profit from education, education also apparently contributes to intelligence.  - Head Start programs, for example, enhance the IQ scores, achievement test scores, and academic skills of disadvantaged children (Bierman et al., 2008) by exposing them to materials and activities that middle-class children take for granted. These include letters and words, numbers, books, exercises in drawing, pegs and pegboards, puzzles, toy animals, and dolls. THE FLYNN EFFECT - Psychologist Richard Nisbett (2009) argues that our genetic codes could not possibly have changed enough in half a century to account for this enormous difference and concludes that social and cultural factors such as the effects of improved educational systems and the penetration of the mass media must be among the reasons for the change. CHAPTER 8: Motivation And Emotion The Psychology of Motivation The psychology of motivation is concerned with the why of behavior. Why do we eat? Why do some of us strive to get ahead? Why do some of us ride motor-eyeles at breakneck speeds? Why are some people aggressive? Why were the Seekers in a state of discomfort when the prophecy failed? MOTIVATION - the state in which an organism experiences an inducement or incentive to do something. MOTIVE - a hypothetical state within an organism that propels the organism toward a goal. - hypothetical states that activate behavior, propelling us toward goals. We call them hypothetical states because motives are not seen and measured directly. NEED - a state of deprivation. DRIVE - a condition of arousal in an organism that is associated with a need. INCENTIVE - an object, person, or perceived as capable of satisfying a need or as desirable for its own sake. - Money, food, a sexually attractive person, social approval, and attention can all act as incentives. - INSTINCT - involving an inherited disposition to activate specific behavior patterns that enable an organism to reach specific goals THEORIES OF MOTIVATION The EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE notes that many animals are neurally "prewired" — that is, born with preprogrammed tendencies to respond to certain situations in certain ways (Morgenson, 2018; Shackelford & Hansen, 2014). - Spiders spin webs by instinct. Birds build nests by instinct. Bees "dance instinctively to communicate the location of food to other bees. DRIVE-REDUCTION THEORY - the view that organisms learn to engage in behaviors that have the effect of reducing drives. HOMEOSTASIS - the tendency of the body to maintain a steady state. THE SEARCH FOR STIMULATION Physical needs give rise to drives like hunger and thirst. In such cases, we are motivated to reduce the TENSION OR STIMULATION that impinges on us. However, in the case of STIMULUS MOTIVES, organisms seek to INCREASE STIMULATION (Harlow, 1953). HUMANISTIC THEORY SELF-ACTUALIZATION according to Maslow and other humanistic psychologists, self-initiated striving to become what one is capable of being.  HIERARCHY OF NEEDS Maslow's ordering of needs from most basic (physiological needs such as hunger and thirst) to most elaborate and sophisticated (self-actualization). COGNITIVE-DISSONANCE THEORY According to cognitive-dissonance theory, people are generally motivated to hold consistent beliefs and to justify their behavior. That is why we are generally more likely to appreciate what we must work to obtain. HUNGER Biological Influences on Hunger SATIETY the state of being satisfied; fullness VENTROMEDIAL NUCLEUS (VMN) a central area on the underside of the hypothalamus that appears to function as a stop-eating center HYPERPHAGIC characterized by excessive eating LATERAL HYPOTHALAMUS an area at the side of the hypothalamus that appears to function as a start-eating center APHAGIC characterized by undereating EATING DISORDERS ANOREXIA NERVOSA a life-threatening eating disorder characterized by dramatic weight loss and a distorted body image FEMALE ATHLETE TRIAD a problem affecting female athletes, especially in college, involving (1) low energy, (2) menstrual problems, and (3) loss of bone density. BULIMIA NERVOSA an eating disorder characterized by repeated cycles of binge eating and purging. SEXUAL MOTIVATION AND SEXUAL ORIENTATION HORMONES AND SEXUAL MOTIVATION ACTIVATING EFFECT the arousal-producing effects of sex hormones that increase the likelihood of sexual behavior ESTRUS the periodic sexual excitement of many female mammals as governed by levels of sex hormones SEXUAL RESPONSE AND SEXUAL BEHAVIOR SEXUAL RESPONSE CYCLE Masters and Johnson's model of sexual response, which consists of four stages or phases: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution VASOCONGESTION engorgement of blood vessels with blood, which swells the genitals and breasts during sexual arousal MYOTONIA muscle tension EXCITEMENT PHASE the first phase of the sexual response cycle, which is characterized by muscle tension, increases in the heart rate, and erection in the male and vaginal lubrication in the female PLATEAU PHASE the second phase of the sexual response cycle, which is characterized by increases in vasocongestion, muscle tension, heart rate, and blood pressure in preparation for orgasm EJACULATION the process of propelling seminal fluid (semen) from the penis ORGASM the height or climax of sexual excitement, involving involuntary muscle contractions, release of sexual torsions, and usually, subjective feelings of pleasure RESOLUTION PHASE the fourth phase of the sexual response cycle, during which the body gradually returns to its pre-aroused state REFRACTORY PERIOD in the sexual response cycle, a period of time following orgasm during which an individual is not responsive to sexual stimulation. SEXUAL ORIENTATION AND GENDER  LGBT ACTIVIST a person who fights for the rights of lesbians, gay males, bisexuals, and transgendered people HOMOSEXUAL referring to people who are sexually aroused by, and interested in forming romantic relationships with, people of the same gender - People who are exclusively erotically attracted to people of their own sex are labeled homosexual. - Homosexuals include gay males and lesbians (females). GAY - a male homosexual LESBIAN - a female homosexual HETEROSEXUAL referring to people who are sexually aroused by, and interested in forming romantic relationships with, people of the other gender - People who are heterosexual are erotically attracted to people of the other sex. But it's not all about sex. Homosexuals and heterosexuals also prefer to develop romantic relationships with, respectively, people of their own sex or people of the other sex. GENDER IDENTITY one's psychological sense of being female, male, or somewhere in between - One's gender identity refers to one's sense of whether a person sees herself or himself as being female, male, or somewhere in between. GENDER NONCONFORMITY means not behaving in a way that is consistent with the gender-role stereotype associated with one's sex in a given culture. ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION EXTRINSIC VERSUS INTRINSIC MOTIVES EMOTION a state of feeling that has cognitive, physiological, and behavioral components SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (SPEND) - the branch of the autonomic nervous system that is most active during processes that spend body energy from stored reserves, such as in a fight-or- flight reaction to a predator or when you are anxious about a big test PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (RESTORE) - the branch of the autonomic nervous system that is most active during processes that restore reserves of energy to the body, such as relaxing and eating THE EXPRESSIONS OF EMOTIONS POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY the field of psychology that is about personal well-being and satisfaction; joy, sensual pleasure, and happiness; and optimism and hope for the future FACIAL-FEEDBACK HYPOTHESIS the view that stereotypical facial expressions can contribute to stereotypical emotion THEORIES OF EMOTION 1. JAMES-LANGE THEORY - our behavioral responses to events. - According to William James and Karl G. Lange (1922), certain external stimuli instinctively trigger specific patterns of arousal and action, such as fighting or fleeing - The James–Lange theory is consistent with the facial-feedback hypothesis. That is, SMILING apparently can induce pleasant feelings, even if the effect may not be strong enough to overcome deep feelings of sadness. - The theory also suggests that we may be able to change our feelings by changing our behavior. Changing one’s behavior to change one’s feelings is one aspect of behavior therapy - EXAMPLE: A dog runs toward you, your heart starts beating fast, your palms get sweaty, and your legs might get shaky. Because of these reactions, your brain figures out what’s happening and thinks, "Oh no, I must be scared!" (It’s like your body reacts first, and then your brain decides what emotion matches those reactions) 2. CANNON-BARD THEORY - Both your body reactions and your emotions happen together. - Walter Cannon (1927) and Philip Bard (1934) suggested that an event might simultaneously trigger bodily responses (arousal and action) and the experience of an emotion. - EXAMPLE: You're about to ride a rollercoaster, your brain quickly understands that it's going to be a thrilling experience. At the same time, your heart starts racing, and you feel excited or nervous. {Both the body reactions (like your heart racing) and the emotion (feeling excited or scared) happen together.} 3. THEORY OF COGNITIVE APPRAISAL - Stanley Schachter asserts that many emotions have similar patterns of bodily arousal but that the labels we give them depend largely on our cognitive appraisal (judge) of our situations. Cognitive appraisal is based on many factors, including our perception of events and the ways other people respond to those events. - In a classic experiment, Schachter and Singer (1962) showed that arousal can be labeled quite differently, depending on the situation. - EXAMPLE: You have a big test coming up. If you think, "Oh no, I didn’t study enough and I might fail," you’ll probably feel nervous or worried. But if you think, "I’ve studied a lot and I’m ready for this," you’ll feel more confident and calm. (your feelings depend on how you think about the test. If you think it's scary,  you’ll feel scared. If you think you can handle it, you’ll feel ready. Your brain decides how you feel based on your thoughts about the situation.) CHAPTER 9: THE VOYAGE THROUGH THE LIFESPAN 9-1 PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT STAGES OF PRENATAL 1. Germinal stage - The period from conception to implantation. zygote - a fertilized ovum (egg cell) - Divide repeatedly and get implanted in the uterine wall. 2. embryonic stage - lasts from implantation until about the eighth week of development.  - During this stage, the major body organ systems take form. - The growth of the head precedes that of other parts of the body. The growth of the organs— heart, lungs, and so on—also precedes the growth of the extremities. - During the second month, the nervous system begins to transmit messages. - By five to six weeks, the embryo is only a quarter-inch to a half-inch long, yet nondescript sex organs have formed. - By the end of the second month, the head has become rounded and the facial features distinct amniotic sac - a sac within the uterus that contains the embryo or fetus placenta - a membrane that permits the exchange of nutrients and waste products between the mother and her developing child but does not allow the maternal and fetal bloodstreams to mix umbilical cord - a tube between the mother and her developing child through which nutrients and waste products are conducted 3. fetal stage - lasts from the beginning of the third month until birth. - By the end of the third month, the major organ systems and the fingers and toes have formed. - In the middle of the fourth month, the mother usually detects the first fetal movements. - By the end of the sixth month, the fetus moves its limbs so vigorously that mothers often feel that they are being kicked. - The fetus opens and shuts its eyes, sucks its thumb, and alternates between periods of wakefulness and sleep. - During the three months prior to birth, the organ systems of the fetus continue to mature. - The heart and lungs become increasingly capable of sustaining independent life. 9-2 CHILDHOOD: PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT Reflexes - a simple inborn response to a stimulus rooting - the turning of an infant’s head toward a touch, such as by the mother’s nipple Sucking - automatically suck objects that touch their lips. Withdrawal Reflex - avoid painful stimuli (ex: napahawak sa mainit, automatic aalisin nila) Startle or Moro Reflex - they draw up their legs and arch their backs in response to sudden noises, bumps, or loss of support while being held Grasp or Palmar Reflex - They grasp objects that press against the palms of their hands Babinski reflex - They fan their toes when the soles of their feet are stimulated Motor development - refers to the progression from simple acts like lifting the head to running around. - Maturation and experience both play key roles in motor development. - Children go through a sequence that includes rolling over, sitting up, crawling, creeping, walking, and running Perceptual Development - Within a couple of days, infants can follow, or “track,” a moving light with their eyes. - By three months, they can discriminate most colors. fixation time - the amount of time spent looking at a visual stimulus 9-3 CHILDHOOD: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT - ways in which children mentally represent and think about the world—that is, their cognitive development. JEAN PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY assimilation - according to Piaget, the inclusion of a new event into an existing schema - Trying to fit new informations into ideas or actions you already have in your brain (explanation ni maam) - EXAMPLE: babies already know how to suck on things like bottles or pacifiers. When they get a new toy, they might try to suck on it too because that’s what they know how to do. schema - according to Piaget, a hypothetical mental structure that permits the classification and organization of new information Accommodation - according to Piaget, the modification of schemas so that information inconsistent with existing schemas can be integrated or understood - modify or change your schema (your mental idea or framework) to fit new information (explanation ni maam) - EXAMPLE: A child might think all animals in water are fish because that's what they know. But when they learn that whales live in water and are not fish, they have to change their thinking. They make a new idea, like "mammals that live in water," to include whales. PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years old) - the first of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, characterized by coordination of sensory information and motor activity, early exploration of the environment, and lack of language - Uses their senses and motors to make sense of the world (explanation ni maam)  object permanence - recognition that objects removed from sight still exist, as demonstrated in young children by continued pursuit preoperational stage (2 to 7 years old) - the second of Piaget’s stages, characterized by illogical use of words and symbols, spotty logic, and egocentrism egocentrism - according to Piaget, the assumption that others view the world as one does oneself Animism - They attribute life and consciousness to physical objects like the sun and the moon Artificialism - They believe that environmental events like rain and thunder are human inventions. Law of Conservation - according to Piaget, recognition that basic properties of substances such as weight and mass remain the same when superficial features change objective responsibility - according to Piaget, the assignment of blame according to the amount of damage done rather than the motives of the actor concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years old) - Piaget’s third stage, characterized by logical thought concerning tangible objects, conservation, and subjective morality Decentration - simultaneous focusing on more than one dimension of a problem, so that flexible, reversible thought becomes possible subjective moral judgment - according to Piaget, moral judgment that is based on the motives of the perpetrator Reversibility - recognition that many processes can be reversed or undone so that things are restored to their previous condition. LEV VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY - focuses instead on the ways in which children’s cognitive development is influenced by the cultures in which they are reared and the people who teach them. zone of proximal development (ZPD) - Vygotsky’s term for the situation in which a child carries out tasks with the help of someone who is more skilled, frequently an adult who represents the culture in which the child develops - Kaya mo siyang gawin pero need mo ng may kasama para gawin ito (tumutulong na) - explanation ni maam scaffolding - Vygotsky’s term for temporary cognitive structures or methods of solving problems that help the child as he or she learns to function independently - Support and assistance (pag once alam na natin gagawin, inaalis na nila yong support) - explanation ni maam LAWRENCE KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT  - As a stage theorist, Kohlberg argues that the stages of moral reasoning follow a specific sequence. preconventional level - Children at this level base their moral judgments on the consequences of behavior - according to Kohlberg, evaluating importance of individual needs and personal conscience in regard to maintenance of the social order stage 1 - is oriented toward obedience and punishment. Good behavior is obedient and allows one to avoid punishment. stage 2 - good behavior allows people to satisfy their needs and those of others. conventional level - Right and wrong are judged by conformity to conventional (e.g., familial, religious, societal) standards of right and wrong. - according to Kohlberg, a period during which moral judgments largely reflect social conventions; a “law and order” approach to morality stage 3 - “good-boy orientation,” moral behavior is that which meets the needs and expectations of others stage 4 - moral judgments are based on rules that maintain the social order. Postconventional moral reasoning - is more complex and focuses on dilemmas in which individual needs are pitted against the need to maintain the social order and on personal conscience. 9-4 CHILDHOOD: SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT ERIK ERIKSON’S STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT According to Erik Erikson, we undergo several stages of psychosocial development. - During Erikson’s first stage, trust versus mistrust, we depend on our primary caregivers (usually our parents) and come to expect that our environments will—or will not—meet our needs. - Toddlers through about the age of three are said to be in the stage of autonomy versus shame and doubt. During this period, their relationships with parents and friends can encourage the development of self-direction and initiative, or feelings of shame and guilt. Children in this stage need to develop feelings of self-control over physical functions—such as toileting—and a sense of independence. One of the ways that many children demonstrate their growing autonomy, much to the dismay of their parents, is by refusing to comply with parental requests or commands. - Erikson believed that children are in the stage of initiative versus guilt through about the age of five, in which they begin to assert control over the environment and strive to master adult skills. - Erikson labeled the years of about 6 to 12 the stage of industry versus inferiority, during which children meet academic and social challenges in school. A positive outcome contributes to a sense of industry, whereas setbacks can lead to feelings of inferiority. ATTACHMENT Attachment - the enduring affectional tie that binds one person to another strange situation method - how infants respond to separations and reunions with a caregiver (usually the mother) and a stranger 1. Secure attachment. - Securely attached infants mildly protest their mother’s departure, seek interaction upon reunion, and are readily comforted by her. 2. Avoidant attachment. - Infants who show avoidant attachment are least distressed by their mother’s departure. They play by themselves without fuss and ignore their mothers when they return. 3. Ambivalent/resistant attachment. - Infants with ambivalent/resistant attachment are the most emotional. They show severe signs of distress when their mother leaves and show ambivalence upon reunion by alternately clinging to and pushing their mother away when she returns. PHASES OF ATTACHMENT 1. initial-preattachment phase - which lasts from birth to about three months and is characterized by indiscriminate attachment. That is, babies prefer being held or being with someone to being alone, but they are generally willing to be held by unfamiliar people. 2. attachment-in-the-making phase - which occurs at about three or four months and is characterized by preference for familiar figures. 3. clear-cut attachment phase - which occurs at about six or seven months and is characterized by intensified dependence on the primary caregiver. PARENTING STYLES authoritative parents - parents who are strict and warm; authoritative parents demand mature behavior but use reason rather than force in discipline - They communicate properly (sabi ni maam) - Academically performing, self-reliance - mostly ganyan yong anak (di daw lahat sabi ni maam) authoritarian parents - parents who are rigid in their rules and who demand obedience for the sake of obedience - They communicated poorly, did not support. Don't honor or opinions of their child (sabi ni maam)  - Often mailag sa tao or withdrawn, aggresive, didn't do well in school - mostly ganyan yong anak (di daw lahat sabi ni maam) permissive parents - parents who impose few, if any, rules and who do not supervise their children closely - Easy going, allowed their child what they want; communicate poorly (sabi ni maam) - Less mature, impulsive, moody - mostly ganyan yong anak (di daw lahat sabi ni maam) uninvolved parents - parents who generally leave their children to themselves - Hindi maramdaman, don't communicate and dont support (sabi ni maam) - Poorer grades, party-goer - mostly ganyan yong anak (di daw lahat sabi ni maam) 9-5 ADOLESCENCE COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT formal operational stage - Piaget’s fourth stage, characterized by abstract logical thought and deduction from principles ADOLESCENT EGOCENTRISM - Adolescents in the formal operational stage can reason deductively. They classify objects or people and then draw conclusions about them. - Too proud about themselves; don’t accept the other opinions (sabi ni maam) imaginary audience - an aspect of adolescent egocentrism; the belief that other people are as concerned with our thoughts and behaviors as we are - Nagiging conscious self (sabi ni maam) adolescence - the period of life bounded by puberty and the assumption of adult responsibilities PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT puberty - the period of physical development during which sexual reproduction first becomes possible secondary sex characteristics - characteristics that distinguish females from males, such as distribution of body hair and depth of voice, but that are not directly involved in reproduction menarche - the beginning of menstruation personal fable - another aspect of adolescent egocentrism; the belief that our feelings and ideas are special and unique and that we are invulnerable postconventional level - according to Kohlberg, a period during which moral judgments are derived from moral principles and people look to themselves to set moral standards stage 5 - it is recognized that laws stem from agreed-upon procedures and that the rule of law is in general good for society; therefore, laws should not be violated except under pressing circumstances Stage 6 - moral reasoning demands adherence to supposedly universal ethical principles such as the sanctity of human life, individual dignity, justice, and the Golden Rule (“Do unto others as you would have them do unto you”). If a law is unjust or contradicts the rights of the individual, it is wrong to obey it. SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT RELATIONSHIPS WITH PARENTS AND PEERS - Adolescents spend much less time with their parents than they did as children - Parent–adolescent conflict is greatest during puberty and declines in later adolescence - role of peers as a source of activities, influence, and support increases during the teen years EGO IDENTITY VERSUS ROLE DIFFUSION ego identity - Erikson’s term for a firm sense of who one is and what one stands for role diffusion - Erikson’s term for lack of clarity in one’s life roles (due to failure to develop ego identity) 9-6 EMERGING ADULTHOOD emerging adulthood - period of development, roughly spanning the ages of 18 to 25, during which time many young people in affluent nations attend college and graduate school, sort out identity issues, and create life plans Jeffrey Arnett (2014) hypothesizes that five features distinguish the stage of emerging adulthood that is sandwiched between the stages of adolescence, which precedes it, and young adulthood, which follows it: 1. The age of identity exploration. - Many people of the ages from 18 or 20 to about 25 or 30 are on the path to making vital choices in terms of their love lives and their career lives. They are experimenting with romantic partners and career possibilities. 2. The age of instability. - Americans today average about seven different jobs between 20 and 29. They frequently change romantic partners—sometimes by choice, sometimes because the partner decides to move on. They may move from place to place with little if  any furniture. And they frequently change educational directions, finding what they like, finding what they can do, and finding what is available. 3. The age of self-focus. - People are exceptionally self-focused during emerging adulthood (Arnett, 2014). They are freer to make decisions than they are as children or adolescents. They are more mature, more independent from parental influences, and usually have more resources. 4. The age of feeling in-between. - Emerging adults are similar to adolescents in one way: Whereas adolescents may feel that they exist somewhere between childhood and adulthood, emerging adults are likely to think that they are swimming between adolescence and “real” adulthood. 5. The age of possibilities. - Emerging adults typically feel that the world lies open before them. Like the majority of adults, they have an optimistic bias (Arnett, 2014). They believe that things will work out. Yet some of them have a “revolving door” existence: they leave home and then return, according to the ebb and flow of financial and emotional resources. 9-7 ADULTHOOD PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT EARLY ADULTHOOD - Physical development peaks in early adulthood. - Strengths, reaction time - sharped (sabi ni maam) - Stable height and weight (sabi ni maam) MIDDLE ADULTHOOD - In our middle years, we are unlikely to possess the strength, coordination, and stamina that we had during our 20s and 30s. - Women undergo menopause - the cessation of menstruation LATE ADULTHOOD - An age quake is coming - Various changes—some of them troublesome—do occur during the later years - Changes in calcium metabolism increase the brittleness of the bones and heighten the risk of breaks due to falls. - The skin becomes less elastic and subject to wrinkles and folds. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT crystallized intelligence - one’s lifetime of intellectual achievement, as shown largely through vocabulary and knowledge of world affairs - Develops more as you grow older (sabi ni maam) - Acquire information, experiences, knowledge (sabi ni maam) fluid intelligence - mental flexibility as shown in learning rapidly to solve new kinds of problems - Umuunti ang knowledge as you grow older (sabi ni maam) Alzheimer’s disease - a progressive form of mental deterioration characterized by loss of memory, language, problem solving, and other cognitive functions SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT EARLY ADULTHOOD - Many theorists suggest that early adulthood is the period of life during which people tend to establish themselves as independent members of society - Erikson (1963) characterized young adulthood as the stage of intimacy versus isolation. Erikson saw the establishment of intimate relationships as central to young adulthood. MIDDLE ADULTHOOD - Erikson (1963) labeled the life crisis of the middle years of generativity versus stagnation. Generativity - involves doing things that we believe are worthwhile, such as rearing children or producing on the job. He theorized that generativity enhances and maintains self-esteem. - also involves making the world a better place through joining church or civic groups Stagnation - means treading water, as in keeping the same job at the same pay for 30 years or neglecting to rear one’s children. Stagnation damages self-esteem. - empty-nest syndrome - a sense of depression and loss of purpose felt by some parents when the youngest child leaves home. MIDDLE-AGED CHILDREN AND AGING PARENTS: THE “SANDWICH GENERATION” - Because of increasing life expectancy, more than half of the middle-aged people in developed nations have at least one living parent, and they frequently go on to late adulthood together. LATE ADULTHOOD - Generativity does not end with middle age. Research suggests that many individuals in late adulthood continue to be creative and also to maintain a firm sense of who they are and what they stand for. - According to psychologist Erik Erikson, late adulthood is the stage of ego integrity versus despair. (looking back to your accomplish; content and regret) sandwich generation - people in middle adulthood who are responsible for meeting the needs of their children yet also responsible for aging parents (magkasama yung child, parents and grandparents) selective optimization with compensation - reshaping of one’s life to concentrate on what one finds to be important and meaningful in the face of physical decline and possible cognitive impairment. SUCCESSFUL AGING - The concept of successful aging in some ways addresses aging from a very different perspective CHAPTER 10: PERSONALITY: THEORY AND MEASUREMENT 10-1 THE PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE SIGMUND FREUD’S THEORY OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT Freud concluded that the human mind is like an iceberg. Only the tip of an iceberg rises above the surface of the water; the great mass of it lies hidden in the depths. Freud labeled the region that pokes into the light of awareness the conscious part of the mind. He called the regions below the surface the preconscious and the unconscious. The preconscious mind contains ideas that are out of awareness but can be made conscious by focusing on them. The unconscious mind is shrouded in mystery. It contains primitive instincts such as sex and aggression. Repression is defined as the automatic ejection of anxiety-evoking ideas from awareness. People forget many ugly experiences, and some research evidence suggests that people might repress them THE STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY Freud spoke of mental or psychic structures to describe the clashing forces of personality. Psychic structures cannot be seen or measured directly, but their presence is suggested by behavior, expressed thoughts, and emotions. three psychic structures: 1. the id - present at birth. It represents biological drives and is entirely unconscious. Freud described the id as “a chaos, a cauldron of seething excitations.” The pleasure principle. It demands instant gratification. 2. the ego - begins to develop during the first year of life, largely because a child’s demands for gratification cannot all be met immediately. The ego stands for reason and good sense, for rational ways of coping with frustration. The ego is guided by the reality principle. It also provides the conscious sense of self 3. the superego  - develops as the child incorporates the moral standards and values of parents and other members of the community. It functions according to the moral principle. It holds up shining models of an ideal self and monitors the intentions of the ego, handing out judgments of right and wrong. STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT Freud believed that a major instinct, eros, aims to preserve and perpetuate life. Eros is fueled by psychological, or psychic, energy, which Freud labeled libido. Libidinal energy involves sexual impulses As the child develops, this energy is expressed through sexual feelings in different parts of the body, or erogenous zones. five periods of psychosexual development: 1. Oral stage - Freud argued that oral activities, such as sucking and biting, give the child sexual gratification as well as nourishment.During the oral stage, conflict centers on the nature and extent of oral gratification. Excessive gratification, on the other hand, can lead an infant to expect that it will routinely obtain anything it wants. Insufficient or excessive gratification in any stage could lead to fixation in that stage and to the development of traits that are characteristic of the stage. Oral traits include dependency, gullibility, and excessive optimism or pessimism (depending on the child’s experiences with gratification) - Basta sa MOUTH (sabi ni maam) 2. Anal stage - During the anal stage, gratification is attained through contraction and relaxation of the muscles that control elimination of waste products. Anal fixations may stem from this conflict and lead to either of two sets of traits in adulthood. Analretentive traits involve excessive use of self-control: perfectionism, a strong need for order, and exaggerated neatness and cleanliness. Analexpulsive traits, on the other hand, “let it all hang out”: they include carelessness, messiness, and even sadism. - Sa ANUS naman siya (si maam) 3. Phallic stage - The major erogenous zone is the phallic region (the penis in boys and the clitoris in girls). During this stage children may develop strong sexual attachments to the parent of the other gender and begin to view the parent of the same gender as a rival for the other parent’s affection. These feelings, therefore, remain unconscious, but their influence is felt through fantasies about marriage with the parent of the other gender and hostility toward the parent of the same gender. - Oedipus complex- a conflict of the phallic stage in which the boy wishes to possess his mother sexually and perceives his father as a rival in love. - Electra complex - a conflict of the phallic stage in which the girl longs for her father and resents her mother 4. Latency stage  - during which their sexual feelings remain unconscious, they prefer playmates of their own gender, and they focus on schoolwork. 5. Genital stage - Adolescent males again experience sexual urges toward their mother, and adolescent females experience such urges toward their father. However, the incest taboo causes them to repress these impulses and displace them onto other adults or adolescents of the other gender. Boys might seek girls “just like the girl that married dear old Dad.” Girls might be attracted to boys who resemble their fathers. - People in the genital stage prefer to find sexual gratification through intercourse with a member of the other gender. NEO-FREUDIANS Carl Jung (1875–1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist who had been a member of Freud’s inner circle. analytical psychology - Jung’s psychodynamic theory, which emphasizes the collective unconscious and archetypes. He believed that we not only have a personal unconscious that contains repressed memories and impulses, but also a collective unconscious containing primitive images, or archetypes, that reflect the history of our species. 8 Archetypes: 1. Persona 2. Shadow 3. Femina - feminine side of boy 4. Animus - masculine side of girl 5. Great mother - all about nourishment 6. Hero 7. Wise old man 8. Self - archetypes of all archetypes Alfred Adler (1870–1937), another follower of Freud, also felt that Freud had placed too much emphasis on sex. individual psychology - Adler’s psychoanalytic theory, which emphasizes feelings of inferiority and the creative self inferiority complex - feelings of inferiority may be based on physical problems and the need to compensate for them. Adler believed, however, that all of us encounter some feelings of inferiority because of our small size as children, and that these feelings give rise to a drive for superiority. creative self - a self-aware aspect of personality that strives to overcome obstacles and develop the person’s potential. Karen Horney (1885–1952) was criticized by the New York Psychoanalytic Institute because she took issue with the way in which psychoanalytic theory portrayed women.  Women who sought to compete with men in the business world were assumed to be suffering from unconscious penis envy. Psychoanalytic theory taught that little girls feel inferior to boys when they learn that boys have a penis and they do not. But Horney argued that little girls do not feel inferior to boys and that these views were founded on Western cultural prejudice, not scientific evidence. She asserted that unconscious sexual and aggressive impulses are less important than social relationships. She also believed that genuine and consistent love can alleviate the effects of a traumatic childhood. Erik Erikson (1902–1994) believed that Freud had placed undue emphasis on sex. Like Horney, he believed that social relationships (e.g., between a parent and a child) are more important determinants of personality than sexual urges. Erikson also believed that to a large extent we are the conscious architects of our own personalities. Erikson labeled them for the traits that might be developed during the stages. The first stage of psychosocial development is labeled the stage of trust versus mistrust because two outcomes are possible: (1) a warm, loving relationship with the mother and others during infancy might lead to a sense of basic trust in people and the world; or (2) a cold, ungratifying relationship with the mother and others might generate a general sense of mistrust. For Erikson, the goal of adolescence is the attainment of ego identity, not genital sexuality. The focus is on who we see ourselves as being and what we stand for, not on sexual interests. 10-2 THE TRAIT PERSPECTIVE Traits are reasonably stable elements of personality that are inferred from behavior. The concept of traits is also found in other approaches to personality. Freud linked the development of certain traits to children’s experiences in each stage of psychosexual development States - it could be change FROM HIPPOCRATES TO THE PRESENT Hippocrates (ca. 460–377 bce). Hippocrates believed that traits were embedded in bodily fluids. In his view, a person’s personality depends on the balance of four basic fluids, or “humors,” in the body. four basic fluids, or “humors,” in the body: 1. Yellow Bile - associated with a choleric (quick-tempered) disposition 2. blood - with a sanguine (warm, cheerful) one 3. phlegm - with a phlegmatic (sluggish, calm, cool) disposition 4. black bile - with a melancholic (gloomy, pensive) temperament. HANS EYSENCK’S TRAIT THEORY British psychologist Hans J. Eysenck (1916–1997) focused much of his research on the relationships between two personality traits: introversion–extraversion and emotional stability–instability (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1985). (Emotional instability is also called neuroticism.) Eysenck acknowledged that his scheme is similar to Hippocrates’. According to Eysenck’s dimensions, the choleric type would be extraverted and unstable; the sanguine type, extraverted and stable; the phlegmatic type, introverted and stable; and the melancholic type, introverted and unstable. THE “BIG FIVE”: THE FIVE-FACTOR MODEL More recent research suggests that there may be five basic personality factors, not two. These include the two found by Eysenck—extraversion and neuroticism— along with conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness to experience.  10-3 LEARNING-THEORY PERSPECTIVES BEHAVIOR This proclamation underscores the behaviorist view that personality is plastic—that situational or environmental influences, not internal, individual variables, are the key shapers of personality. In contrast to the psychoanalysts and structuralists of his day, Watson argued that unseen, undetectable mental structures must be rejected in favor of that which can be seen and measured Observable Behavior - to explain personality it's all about Rewards and punishments SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY developed by Albert Bandura (1986, 2012) and other psychologists. In contrast to behaviorism, which focuses on observable behavior and the situations in which behavior occurs, social cognitive theory focuses on learning by observation and on the cognitive processes that underlie personal differences. Situational Variables include rewards and punishments. Person Variables include knowledge and skills, ways of interpreting experience, expectancies, emotions, and self-regulatory systems and plans. We cannot predict behavior from situational variables alone. Whether a person will behave in a certain way also depends on the person’s Expectancies about the outcomes of that behavior and the perceived or Subjective Values Of Those Outcomes. Selfefficacy Expectations are beliefs that we can accomplish certain things, such as doing a backflip into a swimming pool or solving math problems. Emphasize observing and modeling other people Observational Learning (also termed modeling or cognitive learning) is one of the foundations of social cognitive theory. It refers to acquiring knowledge by observing others. 10-4 THE HUMANISTIC–EXISTENTIAL PERSPECTIVE humanism - the view that people are capable of free choice, selffulfillment, and ethical behavior (positive psychology) existentialism - the view that people are completely free and responsible for their own behavior; consider the negative things in life: death ABRAHAM MASLOW AND THE CHALLENGE OF SELF-ACTUALIZATION self-actualization - in humanistic theory, the innate tendency to strive to realize one’s potential CARL ROGERS’S SELF THEORY The humanistic psychologist Carl Rogers (1902–1987) wrote that people shape themselves through free choice and action. Rogers defined the self as the center of experience. THE SELF-CONCEPT AND FRAMES OF REFERENCE Our self-concepts consist of our impressions of ourselves and our evaluations of our adequacy. Rogers believed that we all have unique ways of looking at ourselves and the world—that is, unique frames of reference. SELF-ESTEEM AND POSITIVE REGARD Parents help children develop self-esteem when they show them unconditional positive regard—that is, when they accept them as having intrinsic merit regardless of their behavior at the moment. But when parents show children conditional positive regard—that is, when they accept them only when they behave in a desired manner conditions of worth. Therefore, children may come to think that they have merit only if they behave as their parents wish them to behave. 10-5 THE SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE sociocultural perspective - the view that focuses on the roles of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status in personality formation, behavior, and mental processes INDIVIDUALISM VERSUS COLLECTIVISM: WHO AM I (IN THIS CULTURAL SETTING)? individualist a person who defines herself or himself in terms of personal traits and gives priority to her or his own goals collectivist a person who defines herself or himself in terms of relationships to other people and groups and gives priority to group goals ACCULTURATION, ADJUSTMENT, AND SELF-ESTEEM acculturation - the process of adaptation in which immigrants and native groups identify with a new, dominant culture by learning about that culture and making behavioral and attitudinal changes 10-6 MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY The validity of a test is the extent to which it measures what it is supposed to measure. We usually assess the validity of personality tests by comparing test results to external criteria or standards. The reliability of a test is the stability of one’s test results from one testing to another. We usually determine the reliability of tests by comparing testing results on different occasions or at different ages. Test standardization is a process that checks out the scores, validity, and reliability of a test with people of various ages and from various groups “Not all reliable are valid” “Valid are all reliable” OBJECTIVE TEST  Objective tests present respondents with a standardized group of test items in the form of a questionnaire. Some tests have a forced-choice format, in which respondents are asked to indicate which of two or more statements is more true for them or which of several activities they prefer. Right and wrong answers and time limited (sai ni maam) PROJECTIVE TESTS Projective tests have no clear specified answers. People are shown ambiguous stimuli such as inkblots or ambiguous drawings and asked to say what they look like or to tell stories about them. Or they are asked to complete sentences or to draw pictures of people. There is no one correct response.