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EMERGENCE OF INTERNATIONAL STATE SYSTEM The Historical Context Many international relations theorists date the contemporary system from 1648, the year of the Treaty of Westphalia, ending the Thirty Years War. This treaty marks the end of rule by Religious authority in Europe. The Greek city-state...

EMERGENCE OF INTERNATIONAL STATE SYSTEM The Historical Context Many international relations theorists date the contemporary system from 1648, the year of the Treaty of Westphalia, ending the Thirty Years War. This treaty marks the end of rule by Religious authority in Europe. The Greek city-state system, the Roman Empire, and the Middle Ages are each key developments leading to the Westphalian order. The MIDDLE AGES: Centralization and Decentralization O When the Roman empire disintegrated in the fifth century A.D., power and authority Became decentralized in Europe. O By 1000 A.D. three civilizations had emerged from the rubble of Rome: Arabic civilization: under the religious and political domination of the Islamic caliphate, advanced mathematical and technical accomplishments Made it a potent force. Byzantine Empire: located near the core of the old Roman Empire in Constantinople and united by Christianity. The rest of Europe, where languages and cultures proliferated, and the Networks of communication developed by the Romans were beginning to Disintegrate. Much of Western Europe reverted to feudal principalities, controlled by lords and tied to Fiefdoms that had the authority to raise taxes and exert legal authority. Feudalism was the response to the prevailing disorder. The preeminent institution in the medieval period was the church; virtually all other Institutions were local in origin and practice. Similar trends of centralization and decentralization, political integration and disintegration, Were also occurring in Ghana, Mali, Latin America, and Japan. The LATE MIDDLE AGES: Developing Transnational Networks in Europe and Beyond O After 1000 A.D. secular trends began to undermine both the decentralization of Feudalism and the universalization of Christianity in Europe. Commercial activity Expanded into larger geographic areas. All forms of communication improved and New technologies made daily life easier. O Economic and technological changes led to fundamental changes in social relations.  1. A transnational business community emerged, whose interests and Livelihoods extended beyond its immediate locale 2. Writers and other individuals rediscovered classical literature and history, Finding intellectual sustenance in Greek and Roman thought 3. Niccolò Machiavelli, in The Prince, elucidated the qualities that a leader Needs to maintain the strength and security of the state. Realizing that the Dream of unity in Christianity was unattainable, Machiavelli called on Leaders to articulate their own political interests. Leaders must act in the State’s interest, answerable to no moral rules. 4. In the 1500s and 1600s, as European explorers and even settlers moved Into the New World, the old Europe remained in flux. Feudalism was being Replaced by an increasingly centralized monarchy. 5. The masses, angered by taxes imposed by the newly emerging states, Rebelled and rioted. THE EMERG ENCE OF THE WESTPHALIAN SYSTEM The formulation of sovereignty was one of the most important intellectual developments Leading to the Westphalian revolution. Much of the development of sovereignty is found in the writings of French philosopher Jean Bodin. To Bodin, sovereignty was the “absolute and perpetual power vested in a Commonwealth.” Absolute sovereignty, according to Bodin, is not without limits. Leaders are Limited by natural law, laws of God, the type of regime, and by covenants and treaties. The Thirty Years War (1618-48) devastated Europe. But the treaty that ended the conflict, The Treaty of Westphalia, had a profound impact on the practice of international relations in Three ways: 1. It embraced the notion of sovereignty—that the sovereign enjoyed exclusive rights Within a given territory. It also established that states could determine their own Domestic policies in their own geographic space. 2. Leaders sought to establish their own permanent national militaries. The state thus Became more powerful since the state had to collect taxes to pay for these militaries And the leaders assumed absolute control over the troops. 3. It established a core group of states that dominated the world until the beginning of The nineteenth century: Austria, Russia, England, France, and the United Provinces Of the Netherlands and Belgium. (The most important theorist at the time was Scottish economist Adam Smith. In An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, Smith argued that the notion of a market Should apply to all social orders  O Individuals should be permitted to pursue their own interests and will act rationally To maximize his or her own interests O With groups of individuals pursuing self-interests, economic efficiency is enhanced As well as the wealth of the state and that of the international system. This theory has Had a profound effect on states’ economic policies.) WESTPHALIAN SYSTEM In the age of internationalism, nation-state system can be Regarded as the key stone of International Politics. The nation State system in the words of Palmer and Perkins is “the pattern Of political life in which people are separately organized into Sovereign states that interact with one another in varying Degrees and in varying ways.” In international Politics, the Existence of these sovereign states is termed as nation state System”. In order to protect that personal interest, they interact With one another. States have to engage in war if their interests Are not protected. To secure their existence the states develop Their national power. The state system is as old as the human history. It will be more Correct to say that the history of the state system starts with the Political consciousness of man. There are some of the examples Of old state system. 1) Tigris Euphrates system existed in 600 BC 2) Warring state system of China (500-300BC 3) Indian state system (1000 AD) The Modern state system is the result of a long historical Development. It originated in the renaissance and reformation Period in Europe. They are different from older ones. In the Modern state system the states are the epicenters of power while the medieval states lacked this characteristic. During the middle ages, the state power was not concentrated In the hands of the state. Feudalism and Catholicism had a great Influence in the control of the states. Renaissance checked Feudalism and Reformation reduced the influence of Pope in State affairs. The Treaty of Westphalia in the year 1648 may be Said to have established and formalized nation state system. By 1648 the state system was fully established in Europe.The Result of Westphalia was very significant. It can be considered As the first stage in the evolution of the nation state system. WESTPHALIA TO UTRECHT The second stage in the development of the state system lies in Between 1648 to 1713. This period marked a conflict among France, Britain, Holland and Spain for colonial supremacy. Louis XIV of France was determined to establish an empire. But, soon France had to face a coalition of Britain and Austria At the question of Spanish succession. France suffered heavy Losses at the treaty of Utrecht. The agreement reached at Utrecht established such a balance to which Sweden, Russia And Poland could no longer resolve issued in the East without Involving west. UTRECHT TO VIENNA Another development was the rise of Frederick the great of Prussia, After the Utrecht treaty whenever a continental issued Around France and Austria clashed. In order to check the threat Of Frederick the great of Prussia, France and Austria form an alliance, which was joined by Russia. In order to establish a Balance of power, Great Britain joined with Prussia. The result Of these alliances and counter alliances was the 7 years’ war in Which France, Austria and Spain were defeated. The third Development was the French Revolution France under Napoleon becomes an important power. Britain, Prussia, Russia Austria and Sweden by combined efforts defeated France, War ended with Vienna meeting in which the old Balance of power was established again. Following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815 and the establishment of peace by the Congress of Vienna, the Concert of Europe—Austria, Britain, France, Prussia, and Russia—ushered in a period of relative peace. O The fact that general peace prevailed during this time is surprising, since major Economic, technological, and political changes were radically altering the landscape. O At least three factors explain the peace: 1. European elites were united in their fear of revolution from the masses. Elites envisioned grand alliances that would bring European leaders Together to fight revolution from below. Leaders ensured that mass Revolutions did not love from state to state. 2. Two of the major issues confronting the core European states were internal Ones: the unifications of Germany and Italy. Although the unification of Both was finally solidified, through small local wars, a general war was Averted since Germany and Italy were preoccupied with territorial Unification. 3. Imperialism and colonialism VIENNA TO VERSAILLES The period between 1815 and 1914 is called the period of Pax Britannica, because major world powers had mostly peaceful relations. In Crimean war (1854 – 56) fought over the question of control over orthodox Christians in Ottoman territory Britain and France Collectively checked the ambition to Russia to dominate Constantinople. As a result of the Franco- Prussian war Prussia Unified empire under Bismarck and it became a leading power In the continent. Imperialism and Colonialism in the European System before 1870 O The discovery of the “New” World by Europeans in 1492 led to rapidly expanding Communication between the Americas and Europe. 1. Explorers sought discovery, riches, and personal glory. 2. Clerics sought to convert the “savages” to Christianity O European powers sought to annex distant territories. The term imperialism came To mean the annexation of distant territory, usually by force, and its inhabitants into An empire. O Colonialism, which often followed imperialism, refers to the settling for people From the home country among indigenous peoples whose territories have been Annexed. O This process also led to the establishment of a “European” identity. 1. European, Christian, civilized, and white were contrasted with the “other” Peoples of the world. O The industrial revolution provided the European states with the military and Economic capacity to engage in territorial expansion. O During the Congress of Berlin (1885), the major powers divided up Africa. O Only Japan and Siam were not under European control in Asia. O The struggle for economic power led to the heedless exploitation of the colonial Areas, particularly Africa and Asia. O As the nineteenth century drew to a close the control of the colonial system was being Challenged with increasing frequency. O During this period, much of the competition, rivalry, and tension traditionally Marking relations among Europe’s states could be acted out far beyond Europe. O By the end of the nineteenth century, the roll of political rivalry and economic Competition had become destabilizing. Balance of Power O The period of peace in Europe was managed and preserved for so long because of the Concept of balance of power. O The balance of power emerged because the independent European states feared the Emergence of any predominant state (hegemon) among them. Thus, they formed Alliances to counteract any potentially more powerful faction The Breakdown: Solidification of Alliances O The balance-of-power system weakened during the waning years of the nineteenth Century. Whereas previous alliances had been fluid and flexible, now alliances had Solidified. O Two camps emerged: the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria, and Italy) in 1882 and The Dual Alliance (France and Russia) in 1893. O In 1902 Britain broke from the “balancer” role by joining in a naval alliance with Japan to prevent a Russo-Japanese rapprochement in China. For the first time, a European state turned to an Asian one in order to thwart a European ally. 1. Russian defeat in the Russo-Japanese war in 1902 was a sign of the Weakening of the balance-of-power system O The end of the balance-of-power system came with World War I. O Germany had not been satisfied with the solutions meted out at the Congress of Berlin. Being a “latecomer” to the core of European power, Germany did not receive The diplomatic recognition and status its leaders desired. O With the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand, Germany encouraged Austria to Crush Serbia. Under the system of alliances, states honored their commitments to Their allies, sinking the whole continent in warfare. The decline of Turkish empire In the Balkans led to the rise of Many sovereign states in Balkans (1908-1922). The states fulfilled their long Cherished goals and nationalism became the basis of their Independence. In the Western hemisphere the decline of Spanish power led to The rise of many independent states. These states today are known As Latin American states. In this period USA made tremendous Progress. In the Far East, Japan came into conflict with China (1894-’95, 1937-’45). At the Beginning of the 20th century Japan achieved great credit by Defeating one of the major powers Europe. Before the world War I European powers entangled themselves in such alliances and Treaties which clearly divided European states into two groups. Triple Alliance and Triple Entente came into existence. VERSAILES TO PRESENT The treaty of Versailles contained the seeds of war. It humiliated The defeated nations. Moreover, it gave rise to Nazism in Germany and Fascism in Italy. Russia grew powerful under the Communist rule. The modern state system which came into being with Westphalia Basically continues to be the same. It is a pattern in which the Independent communities of the world, by organizing themselves Into sovereign political entitle, act and react with one another. The state is sovereign externally and internally. Internal Sovereignty means that the state can formulate laws at its own will And accept any method to secure its interest. The states manifest Their sovereign political entity by adopting specific, currency and Flag. THE INTER WAR YEARS The end of World War I saw critical changes in international relations: O First, three European empires (Russia, Austro-Hungary, and the Ottoman) were Strained and finally broke up during the war. With those empires went the Conservative social order of Europe; in its place emerged a proliferation of Nationalisms. O Second, Germany emerged out of World War I an even more dissatisfied power. The Treaty of Versailles, which formally ended the war, made Germany pay the cost of the War through reparations. This dissatisfaction provided the climate for the emergence Of Adolf Hitler, who was dedicated to right the “wrongs” imposed by the treaty. O Third, enforcement of the Versailles Treaty was given to the ultimately Unsuccessful League of Nations, the intergovernmental organization designed to Prevent all future wars. The League did not have the political weight to carry out its Task because the United States refused to join. O Fourth, a vision of the post-World War I order had clearly been expounded, but it Was a vision still born from the start. The world economy was in collapse and German Fascism wreaked havoc on the plan for post-war peace. WORLD WAR II O World War II was started by Germany, Italy, and Japan. O Japan had attacked China in a series of incidents beginning in 1931 Eventually leading to war. O Italy attacked Ethiopia in 1935, using yperite (a form of mustard gas Banned by the Geneva Protocol). O Nazi Germany was the biggest challenge, as it set to right what Hitler saw As the wrongs of the Treaty of Versailles. The power of fascism—German, Italian, and Japanese versions— led to the uneasy Alliance between the communist Soviet Union and the liberal United States, Britain, And France. When World War II broke out, this alliance (the Allies) fought against The Axis powers in unison. The Allies at the end of the war were successful. Both the German Reich and Imperial Japan lay in ruins at the end of the war. Two other features of World War II demand attention as well. The German invasion of Poland, the Baltic States, and the Soviet Union was followed by the organized murder of human beings, including Jews, Gypsies, communists, and Germans who showed signs of genetic defects. While Germany surrendered in May 1945, the war did not end until the surrender of Japan in August. In order to avoid a costly invasion, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The new weapon, combined with the Soviet declaration of war against Japan led to the surrender of Japan to the Allies. The end of World War II resulted in a major redistribution of power and changed political borders. CHRACTERISTICS OF MODERN STATE SYSTEM The states the sovereign political entities are different from one Another in many respects. In fact, there are both similarities and Dissimilarities among the states. The territorial basis gives the state legitimacy because the Community inhibiting a specific territory evolves a language Culture and religion. Almost all the states of the world are Distinguished by their territory. After the 2nd World War many States in Asia and Africa came into being which do not possesses A natural geographical boundary or a distant territory. Whatever Difference may be among the states as the basis of territory, Population or culture, the states are considered legally equal to One another. CLASSIFICATION OF STATES There is difference among states on the basis of Industrial Development. They are as follows. 1. Industrially developed: Industrially developed countries Have high rate of literacy. The use of luxurious goods is higher, Death and birth rate is checked and balanced,  political awakening Is sufficient and its impacts can be seen in the foreign as well as Domestic policy. 2. Developing: In the case of developing countries they Are facing a lot of problems and it became sometimes very Difficult for them to break and solve this problem. Their main Problems are illiteracy, epidemics, political instability and Lack of technical knowledge. India, Pakistan etc., belong to This category. 3. Under developed: In this category lives the major Population of the world. These countries have to face problems Of illiteracy, problems of transport and communication, rapid increase of population etc. Indonesia, Sudan are the examples. on the Basis of Power The prominent writes of International politics classify the Modern states on the basis of power. They are as follows. 1. Great powers: A great power is ‘a power with general Interest, and with such interest that it can attempt advance or Protect those interests in every sphere”. According to some, Power is a changing factor. So a major power can become Middle power and vice- versa. 2. Middle powers: It stands mid way between great power And small states. 3. Small power: It stands midway between middle power and no Power. It is all power with the means of defending only limited Interests.” BASIC FEATURES OF MODERN STATE SYSTEM There are certain important features, with our which modern State system loses its sanctity Palmer and Perkins call them “corollaries of state system”. They are as follows. a) Concept of Sovereignty: In the words of Palmer and Perkins, ‘Sovereignty is the legal theory that gives the state Unique and virtually unlimited authority in all domestic matters And in relation to other states” In international Politics Sovereignty would mean the right of self-government and Promotion of national interest through foreign policy. It Emphasizes that states can make laws at its own will and has the Right to make relations with other states. b) Doctrine of Nationalism: Modern states cling to the idea of Nationalism. It is feeling of oneness among the people. Modern states are known as nation states. Aggressive Nationalism, however, is harmful. c) Principles of National Power: National power is the strength or capacity which a sovereign state can use to achieve its national interests. In the absence of national power, there is no existence to the nation states. Nation state in the International field is decided by the amount of national power. DECLINE OF MODERN STATE SYSTEM In the opinion of CAW Manning the western state system Determined at the Treaty of Westphalia still continues to be the Same. Even today the modern states are associated with three characteristics. But his view is not completely correct because Modern state system has completely changed. The concept of Sovereignty has changed a lot. Sovereignty does not exist in its Ancient form of royal absolutism. Scientific and technological Advancement has completely changed the impermeability and Territoriality of the states. Modern sophisticated weapons have Completely changed the warfare. Ideology began to play an Important role in International Politics. After the Second World War many states made alliances with powerful states. Super National Institutions like NATO, SEATO, CENTO etc. are the Result of this. As a result International Politics is not an inter action Between two or more groups of sovereign states. Hence we can Say that there is a decline of the nation state system. That is why The term ‘International System’ is used in place of national System. B. IMPERIALISM AND COLONIALISM The aspiration for power is the distinguishing element of International Politics. Every nation possesses the tendency to Dominate and rule, and it tries to pursue the same policy by all Means. Imperialism and colonialism are powerful instruments Of national policy. Some nations try to establish its dominance Over others by conquering its territories or in other words, they Want to expand their kingdom. Such expansionist policy has no Limit and we generally call the expansionist policy as Imperialism. The term ‘imperialism’ is used in a very vague way. It lacks Any common definition. Like other ‘isms’ imperialism has been Defined by different scholars. Imperialism remarks, Palmer and Perkins “Can be discussed, denounced, defended and died for, But can’t be defined in any generally acceptable way. It means Different thing to different people” Definitions According to Schuman, “Imperialism is the imposition by force And violence of alien rule upon subject people’ According to Morgenthau, “Imperialism is the expansion of a State’s power beyond its borders”. According to Julius Bonn, “Imperialism is a policy which aims At creating, organizing and maintaining an empire.” METHODS OF IMPERIALISM The following are the Three General Methods Of Imperialism 1. Military Imperialism In the words of Morgenthau, “The most obvious, the most Ancient and also the crudest from of imperialism is the military Conquest. By military conquest new territories are acquired and Thus new power relations are established. Any change in this Situation is only possible by another war instigated by the Defeated nation. But in the new war, the change of victory goes To the victorious nation. Thus the use of this method is a great Advantage to the imperialist nation. But it has a draw back. War Is a gamble. Sometimes the Imperialist nation may fall, Napoleons’ example can be cited. 2. Economic Imperialism Economic imperialism is concerned with controlling policies, Domestic or foreign of the economically weaker nations by Means of economic investment and economic assistance. The Most modern economic Imperialism does not change the power Relation through the conquest of territory by way of economic Control. 3. Cultural Imperialism It is not at the conquest of territory or at the control of economic Life, but the conquest and control of the minds of the man as an Instrument for changing power-relation. If a state conquest the Minds of men of other nations and is able to impose its ideology It would be far more superior to economic mastery and military Victory. The cultural imperialism would win a more complete Victory than any military victory and economic master. COLONIALISM There is enough similarity between Imperialism and Colonialism and, therefore, the two terms are used almost Interchangeably. They differ in the following respects. 1) Imperialism is comparatively older than colonialism. Colonialism is the modern form of Imperialism.  2) The purpose of Imperialism is basically to acquire Political power, but the prime object of colonialism is Economic. 3) Imperialism is the imposition of alien rule upon other People. It generally involves the use of military force. Colonialism is the natural outflow of alien nationality in the Subject territory. In Imperialism the control of the imperialist country is rigled And it establishes an autocratic rule over the subject people. In Colonialism however, the control of the alien power is Comparatively less rigid, and it also provides better Opportunities for development and selfgovernment Imperialism and colonialism have common objectives today. A Distinction, therefore, must be made. Colonialism is a form of Imperialism itself. Economic Imperialism is known as Colonialism. Colonialism is the modern and economic form of Imperialism. MOTIVES OF IMPERIALISM AND COLONIALISM 1. Nationalism: Nationalism is one of the fundamental Motives of Imperialism and Colonialism. Nationalism is Charged for the evils of Imperialism Nationalism has an Inherent desire to exalt a state and to further its interests of National territorial expansion. R.L.Buell remarks “Paradoxical As it may seem, pure nationalism has forced governments in the Path of Imperialism.” Every nation takes pride in its national Expansion. Generations of Englishmen glorified in the boast That “the Sun never sets on the British Empire”. 2. Increase in National Prestige and National Power: Every imperialist expansion addsto the prestige and power of The imperialist nation. Mussolini, Hitler and Napoleon etc. had The same in their mind. 3. National Defense: Imperialism also fulfills the objectives Of National defence. It helps national defence by providing Markets and essential raw materials. And by providing Populations from which troops and labourers may be drawn. It Also helps in the national defence by providing areas and bases For the defence of the state or its line of communications. Colonies have proved a good source of providing man power To the Imperialists. For example, England had nearly 4,00,000 Troops from India alone, during the first world war. 4. Adjustment of Balance of Power: When a nation moves Towards imperialist expansion, other nations also do not lag behind. France and Britain fell in the imperialist race for gaining control over more and more colonies to ensure the adjustment of Balance of power. When the imperialistic objectives of one nation is achieved, the rival nation also tries to pursue the same end by whatever means available to it. The so called American and Soviet Imperialism are example to this. 5. Economic gain: One of the fundamental motives of Imperialism is economic gain. The capitalist system also has motivated Imperialism. The grown industrialization in Europe was very much responsible for imperialism and colonialism. The Imperialist nations for getting raw materials, market for their surplus goods and investment opportunities for surplus capital acquired colonies in the far of areas. Imperialist powers have always used colonies as means for economic exploitation. 6. Surplus population: Surplus population is also cited as one of the motives of Imperialism. Imperialism serves as an outlet of surplus population. When there is a rapid increase in surplus population, new areas are needed to emigrate surplus population, in the 19th century the European countries faced the problem of surplus population and the same has been adjusted by emigration to colonies. Actually populated state have found relief in emigrating to their colonies. 7. Religious and Humanitarian Cause: The advanced and developed western societies placed this argument that it was their obligation to carry the blessing of their religion and civilization to backward people. The whole men felt that God has made them superior and therefore it becomes their duty to uplift the inferior race. For an example Joseph Chamberlain in 1893 declared that “it is our duty to take our share in the work of civilization of Africa” 5. Promotes Inter- Nationalism: Imperialism has given Impetus to World brotherhood and internationalism. An empire Comprises people of different nationalities, religion, races and Languages and they come closer to each other. In this way world Brother hood and internationalism supersede nationalistic and Parochial tendencies. Demerits of Imperialism and Colonialism 1. Imperialism as symbol of Political subjection: Imperialism is the imposition of alien rule upon the subject people. It is based on superior- subordinate relationship imperialist Power never considers the dependent people on equal status. It Deprives the people of their political rights. Imperialism is Established by force. 2. Economic Exploitation: Economic gain is one of the Fundamental motives of imperialism. For their own interests The capitalist imperialist countries fully exploited the dependent Countries. The Imperialist powers established factories in the Colonies. But it was not for the development of the colonies, it Was for the economic gain of the imperialists. Imperialist Powers had exploited the colonies with all possible measures. 3. Encourage racial discrimination: Imperialism Encourages racial discrimination. In India the Britishers created The problem of racial discrimination on the basis of  religion. In Africa the policy of colour discrimination was pursued between Whites and blacks. 4. War and rivalry: Imperialist rivalries among the Imperialist powers have become a source of War and Inter- state conflicts. The first and second world wars were the results Of the imperialistic rivalries among the big powers. 5. Destroys native culture and morality: The imposition Of western language, culture and dress etc. has destroyed Completely the native language, literature and culture. It Resulted in the decline of the prestige of national language and Culture in the colonies. The Britishers even destroyed the Morality of the colonies, by encouraging gambling and opium Smoking in Far East. NEW IMPERIALISM AND NEO – COLONIALISM With the time and age the form of Imperialism has also Undergone or change. The age of military’s and political Imperialism has gone and its place has been taken byEconomic Imperialism. As the form of Imperialism has undergone a Change, Neo colonialism, has also taken the place of classical Colonialism. After the II world war most of the Asian and African colonies got independence and they are free politically. But they are dependent economically. Actually they are under The influence of big powers. This is called Neo colonialism. The aim of Neo colonialism is to establish Economic Dominance. According to Palmer and Perkins” Neo colonialism Is a new and more insidious form of imperialism, widely Prevalent and particularly pernicious and dangerous”. TYPES OF NEO-COLONIALISM 1) Economic Dependencies: An Economic Dependency Is a politically independent and sovereign nation whose Economic enterprises are control by a foreign country. They Are economically under developed nations. If the major Economic enterprises in the nations are run and controlled by Foreigners the nation is an Economics Dependency. If a given Percentage of national Income, say 51/- is carned by foreigners The nation is an economic dependency. 2) Satellites: A satellite if formally an independent nation But it is controlled both politically and economically by some Big powers. In communist nations major economic enterprizes Are run by the government. So it is not possible for one nation To control the economy of other with our dominating its political Institutions. Thus a nation which is controlled to the politically And  economically by some foreign power, becomes completely Dependent to it and has to freedom of by a Foreign power over Satellite is much more complete than exercised over the Economic Dependencies. C. COLD WAR The Cold War was a period (1945-1991) of geopolitical Tension between the Soviet Union and its satellite states (the Eastern European countries), and the United States with its allies (the Western European countries) after World War II. The world Got divided into two power blocs dominated by two superpowers, The Soviet Union and the US. The two superpowers were Primarily engaged in an ideological war between the capitalist USA and the communist Soviet Union. The Cold War was between Allied countries (UK, France etc. who were led by the US) and Soviet Union. The Soviet Union, officially known as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). The term “Cold” is used because there was no Large-scale fighting directly between the two sides. The Cold War As A LONG PEACE John Lewis Gaddis has referred to the Cold War as a “long peace” to dramatize the Absence of war between the great powers. Nuclear deterrence: Once both the United States and Soviet Union had Acquired nuclear weapons, neither was willing to use them. Division of power: the parity of power led to stability in the International system. The stability imposed by the hegemonic economic power of the United States: being in a superior economic position for much of the Cold War, The United States willingly paid the price of maintaining stability Throughout the world. Economic liberalism: the liberal economic order solidified and became a Dominant factor in international relations. Politics Became transnational under liberalism—based on interests and Coalitions across state boundaries—and thus great powers became Obsolete. The long peace was predetermined: it is just one phase in a long Historical cycle of peace and war. ORIGINS OF THE COLD WAR  o The most important outcome of World War II was the emergence of two superpowers— the United States and the Soviet Union—as the primary actors in the international system and the decline of Europe as the epicenter of international politics. O The second outcome of the war was the recognition of fundamental incompatibilities between these two superpowers in both national interests and ideology. 1. Russia used its newfound power to solidify its sphere of influence in the buffer states of Eastern Europe. 2. U.S. interests lay in containing the Soviet Union. The United States put the notion of containment into action in the Truman Doctrine of 1947. After the Soviets blocked western transportation corridors to Berlin, containment became the fundamental doctrine of U.S. foreign policy during the Cold War. 3. The U.S. economic system was based on capitalism, which provided opportunities to individuals to pursue what was economically rational with little or no government interference. 4. The Soviet state embraced Marxist ideology, which holds that under capitalism one class (the bourgeoisie) controls the ownership of production. The solution to the problem of class rule is revolution wherein the exploited proletariat takes control by using the state to seize the means of production. Thus, capitalism is replaced by socialism. 5. Differences between the two superpowers were exacerbated by mutual misperceptions. The Marshall Plan and establishment of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) were taken as a campaign to deprive the Soviet Union of its influence in Germany. Likewise, the Berlin Blockade was interpreted by the West as a hostile offensive action. O The third outcome of the end of World War II was the beginning of the end of the colonial system. European colonialists. Beginning with Britain’s granting of independence to India in 1947, Indochina and African states became independent in the 1950s and 1960s o The fourth outcome was the realization that the differences between the two superpowers would be played out indirectly, on third-party stages, rather than through direct confrontation between the two protagonists. The superpowers vied for influence in these states as a way to project power. The Cold War as a Series of Confrontations o The Cold War Itself (1945-89) can be characterized as forty-five years of high-level tension and competition between the superpowers but with no direct military conflict. O More often than not, the allies of each became involved, so the confrontations Comprised two blocs of states: those in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in Western Europe and the United States, and the Warsaw Pact in Eastern Europe. O One of those high-level, direct confrontations between the superpowers took place in Germany. 1. Germany had been divided after World War II into zones of occupation. In The 1949 Berlin blockade, the Soviet Union blocked land access to Berlin, Prompting the United States to airlift supplies for a year. 2. In 1949, the separate states of West and East Germany were declared. 3. East Germany erected the Berlin Wall in 1961 in order to stem the tide of East Germans trying to leave the troubled state. The Cold War in Asia and Latin America O China, Indochina, and especially Korea became symbols of the Cold War in Asia. 1. By 1949 the Kuomintang was defeated in China and its leaders fled to the Island of Formosa (not Taiwan). 2. In French Indochina communist forces fought against the French colonial Forces leading to the eventual French defeat in 1954. 3. In 1950 North Korea attempted to reunify the Korean peninsula under Communist rule, launching at attack against the South. 1. U.S. forces, fighting under the auspices of the United Nations, Counterattacked and nearly defeated North Korea. 2. As UN troops approached the Chinese border, the Chinese Attacked, driving the UN forces South and leading to an eventual Three-year stalemate ending in a armistice in 1953. The 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis was another direct confrontation in yet another part Of the world. The Soviet Union’s installation of missiles in Cuba was viewed by the United States as a direct threat to its territory. In Vietnam, the Cold War played out in an extended civil war, in which communist North Vietnam were pitted against South Vietnam. U.S. policy makers argued that communist influence must be stopped before it Spread like a chain of falling dominoes throughout the rest of Southeast Asia (hence The term domino theory). REASONS OF COLD WAR During the World War Allied countries (US, UK and France) And Soviet Union fought together against the Axis powers (Nazi Germany, Japan, and Austria). However, this wartime alliance Could not workout after World War II, due to multiple factors. Truman Doctrine: This Doctrine was announced on March 12, 1947, by US President Harry S. Truman. The Doctrine was a US policy to stop The Soviet Union’s communist and imperialist endeavors. Through various ways like providing economic aid to other Countries. For example, US appropriated financial aid to support The economies and militaries of Greece and Turkey. According to Some scholars this doctrine marked the official declaration of the Cold War. Iron Curtain Iron Curtain is the political, military, and ideological barrier Erected by the Soviet Union after World War II to seal off itself And its dependent eastern and central European allies from open Contact with the West and other noncommunist areas. On the east Side of the Iron Curtain were the countries that were connected to Or influenced by the Soviet Union, while on the west side were The countries that were allies of the US, UK or nominally neutral. Important events of the cold war:- 1. Berlin Wall Blockade 1948: As the tension between Soviet Union and Allied countries grew, Soviet Union applied Berlin Blockade in 1948. The Berlin Blockade was an attempt by the Soviet Union to limit the ability of Allied countries to travel to Their sectors of Berlin. Further, on August 13, 1961, the Communist government of the German Democratic Republic Began to build a barbed wire and concrete wall (Berlin Wall) Between East and West Berlin. It primarily served the objective Of stemming mass emigration from East Berlin to West Berlin. Except under special circumstances, travelers from East and West Berlin were rarely allowed across the border. This Berlin Wall Served as a symbol of the Cold War (US and Soviet Union), until Its fall in 1989. 2. The Marshall Plan: In 1947, American Secretary of State George Marshall, unveiled European Recovery Programme (ERP), which offered economic And financial help wherever it was needed. One of the aims of the ERP was to promote the economic recovery of Europe. However, This was an economic extension of the Truman Doctrine. 3. The Cominform: The Soviet Union denounced the whole idea of Marshall Plan as ‘dollar imperialism. Therefore, the Cominform (the Communist Information  Bureau) – was launched in 1947, as the Soviet Response to the Marshall Plan. It was an organization to draw Together mainly Eastern Europe countries. 4. NATO : North Atlantic Treaty Organization : The Berlin blockade showed the West’s military unreadiness and Frightened them into making definite preparations. Therefore, in 1948, mainly the countries of Western Europe signed the Brussels Defence Treaty, promising military collaboration in Case of war. Later on Brussels Defence Treaty was joined by the USA, Canada, Portugal, Denmark, Iceland, Italy and Norway. This led to the formation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in April 1949. NATO countries agreed to Consider an attack on any one of them as an attack on all of them, And placing their defence forces under a joint command. 5. Warsaw Pact: The Warsaw Pact (1955) was signed between Russia and her satellite States shortly after West Germany was admitted to NATO. The Pact was a mutual defense agreement, which the Western Countries perceived as a reaction against West Germany’s Membership of NATO. 6. Space Race: Space exploration served as another dramatic arena For Cold War competition. In 1957, Soviet Union launched Sputnik I, the world’s first artificial satellite and the first man-made object to be placed into the Earth’s orbit. In 1958, the U.S. Launched its own satellite called Explorer I. However, this space Race was won by the US, when it successfully landed, the first Man (Neil Armstrong) on the surface of the moon in 1969. 7. Arms Race: The containment strategy of US provided the Rationale for an unprecedented arms buildup in the United States, Reciprocated by Soviet Union. Development of nuclear weapons Took place on a massive scale and the world entered into the age Of nuclear age. 8. The Cuban Missiles Crisis, 1962: The Cuba got involved in the Cold War when US broke off its diplomatic relations with Cuba In 1961, and Soviet Union increased their economic aid to Cuba. In 1961, the USA planned Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba, Intending to overthrow the head of Cuban state (Fidel Castro), Who was backed by the Soviet Union. However, the operation Failed. Fidel Castro then appealed to the Soviet Union for military Help, to which Soviet Union decided to set up a nuclear missile Launchers in Cuba aimed at the USA. Cuban Missile Crisis Brought two superpowers on the brink of a nuclear war. However, The crisis was averted diplomatically. END OF THE COLD WAR In 1991, Soviet Union collapsed due to multiple factors which Marked the end of the Cold War, as one of the superpowers was Weakened. REASONS of the collapse of the Soviet Union Military reasons: The space race and the arms race drained a Considerable proportion of Soviet Union’s resources for military needs. Policies of Mikhail Gorbachev: In order to kick start moribund Soviet economy, Gorbachev instituted the policies of glasnost (“openness”) and perestroika (“restructuring”). Glasnost was Intended for liberalization of the political landscape. Perestroika Intended to introduce quasi free market policies in place of Government-run industries. It allowed more independent actions From various ministries and introduced many market-like Reforms. Rather than sparking a renaissance in Communist Thought, these steps opened the floodgates to criticism of the Entire Soviet apparatus. The state lost control of both the media And the public sphere, and democratic reform movements gained Steam throughout the Soviet Union. Also, there was growing Disenchantment in the public due to falling economy, poverty, Unemployment, etc. This made the people of the Soviet Union Attracted to western ideology and way of life. The Soviet-Afghan (1979–89) was another key factor in the Breakup of the Soviet Union, as it drained the economic and Military resources of Soviet Union. The end of the Cold War Marked the victory of the US and the bipolar world order turned Into a unipolar.