IT1113 Fundamentals of Information Technology PDF

General Introduction IT1113 Fundamentals of Information Technology Intended Learning Outcomes  Define the Turing model of a computer.  Give a short history of computers.  Classify modern computers. What is a Computer? Computer  A computer is a data processor. What is a Program? Pr...

General Introduction IT1113 Fundamentals of Information Technology Intended Learning Outcomes  Define the Turing model of a computer.  Give a short history of computers.  Classify modern computers. What is a Computer? Computer  A computer is a data processor. What is a Program? Program  A program is a set of instructions that tells the computer what to do with data. Programmable Data Processors  The Turing model adds an extra element to the specific computing machine: the program.  In the Turing model, the output data depends on the combination of two factors:  The Input data  The program Same Program, Different Input Data Same Input Data, Different Programs Same Input Data, Same Program  When the same program is run with the same input data, the same output is expected. The Universal Turing Machine  A universal Turing machine, a machine that can do any computation if the appropriate program is provided, was the first description of a modern computer. Historical Development of Computers  Generation Zero: Mechanical Calculating Machines (1642–1945)  The First Generation: Vacuum Tube Computers (1945–1953)  The Second Generation: Transistorized Computers (1954–1965)  The Third Generation: Integrated Circuit Computers (1965–1980)  The Fourth Generation: VLSI Computers (1980–????) Generation Zero: Mechanical Calculating Machines (1642–1945) Pascaline  In 1642, Blaise Pascal developed a mechanical calculator.  The Pascaline could do addition with carry and subtraction. Difference Engine  Charles Babbage built the Difference Engine in 1822.  It used a calculating technique called the method of differences.  The machine was designed to mechanize the solution of polynomial functions and was a calculator, not a computer. Analytical Engine  Charles Babbage also designed a general-purpose machine in 1833 called the Analytical Engine.  Although Babbage died before he could build it, the Analytical Engine was designed to be more versatile than his earlier Difference Engine.  The Analytical Engine would have been capable of performing any mathematical operation. The First Generation: Vacuum Tube Computers (1945–1953) Vacuum Tube  Vacuum tubes / valves control the flow of electrons in electrical systems. Z1  In the 1930s, picked up where Babbage left off, adding electrical technology and other improvements to Babbage’s design.  Zuse’s computer, the Z1, used electromechanical relays instead of Babbage’s hand-cranked gears.  The Z1 was programmable and had a memory, an arithmetic unit, and a control unit.  Although his machine was designed to use vacuum tubes, Zuse, who was building his machine on his own, could not afford the tubes. ABC  John Atanasoff has been credited with the construction of the first completely electronic computer.  The Atanasoff Berry Computer (ABC) was a binary machine built from vacuum tubes.  Because this system was built specifically to solve systems of linear equations, we cannot call it a general-purpose computer. ENIAC  The ENIAC (1946) is recognized as the first all- electronic, general-purpose digital computer.  This machine used 17,468 vacuum tubes, occupied 1800 square feet of floor space, weighed 30 tons, and consumed 174 kilowatts of power.  The ENIAC had a memory capacity of about 1000 information bits (about 20 10-digit decimal numbers) and used punched cards to store data. Limitations of the First-Generation Computers  Large, slow in processing and had less storage capacity.  Consumed lots of electricity and produced lots of heat.  Computing capabilities were limited.  Not so accurate and not reliable.  Used machine level language for programming.  Very expensive.  Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts. The Second Generation: Transistorized Computers (1954–1965) Transistor  In 1948, three researchers with Bell Laboratories— John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley—invented the transistor.  Transistors consume less power than vacuum tubes, are smaller, and work more reliably.  The circuitry in computers consequently became smaller and more reliable.  Despite using transistors, computers of this generation were still bulky and quite costly. The Second-Generation Computers  Control Data Corporation (CDC), under the supervision of Seymour Cray, built the $10 million CDC 6600, the world’s first supercomputer that could perform 10 million instructions per second.  Two high-level programming languages, FORTRAN and COBOL, were invented and made programming easier.  Still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output. The Third Generation: Integrated Circuit Computers (1965–1980) Integrated Circuit  Jack Kilby invented the integrated circuit (IC), or microchip, made of germanium.  Six months later, Robert Noyce created a similar device using silicon instead of germanium.  Early ICs allowed dozens of transistors to exist on a single silicon chip.  Computers became faster, smaller, and cheaper, bringing huge gains in processing power.  The IBM System/360 family of computers was among the first commercially available systems to be built entirely of solid- state components. The Third Generation Computers  Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards and monitors.  New operating systems were developed, which allowed the running of many applications simultaneously.  Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors. The Fourth Generation: VLSI Computers (1980–????) Levels of Integration  SSI (small-scale integration): 10 to 100 components per chip.  MSI (medium-scale integration): 100 to 1000 components per chip.  LSI (large-scale integration): 1000 to 10,000 components per chip.  VLSI (very-large-scale integration): more than 10,000 components per chip.  ULSI (ultra-large-scale integration): more than 1 million components per chip. Microprocessor  Intel, in 1971, created the world’s first microprocessor, the 4004, which was a fully functional, 4-bit system that ran at 108 KHz. The Fourth Generation Computers  In 1981, IBM introduced its first computer for the home user.  In 1984, Apple introduced the Macintosh.  Computers became smaller, more portable and much faster than before.  Everyday products began to use microprocessors. The Fifth Generation Computers?  AI?  Neural Network?  Quantum Computers? Moore’s Law and Rock’s Law  Moore’s Law: The density of transistors in an integrated circuit will double every year.  Rock’s Law: The cost of capital equipment to build semiconductors will double every four years.  At this rate, by the year 2035, not only will the size of a memory element be smaller than an atom, but it would also require the entire wealth of the world to build a single chip!  There are physical and financial limitations for Moore’s Law. Classification of Modern Computers Classification of Computers  Based on  Principle of Operation  Configuration and Size  Purpose Classification based on Principle of Operation  Analogue Computers: Works on continuous range of values.  Digital Computers: Operates on digital data (0 and 1).  Hybrid Computers: Combines the desirable features of analogue and digital computers. Analogue-to-digital and digital-to-analogue converters are used for transforming the data into suitable form for either type of computation. Types of Computers based on Configuration and Size  Super Computers  Mainframe Computers  Mini Computers  Micro Computers Classification of Computers based on Purpose  General purpose computer: Designed to perform a range of multiple tasks.  Special purpose computer: Designed to handle a specific problem or to perform a specific task. Questions? References  B. Forouzan, “Introduction,” Foundations of Computer Science, 4th edition, 2018, pp. 1–14.  L. Null, “Introduction,” Essentials of Computer Organization and Architecture, 6th Ed, USA: Jones & Bartlett Learning, 2024, pp. 1–63.  A. Mathew, S.K. Murugeshan, “Fundamentals of Computer Engineering,” Fundamentals of Information Technology, 2013, pp. 2.1–2.13.