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ITP Reviewer CHAPTER 9: Motivation and Emotion Theory of Motivation Motivation – which an organism experiences an inducement or incentive to do something Intrinsic (from within) - performed because of the sense of personal satisfaction that they bring vs Extrinsic (from outside) - p...

ITP Reviewer CHAPTER 9: Motivation and Emotion Theory of Motivation Motivation – which an organism experiences an inducement or incentive to do something Intrinsic (from within) - performed because of the sense of personal satisfaction that they bring vs Extrinsic (from outside) - performed to receive something from others Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs - Maslow’s ordering of needs from most basic (physiological needs such as hunger and thirst) to most elaborate and sophisticated (self-actualization) - Self-actualization, or self-initiated striving to become what we believe we are capable of being. - Esteem needs - Love and Belongings - Safety and Security - Physiological Needs Hunger and Appetite Hormones: - Leptin - chemical messenger secreted by fat cells that acts as an appetite suppressant - Ghrelin – increasing appetite Eating Disorders: - Anorexia Nervosa - life threatening eating disorder characterized by extreme fear of being too heavy, dramatic weight loss, a distorted body image, and resistance to eating enough to reach or maintain a healthful weight - Bulimia Nervosa – entails repeated cycles of binge eating and purging Sexual Response Cycle Arousal - causes erection in men Plateau - level of sexual arousal remains somewhat stable Organism – climax of sexual excitement Resolution – returns to unaroused state Emotion Basic Emotions – happy, sad, angry, fear, disgust, surprise CHAPTER 10: Life Span and Development Stages of Development Prenatal - zygote a fertilized ovum (egg cell) - amniotic sac a sac within the uterus that contains the embryo or fetus - placenta a membrane that permits the exchange of nutrients and waste products between the mother and her developing child but does not allow the maternal and fetal bloodstreams to mix - umbilical cord a tube between the mother and her developing child through which nutrients and waste products are conducted Infancy & Toddlerhood - reflex a simple inborn response to a stimulus - rooting the turning of an infant's head toward a touch, such as by the mother's nipple - fixation time the amount of time spent looking at a visual stimulus  Sensorimotor  Basic Trust vs Mistrust  Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt Childhood (early & late)  Preoperational  Initiative vs. Guilt  Preconventional  Concrete operational  Industry vs Inferiority  Conventional Adolescence and Puberty  Formal operational  Ego Identity vs Role Confusion  Postconventional Emerging Adulthood  Continuation of Ego Identity vs Role Confusion  Quarter-life Crisis Adulthood  Intimacy vs Isolation  Generativity vs Stagnation  Integrity vs Despair Death and Dying   Stages of grief; denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance Domains of Development Cognitive Development Jean Piaget - which children mentally represent and think about the world - Assimilation means responding to a new stimulus through existing cognitive structures - Schema pattern of action or a “mental structure” involved in acquiring or organizing knowledge - Accommodation is the creation of new ways of responding to objects or looking at the world  Stages of Cognitive Development - Sensorimotor stage - this stage ends with the acquisition of the basics of language at about age two - Preoperational stage - is characterized using words and symbols to represent objects and relationships among them - Concrete operational stage which lasts until about age 12, children show the beginnings of the capacity for adult logic - Formal operational stage – characterized by abstract logical thought and deduction from principles - egocentrism according to Piaget, the assumption that others view the world as one does oneself Lev Vygotsky – Sociocultural Theory - Zone of proximal development a range of tasks that a child can carry out with the help of someone - Scaffolding refers to the temporary support provided by a parent or teacher to a child who is learning to perform a task Lawrence Kohlberg – Moral Development  Stages of Moral Development - PRECONVENTIONAL LEVEL - this level base their moral judgments on the consequences of behavior. - CONVENTIONAL LEVEL – moral reasoning, right and wrong are judged by conformity to conventional standards of right and wrong - POSTCONVENTIONAL LEVEL - more complex and focuses on dilemmas in which individual needs are pitted against the need to maintain the social order and on personal conscience Psychosocial Development  Erik Erikson - Trust versus mistrust - Autonomy versus shame and doubt - Initiative versus guilt - Industry vs inferiority Attachment - emotional tie that is formed between one animal or person and another specific individual THE STRANGE SITUATION AND PATTERNS OF ATTACHMENT 1. Secure attachment. Securely attached infants mildly protest their mother’s departure, seek interaction upon reunion, and are readily comforted by her. 2. Avoidant attachment. Infants who show avoidant attachment are least distressed by their mother’s departure. They play by themselves without fuss and ignore their mothers when they return. 3. Ambivalent/resistant attachment. Infants with ambivalent/resistant attachment are the most emotional. PARENTING STYLES 1. Authoritative parents. The parents of the most competent children rate high in all four areas of behavior 2. Authoritarian parents. Have strict guidelines about what is right and wrong, and they demand that their children follow those guidelines 3. Permissive parents. Permissive parents are generally easygoing with their children. 4. Uninvolved parents. Uninvolved parents tend to leave their children on their own. Midlife crisis - psychological transition that can occur when people are in their Middle Ages Empty nest syndrome – a sense of depression and loss of purpose felt by some parents when the youngest child leaves home  Sigmund Freud  Mary Ainsworth Physical  Puberty – menarche, thelarche, spermarche; growth spurt; development of the secondary sex characteristics  Aging – cognitive decline, Alzheimer’s disease CHAPTER 11: Personality What is Personality? Personality as the reasonably stable patterns of emotions, motives, and behavior that distinguish one person from another. Psychodynamic Theories Freud - Emphasized the unconscious mind, defense mechanisms, and early childhood experiences.   Id, ego, superego  Conscious, preconscious, unconscious  Psychosexual stages: - Oral - Anal - Phallic - Latency - Genital  Defense Mechanisms: - Repression - Regression - Reaction Formation - Projection - Introjection - Displacement - Sublimation Adler - Focused on social interest and the inferiority complex.  Individual Psychology – which emphasizes feelings of inferiority and the creative self  Gemeinschaftsgefuhl (social interest)  Creative power - self-aware aspect of personality that strives to overcome obstacles and develop the person’s potential  Inferiority complex - feelings of inferiority may be based on physical problems and the need to compensate for them Jung - Introduced the concept of the collective unconscious and archetypes.  Analytical Psychology - emphasizes the collective unconscious and archetypes  Personal unconscious - contains repressed memories and impulses  Collective unconscious - store of vague memories that represent the history of humankind Horney - Focused on the role of social relationships in personality development, particularly in women.  Psychoanalytic Social Theory  Neurotic trends: - Moving Away From People - Moving Towards People - Moving Against People  Ten neurotic needs 1. The Need for Affection and Approval 2. The Need for a Partner 3. The Need to Restrict One’s Life 4. The Need for Power 5. The Need to Exploit Others 6. The Need for Prestige 7. The Need for Personal Admiration 8. The Need for Personal Achievement 9. The Need for Independence 10. The Need for Perfection Humanistic & Existential Theories Maslow  Hierarchy of Needs  Self-actualization Rogers  Unconditional Positive Regard - a persistent expression of esteem for the value of a person, but not necessarily unqualified acceptance of all the person’s behaviors  Empathy  Congruence (Genuineness) Existentialism - Emphasized personal freedom, responsibility, and finding meaning in life.  Existence precedes Essence Trait/Dispositional Theories Hippocrates  Four temperaments: - Sanguine – Blood, sociable, outgoing, leadership, lively, talkative - Choleric – Yellow bile, touchy, aggressive, impulsive, active - Phlegmatic – Phlegm, careful, reliable, calm, controlled - Melancholic – Black bile, quiet, rigid, sober, anxious, moody Eysenck  Stable-Unstable - (Emotional instability is also called neuroticism.)  Introversion – imagination and the tendency to inhibit impulses  Extraversion - tendencies to be socially outgoing and to express feelings and impulses freely McCrae & Costa (Big Five)  Openness to Experience - imagination, curiosity, creativity shallowness, lack of perceptiveness  Conscientiousness - organization, thoroughness, and reliability with carelessness, negligence,  and unreliability  Extraversion - talkativeness, assertiveness, and activity with silence, passivity, and reserve  Agreeableness - kindness, trust, and warmth with hostility, selfishness, and distrust  Neuroticism - nervousness, moodiness, and sensitivity to negative stimuli with coping ability Learning Theories Behaviorism - Personality is shaped by environmental interactions and reinforcement. Social Cognitive - Emphasizes observational learning and cognitive processes.  Self-efficacy - beliefs that we can accomplish certain things, such as doing a backflip into a swimming pool or solving math problems  Observational learning - It refers to acquiring knowledge by observing others. Sociocultural Perspective Individualism vs Collectivism: Refers to cultures that value independence (individualism) vs. interdependence (collectivism). Acculturation, Adjustment, Self-esteem: The process of adapting to a new culture and its impact on personal identity and self-worth. Learned Helplessness – Rotter  Global – problem is quite large  Stable – problem that cannot be changed  Internal – involved self-blame  Locus of control – control over the receiving of reinforcers— internal, external Measurement of Personality Validity, reliability, standardization - Ensuring personality tests measure what they intend to, produce consistent results, and apply universally. Objective tests – NEO-PI, 16 PF, MMPI, MBTI Projective techniques – DAP, HTP, TAT, RIT, SCT  Draw a Person; House, Tree Person; Thematic Apperception Test; Rorschach Inkblot Test; Sentence Completion Test CHAPTER 12: Psychological Disorders What are psychological disorders? Behaviors or mental processes that are connected in various kinds of distress, significant impairment and functioning, however they are not predictable to various events for example anxiety. Deviance – deviating from the norms, abnormal, socially unacceptable Distress – suffering, thinking too much, overeating Dysfunction – failing to fulfill daily functions, faulty, (e.g. you are no longer sleeping at the proper time) Dangerousness - Duration- History of Treatment Demonological Model- religious Medical Model– from the history of syphilis transmitted from one person to another Diathesis-stress model - assumes that there may be biological differences between individuals— diatheses—that explain why some people develop certain psychological dis-orders under stress, whereas others do not Biopsychosocial - explains psychological dis-orders in terms of a combination of biological vulnerabili- ties; psychological factors such as exposure to stress; sociocultural factors such as family relationships and cultural beliefs Anxiety Disorders – excessive anxiety and worry, abnormal fight or flight responses Specific Phobia - acrophobia – fear of heights - agoraphobia – fear of the marketplace - arachnophobia – fear of spiders - claustrophobia – fear of tight or enclosed places Generalized Anxiety Disorder - persistent anxiety that cannot be attributed to a phobic object, situation, or activity. Rather, it seems to be free floating Panic Disorder - abrupt anxiety attack that is apparently unrelated to specific objects or situations Social Anxiety - social phobia, is defined by excessive fears of social situations in which the individual is exposed to the scrutiny of others or might do something that will be humiliating or embarrassing Obsessive Compulsive Disorders – Unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and behaviors (compulsions). Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (no obsession) - defined by recurrent, anxiety-provoking thoughts or images that seem irrational and beyond control (obsessions) and seemingly irresistible urges to engage in thoughts or behaviors that tend to reduce the anxiety (compulsions Hoarding Disorder - feel an overpowering need to accumulate certain kinds of possessions and have difficulty discarding them Trauma and Stressor-related disorders – trauma as in threat to life or sexual assault  Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) - characterized by a rapid heart rate and feelings of anxiety and helplessness that are caused Acute Stress Disorder - feelings of anxiety and helplessness that are caused by a traumatic event (Adjustment Disorder – external stressor is not trauma) Dissociative Disorders - Disruptions in memory or identity Dissociative Identity Disorder – formerly Multiple Personality Disorder Dissociative Amnesia – suddenly unable to recall important personal information Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder - experience episodes of feeling detached from themselves or feeling that the world around them is unreal Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders Conversion Disorder – Psychosomatic symptoms Illness Anxiety Disorder – formerly hypochondriasis, fear of getting sick Malingering – faking sick for potential gain Mood Disorders - Disturbances in emotional states Depressive Disorders - Major Depressive Disorder - which the person may show loss of appetite, psychomotor retardation, and impaired reality testing - Seasonal Affective Disorder - person experiences the symptoms of major depressive disorder only during a particular time of year - Persistent Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia) - experience depressed moods most of the day, do not meet all the criteria for major depression. Chronic depression - 2 years  Unipolar depression - indicates a persistently sad mood  Learned helplessness theory of depression  Biological – serotonin Bipolar Disorders (manic depression) “manic-depressive” – the person’s mood is said to alternate from one emotional extreme to the other - Bipolar I Disorder – depressive + mania, elevated thoughts - Bipolar II Disorder – depressive + hypomania, near schizophrenia - Cyclothymia - does not meet criteria for Bipolar I, persistent, min. 2 years Suicide risk Schizophrenia and other Psychotic Disorders Schizophrenia  Positive Symptoms- inappropriate kinds of behavior we find in afflicted people, including, for example, agitated behavior, vivid hallucinations, unshakable delusions, disorganized thinking, and nonsensical speech.  Negative Symptoms – those that reflect the absence of appropriate behavior. We see them in flat, emotionless voices, blank faces, rigid, motionless bodies, and mutism (refusal to talk).  Delusions - persistent beliefs that are unsubstantiated by sensory or objective evidence  Hallucinations - seeing and hearing things that are not there  Odd behavior e.g. catatonia, word salad, tangentiality, blunted affect, flat affect Delusional disorder  Types of delusion - grandiosity (grandeur) - person may believe that he is a famous historical figure such as Jesus or a person on a special mission. - reference (referential) - may believe that they are sought by the CIA, FBI, or some other group - persecution (persecutory) - erroneously believe that other people are talking about them or referring to them Personality Disorders Cluster A (Odd, Eccentric) OPSS - Paranoid PD – pattern of distrust and suspicion others without adequate reason to be suspicious - Schizotypal PD – magical thinking; odd or eccentric thinking and behavior; distrusting of others - Schizoid PD – pervasive pattern of detachment from and general disinterest in social relationships Cluster B (Dramatic, Emotional) D-BHAN - Borderline PD – mood fluctuations, unstable relationship - Antisocial PD – harm causing; disregards the right and well-being of others - Histrionic PD – dramatic; attention-seeking be it positive or negative attention, seductive - Narcissistic PD– need admiration, attention or approval from others, very sensitive to defeat Cluster C (Anxious, Fearful) A-DAO - Obsessive-Compulsive PD – extensive preoccupation with perfectionism, organization, control - Avoidant PD – not having close relationships due to excessive fear of rejection - Dependent PD – has a strong need for others to take care of them CHAPTER 13: Stress, Health, and Coping What is stress? Stress is the demand made on an organism to adapt, cope, or adjust. Some stress is healthful and necessary to keep us alert and occupied. What is health psychology? Health psychology studies the relationships between psychological factors and the prevention and treatment of physical health problems. Hassles and life challenges Household hassles: preparing meals, shopping, and home maintenance Health hassles: illness, obtaining medical treatment, and side effects of medication Time-pressure hassles: having too many things to do and not enough time Inner concern hassles: being socially isolated, lonely Environmental hassles: crime, weather, noise, and pollution Financial responsibility hassles: not affording things, and owing money Work hassles: job dissatisfaction and problems with coworkers Security hassles: job security, terrorism, investments, and retirement Life changes – loss of work, loss of loved one, transferring school/residence, sudden distance constraints Eustress – good, healthy stress (why do you exercise?) Distress – bad stress Psychological Moderators of Stress Self-efficacy - ability to make things happen Sense of humor - The idea that humor lightens the burdens of life and helps people cope with stress has been with us for millennia. Psychological Hardiness - cluster of traits that buffer stress - Commitment (involvement) - Challenge (recognizing change is important) - Control (control over one’s life -> internal locus of control) Predictability and control - Predictability allows us to brace ourselves for the inevitable and, in many cases, plan ways of - coping with it. - Control—even the illusion of being in control—allows us to feel that we are not at the mercy - of the fates - Ability to predict a stressor apparently moderates its impact - Internals vs Externals - ability to attain reinforcements