IPS1 Physical Pharmacy 1st Sem 2024-2025 PDF

IPS1-Physical Pharmacy CENTRO ESCOLAR UNIVERSITY Malolos PHARMACY DEPARTMENT Integrated Pharmaceuti...

IPS1-Physical Pharmacy CENTRO ESCOLAR UNIVERSITY Malolos PHARMACY DEPARTMENT Integrated Pharmaceutical Science 1 PHYSICAL PHARM ACY wf - peals the physicochemical underlying the development principles successful dosage form. a This review material is prepared by: Mrs. REGINA ALBERTO-JAZUL of I. INTER/INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES INTRAmolecular – forces - within the molecule INTERmolecular – forcesCbetween molecules to exists as aggregates in gases, liquids, and solids –COHESION, or attraction of like molecules –ADHESION, or attraction of unlike molecules REPULSIVE FORCES Arise when dipolar molecules approach one another close enough “positiv e to positiv e” or “negative to negative”, their electron cloud interpenetrate ATTRACTIVE FORCES Arise when dipolar molecules approach so that the positive pole of one is close to the negative pole of the other TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION bond I. VAN DER WAALS FORCES -strongest  Weak forces than covalent bond (50 to 100 kcal/mole) and ionic bond (from 100 to 1000 kcal/mole)  ·  Molecular interactions involved in solubility, complexation, and numerous other physical bonding phenomena  Exist between O all atoms and molecules Critically dependent on the separation distance of the atoms or molecules from each other *d opposite charge Three (3) groups of van der Waals forces : 2 Dipole  Dipole-dipole interaction (Keesom forces) D-D of Let Keesom water Ha active prenol = , , , , pipe weak  Between polar molecules; Energy of attraction is- 1 to 7 kcal/mole  Examples of substances with permanent dipoles include water, hydrochloric acid, alcohol, acetone and phenol polar to - induced > - D-1-D Debye  Induced dipodipolele – iinteraction nduced (Debyedipoleinduction ion (London for(Ence) interactForces) ces) = weaker- o A polar molecule can produce a temporary electric dipole in nonpolar molecules that are easily polarizable o Energy of attraction is 1 to 3 kcal/mole; Easily polarized molecules include ethylacetate, methylene & chloride, and ether le inter(onpon-D-1-D London = > = Dined-dipose pole – indinduced uced dipole dipointeraction action (Debye induction forces) o Originate from molecular- weakes internal vibrations in nonpolar molecules to produce attraction that arises because of synchronized fluctuating dipoles in neighboring atoms ⑨ o These forces are temporary; Responsible for the liquefaction of gases o The energy of this attractive force is 0.5 to 1 kcal/mole o Exhibited by organic compounds like carbon sulfide, carbon tetrachloride, and hexane Hydrocarbons - highly compounds d volatile II. ION –ION, ION-DIPOLE, AND ION-INDUCED DIPOLE FORCES III. HYDROGEN BONDS - Exist between molecules containing hydrogen atom and a strongly electronegative element II. ST ATES OF MATTER A. G ASES *  Molecules travel in random and rapid motion a ado  Gaseous molecules exhibit O atm) pressure within confined system (expressed in dynes/cm 2,mmHg, and ⑳ ①  Volume of gases is the volume of the container into which it is confined (expressed ino & mL) - L, and O cm 3 or KINETIC MOLECULAR KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORYTHEORY I Gases are composed of particles called MOLECULES. d Particles of gases do not attract one another but rather move with- complete independence ⑨  Particles exhibit continuous random motion owing to their kinetic energy ⑨ The molecules exhibit - perfect elasticity THE IDEAL GAS EQUATION The interrelation among volume (V), pressure (P) and the absolute temperature (T) *S PV = n R T or O PV = (g/MW )RT where On is the number of moles (g/MW ) andO R is the molar gas constant (0.08205 L-atm/mole-K) - - PHARMACEUTICAL GASES INCLUDE: 1|Page R r.a.jazul/2024 value of P  macuncal As IPS1-Physical Pharmacy Anesthetic gases (nitrous oxide and halothane) Compressed gases (Oxygen for therapy; Nitrogen; Carbon dioxide) Liquefiable gases used as propellants in aerosol products Ethylene oxide used to sterilize or disinfect heat-labile objects VAPORIZATION – phase change from liquid to gaseous state - Examples: Ether, halothane, and methoxyflurane used as inhalation anesthetics; Amyl nitrite used as -vasodilator - - * SUBLIMATION – solid transform directly to gaseous/vapor state without passing through the liquid state (c- amphor, iodine) NOTE !!! - *Intermolecular forces of attraction in gases are virtually = P non existent at room temperature LIQUEFACTION OF GASES FACTORS AFFECTING THE TRANSITION OF GAS TO LIQUID STATE a 1. TEMPERATURE the form its thekinetic in of heat and Low temp gas energy = , loses O. velocity of the molecules decreases CRITICAL TEMPERATURE - temperature above which a liquid can no longer exist; CT of water is 374 °C - or 647 K- applied to brought molecules within the sphere of 2. PRESSURE Pressure gas = are van liquid der Waals of into the state Forces pass CRITICAL PRESSURE - Pressure required to liquefy a gas at its critical temperature; The highest vapor pressure that the liquid can have; CP of water is 218 atm; CT and CP of He = 5.2 K and 2.26 atm ↓ CP Of H20 He=5atm = 218 atm CT 374% 647K B. LIQUID = or *GAS ~ INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION: Van der Waals forces and Hydrogen Bonding PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LIQUID STATE PT - PVP0 + 1. VAPOR PRESSURE - Increases with rising temperature 2.① HEAT OF VAPORIZATION – the heat absorbed when liquid passed into v apor state 3. dBOILING POINT - the temperature at which the vapor pressure is equals the external or atmospheric pressure -  As pressure decreases, the boiling ↓ P yBP - point lowers - 4. SURFACE TENSION PT-DST 5. FLOW PROPERTIES/VISCOSITY SURFACE TENSION & The force per unit length that must be applied parallel to the surface so as to counterbalance the net inward pull ①  Surface tension decreases with an increase in temperature; 0- Unit: dyne/cm INTERFACIAL TENSION  Is the force per unit length existing at the -interface between two immiscible liquid phases ⑨ dyne/cm - nterface; G  Reflects the extent of the intermolecular forces of attraction and repulsion at the i· Unit: METHODS OF MEASURING SURFACE / INTERFACIAL TENSION CAPILLARY RISE METHOD  The force of adhesion between the liquid molecule and the capillary wall is greater than the cohesion I between the liquid molecules, so the liquid spread over it and rise in the tube DU NOUY RING METHOD  Used to measure surface and interfacial tensions &  The principle is based on the force necessary to detach a platinum-iridium ring immersed at the surface/interface is proportional to the surface/interfacial tension. ADSORPTION ATO LIQUID INTERFACES  Surfactants are& molecules that are adsorbed at interfaces -  The other term for surface-active agents is - both polar and nonpolar solvents). AMPHIPHILE (molecule or ions having certain affinity for HLB SYSTEM  Used to classify surfactants %  HYDROPHILIC (water-loving) amphiphiles have-  LIPOPHILIC (oil-loving) amphiphiles are having① ADSORPTION AT⑳ SOLID INTERFACES high HLB values low HLB values  Takes place from either adjacent liquid or gas phase  The study of adsorption of gases is concerned with; a. Removal of objectionableO odor from room and food, b. Operation of gas mask c. Measurement of particle dimension of powders THE SOLID-GAS INTERFACE  ADSORBENT – the& material used to adsorb the gas ⑨  ADSORBATE – the s⑳ TYPES OF ADSORPTION ubstance being adsorbed I. PHYSICAL or VAN DER WAALS ADSORPTION  The adsorbate can be removed from the adsorbent by increasing the temperature (Desorption) 2|Page r.a.jazul/2024  a IPS1-Physical Pharmacy II. CHEMICAL ADSORPTION d Irreversible; the adsorbate is attached to the adsorbent by primary chemical bonds SOLID-LIQUID INTERFACE & 900 DAFaO  Dyes, alkaloids, fatty acids, organic acids and bases may be adsorbed from solution onto solids such as charcoal and alumina  Adsorption of diphtheria toxin by various clays ⑨ Attapulgite and kaolin adsorb intestinal contents FACTORS AFFECTING ADSORPTION 1. SOLUBILITY OF THE ADSORBATE-The extent of adsorption of a solute is inv ersely proportional to its % solubility in the solvent from which adsorption occurs. 2. pH - Adsorption increases as the ionization of the drug is suppressed. 3. NATURE OF ADSORBENT - The extent of adsorption i- s proportional to the s- pecific surface area. 4. TEMPERATURE - Increase in temperature decreases the amount adsorbed PRINCIPLES WHICH USES SOLID/LIQUID ADSORPTION  DECOLORIZING SOLUTION ·  ADSORPTION CHROMATOGRAPHY  DETERGENCY-A complex process involving the removal of foreign matter from surfaces  WETTING & Detergents are surfactants used for removal of dirt. ⑨ W ETTING AGENT – a surfactant that when dissolved in water, - - lowers the advancing contact angle and aids in displacing an air phase at the surface and replacing it with a liquid phase. CONTACT ANGLE – the angle between a liquid droplet and the surface over which it spreads. ⑨ Applications of Surface Active Agents Emulsifying agents Foaming agents – stabilize gas-in-liquid dispersion ( Detergents Wetting agents Solubilizing agents a Antifoaming agents – break the foam Antibacterial agents – Quaternary Ammonium compounds Aids the absorption of drugs in the body Protective agents RHEOLOGY ⑨ Study of flow properties of liquids and the deformation of solids; Also involves the viscosity characteristics of powders, fluids and semisolids VISCOSITY a Resistance to flow of adjacent layers of fluids;-  Units: in CGS – dyne/sec/cm2 or poise (0.01 poise = 1 centipoise) General categories of flow NEW TONIAN FLOW  Characterized by a - constant viscosity, regardless of the shear rates applied ⑲ Exhibited by liquids of simple molecules and dilute dispersions - - NON NEWTONIAN FLOW [toothpaste hindi babaysal pag binaliktad unlike water , & Characterized by a change in viscosity characteristics with increasing shear rates NON NEWTONIAN FLOW (PDP) I. PLASTIC FLOW – “ Bingham bodies” epoc I  Does not begin to flow until the s- hearing stress is >exceeded; Exhibited by gels, pastes, creams, ointments, cataplasms, and cerates - II. DILATANT FLOW – “ Shear & Thickening System” d Viscosity increases with an increase in shear force; Exhibited by suspensions of high percentage of  dispersed solids III. PSEUDOPLASTIC FLOW - “Shear T -hinning System”  Viscosity decreases with an increase rate of shear; Exhibited by pO olymers in solution, e.g., natural and & synthetic gums OTHER TYPES OF FLOW ↑+ of shear ↑ thickness of resistance # a. THIXOTROPY – a reversible sol-gel transformation = to Flow C ① b. ANTITHIXO TROP Y – negativ e thixotropy - increase thickness or resistance to flo w with an increase time of shear ⑧ c. RHEOPEXY – solid forms a gel readily when gently shaken Factors affecting rheological properties and measurement of viscosity of liquids and semisolids include; Temperature Shear rate Pressure TISMPO Time ⑨Measuring conditions & Composition and additives C. SOLIDS  The intermolecular forces of attraction are O stronger than in liquids or gases ⑨  Solids are either crystalline or amorphous (polymorphism) CRYSTALLINE AMORPHOUS Fixed molecular order Randomly arranged molecules a ⑨ =a [ Distinct melting point & Anisotropic (properties are not same in all directions) Nondistinct melting point = ⑨ Isotropic (properties are same in all directions)O 3|Page r.a.jazul/2024  IPS1-Physical Pharmacy direction) SIX DISTINCT CRYSTAL SYSTEM CUBIC - Sodium chloride RHOMBIC - Iodine ⑨ TETRAGONAL – Urea & HEXAGONAL – Iodoform , MONOCLINIC - Sucrose TRICLINIC - Boric acid atomsBUILDING UNITS OF - CRYSTALS Held together by O ↳ c. molecules O 1. ATOMS (diamond and graphite) covalent bonds 3. IONS (Sodium chloride) O ·O 2. MOLECULES (Solid carbon dioxide, HCl and naphthalene) POLYMORPHISM o⑨ Is the condition wherein saubstances can exist in more than one crystalline form ② ③ o d Polymorphs may d & iffer in:Melting points, X-ray diffraction patterns and Solubilities Drugs that exhibit polymorphism ~1. Theobroma oil / cacao butter (suppository base) a  A polymorphous natural fat, melts at - 34°-36°C ① Has- 4 polymorphic forms a. The unstable gamma form – melts at② 18°C c. The beta prime form – melts at O 28°C & b. The alpha form – melts at O 22°C ⑧ d. The stable beta – melts atO 34.5°C *If Cocoa butter is heated toO 35°C, nuclei of the stable beta crystals are destroyed and the mass does not crystallized until it is supercooled to aboutO 15°C. T 2. Estrogens – form crystalline solvates ⑨ ~ 5. Tamoxifen citrate 3. Spiperone – with two polymorphs a ~6. Carbamazepine ⑨ ~ 4. Haloperidol and bromperidol ① ① SOLVATES - Crystals containing solvent molecules; Sometimes called pseudopolymorphs Changes that polymorphic forms may undergo (1) Enantiotropic – the change from one form to another is reversible d (2) Monotropic – transition takes place in one - direction only (Example: metastable to stable form) AMORPHOUS SOLIDS  Molecules are O not packed in a repeating long-range ordered fashion o  They do not have definite melting points  They - tend to flow when subjected to sufficient pressure over a period of time & Yield value - force below which the - body shows - elastic properties Isotropic, as well as cubic crystals Nach I - Examples include plastics, glass, pitch Changes that polymorphic forms may undergo (1) Enantiotropic – the change from one form to another is reversible & (2) Monotropic – transition takes place in one direction only > 3.spipenne - - has 2poom a Examples of drugs that exhibit polymorphism citrate Tamoxifen 1. Theobroma oil ①92. Estrogens – form crystalline solvates 5. 6. carbamazepine D. LIQUID CRYST ALLINE STATE o TheO ① 4th state of matter SOLID LIQUID - , , GAS ⑨o Characteristics of molecules; Organic, elongated and rectilinear, rigid and possess strong dipoles and easily polarizable groups 2 Main Types of liquid crystalline state 1. SMECTIC ( Soap- or Grease-like) I M olecules are mobile in O mixtures two directions and can rotate about O m-2 direction axis r - one one axis; Phase that forms in ternary = direction 2. NEMATIC (Thread-like) -r - axis one m-3 d Molecule rotate in O one axis but are mobile in- three directions; A special case of nematic crystal is cholesteric crystal LIQUID CRYSTAL FORMATION - A. Heating of solids – THERMOTROPIC LIQUID CRYSTALS Ea B. Action of certain solvents on solids – LYOTROPIC LIQUID CRYSTALS- PROPERTIES OF LIQUID CRYSTALS ↑ ① Exhibit flow properties &Possess property of being bire↳fringent Uses/Applications of Liquid Crystals in Pharmacy double refraction of light  To detect areas of elevated temperature due to consistent color change with temperature ·  In developing display system –- nematic type  In the solubilization of water-insoluble materials – smectic mesophase SUPERCRITICAL FLUID -  A mesophase formed from gaseous state where the gas is held under combination of temperatures $ and pressures that exceed the critical point of a substance 4|Page r.a.jazul/2024  IPS1-Physical Pharmacy & O  Have properties intermediate those of liquids and gases: Permeate solid substances (gas like); High O densities that can be regulated by pressure (liquid like) Supercritical fluid application  Extraction, Crystallization and Preparation of formulations (Preparation of polymer mixtures; % Formation of micro- and nano- particles)  Decaffeination of coffee and tea uses superfluid (Supercritical COO2) THE PHASE RULE  A useful device for relating the effect of the least number of independent variables (e.g., temperature, pressure, and concentration) upon the various phases (solid, liquid, and gas) that can exist in equilibrium system containing a given number of components  Formulated by J. Willard Gibbs F=C–P+2  F is the number of degrees of freedom - Temperature, Pressure, Concentration 8  C is the number of components - Is the smallest number of constituents by which the composition of each phase in the system at equilibrium can be expressed in the form of a chemical formula or equation OP is the number of phases present - A homogenous, physically distinct portion of a system that is separated from other portions of the system by bounding surfaces Condensed System ①- Systems in which the vapor phase is- ignored and only solid and/or liquid phases are considered WATER – PHENOL SYSTEM a A partially miscible O system  Two phase liquid exist at O 11% phenol in water to E ⑨ 63% phenol in water at 50°C  Single liquid phase exist when the concentration exceeds 63% at 50°C ①  All combinations of phenol-water above - 66.8°C are completely miscible and yield one-phase liquid system 0 6  Critical solution, or Upper consolute temperature – the maximum temperature at which the two phase region exist EUTEXIA O - A phenomenon that results to liquefaction when two solids are combined/mixed due to the lowering of their melting points Examples of eutectic mixtures: o 1. Salol-thymol – eutectic point occurs with systems containing - 34% thymol in salol a- - t 13°C 2. Salol-camphor = eutectic point occur with system containing e 56% by weight of s-alol in - camphor aEt 6 °C 3. Camphor-Thymol-Menthol 4. Prilocaine-Lidocaine form a 1:1 mixture at 18°C THERMODYNAMICS  deals with the quantitative relationship O between heat and other forms of energy. - - Thermochemistry  The study of heat changes in chemical reactions and certain physical processes. st ① 1 law of thermodynamics is the derivation of enthalpy or heat content. It states that: O Energy can be transformed from one form into another but cannot be lost, destroyed , or created. nd & 2 law – is the introduction of entropy (quantitative description of randomness or disorder of the system) rd y 3 law – states that the entropy of a pure, perfectly crystalline substance at absolute zero temperature is defined as zero. O III. SOLUTION ①A homogenous system in which the solute is molecularly d ispersed, or dissolved in a solv ent Components of solution Solvent – present in greatest quantity 9 Solute – can be gases, liquids, or solids ⑳b. Electrolytes &a. Non-electrolytes SOLVENTS 1. POLAR SOLVENTS - Dissolv e ionic solutes and other polar substance ⑨2. NON-POLAR SOLVENTS - Hydrocarbons; Aprotic solvents 3. SEMIPOLAR SOLVENTS - Intermediate solvent Lincapable acting proton % donor of as COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF SOLUTION - depend mainly on the number of particles in solution A. LOWERING OF VAPOR PRESSURE DV % B. ELEVATION OF BOILING POINT BOILING POINT – is the temperature at which the vapor pressure equals an external pressure of 760 ↳ mmH g Tb = Kbm where Tb = boiling point elevation Kb = molal elevation constant or ebullioscopic constant C. DEPRESSION OF FREEZING POINT D. CHANGE IN OSMORIC PRESSURE 5|Page r.a.jazul/2024  IPS1-Physical Pharmacy FREEZING POINT – is the temperature at which the solid phase of the pure solvent and the liquid phase of the solution are in equilibrium under a pressure of 1 atm. Tf = Kfm where Tf = freezing point depression Kf = molal depression constant or cryoscopic constant D. CHANGE IN OSMOTIC PRESSURE OSMOTIC PRESSURE – is the pressure that must be applied to the solution to prevent the flow of pure p solvent into the concentrated solution Van’t Hoff Equation for Osmotic Pressure V = nRT p Where; temperature  = osmotic pressure; V = volume in liters; R = Molar gas constant; T =Absolute SOLUBILITY  Is defined as the concentration of solute in a saturated solution at certain temperature (quantitative ) ⑨  Is defined as the spontaneous interaction of two or more substances to form homogenous molecular dispersion (qualitative) FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY OFO DRUGS 1. Physicochemical properties of the solute and the solvent ·2. Temperature 3. Pressure Descriptive Terms of Approximate Solubility % 4. pH of the solution 5. Presence of other substance to aid solubility DESCRIPTIVE TERM PART OF SOLVENT REQUIRED TO DISSOLVE 1 PART OF SOLUTE table 30 sparingly 30-100 Very soluble Less than 1 part T Freely soluble 1 – 10 parts nightly-O , 000 D insoluble 710 , 000 - Soluble 10 -30 parts. Sparingly soluble 30 – 100 parts - Slightly soluble 100 – 1,000 parts Very slightly soluble 1,000 – 10,000 parts - Practically insoluble or insoluble More than 10,000 parts SOLUTIONS AND SOLUBILITY 6 is in- ! A. Saturated solution – is one in which the solute equilibrium with the solid phase (solute) B. Unsaturated or subsaturated solution - Is one containing the dissolve solute in a concentration below that necessary for complete saturation at a definite temperature. C. Supersaturated solution - Is one that contains more of the dissolved solute that it would normally 9 contain at a definite temperature, were the undissolved solute is present SOLUBILITY OF GASES IN LIQUIDS FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY OFO GASES 1. EFFECT OF PRESSURE Expressed by Henry’s Law - “The weight of gas dissolved by a given amount of a liquid at a given temperature is proportional to its pressure”. 2. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE more gas if malamig temp may also occur in son Of liquid-liquid ↑T = 50 OF. As the temperatureS - increases, the solubility of a gas in liquids decreases · or solid-liquid in gas a 3. SALTING-OUT - A phenomenon where gases are often liberated from solutions in which they are dissolved by the introduction of an electrolyte (NaCl) and sometimes by a non-electrolyte (sucrose) 4. EFFECT OF CHEMICAL REACTION o Gases that can chemically react with solvents such as HCl, ammonia, and CO 2 are more soluble than those that do not react with the solvent. do HCl is about 10,000 times more soluble in water than oxygen SOLUBILITY OF LIQUIDS IN LIQUIDS Liquid-liquid pharmaceutical solutions include; Spirits, Elixir, Collodions and Aromatic waters IDEAL AND REAL SOLUTIONS # IDEAL SOLUTION - When both components in a binary solution - obey Raoult’s Law RAOULT’S LAW “ The vapor pressure of a volatile component of an ideal solution is equal to the mole # fraction of that substance in solution times its vapor pressure in the pure state at the temperature of the solution ” It is true only for ideal solutions and ideal gases ICATEGORIES OF SOLUTION REAL/NONIDEAL -O - Do not adhere to Raoult’s law throughout the entire range of composition LIQUID-LIQUID SYSTEM WA GA BO AA ①  Complete miscibility - Liquids that mix in all proportions; Examples: Water-alcohol; glycerin-alcohol; 0 - alcohol-acetone; benzene-CCl4 a We uP  Partial miscibility - When liquids are mixed, two layers are formed, each containing some of the O-completelymisie and other liquid in dissolved state; Examples: water-ether; water-phenol FACTORS AFFECTING THE MISCIBILITY OF LIQUIDS IN LIQUIDS exist single phase as system 6|Page r.a.jazul/2024  FACTORS AFFECTING THE MISTIBILITY OF LIQUIDS IN IQUIDS - IPS1-Physical Pharmacy - 1. INFLUENCE OF FOREIGN SUBSTANCE ⑨ T  If the added material is soluble in only one of the two components or if the solubilities in the two liquids are markedly different, the mutual solubility of the liquid pair is decreased. & I When the third substance is soluble inOboth of the liquids to roughly the same extent, the mutual solubility of the liquid pair is- increased.Example: Glycerin in phenol-water system mu BLENDING - Is the increase in mutual solubility of two partially miscible solvents by another agent - ⑮ 2. DIELECTRIC CONSTANT 3. MOLECULAR CONNECTIVITY % area HYSA Hydrocarbon Surface - 4. MOLECULAR SURFACE AREA - · gup surfacea SOLUBILITY OF SOLIDS IN LIQUIDS IDEAL SOLUTION  Is one in which there is no change in the properties of the components, other than dilution, when 9 they are mixed to form the solution ② No heat is evolved or absorbed during the mixing process - &  The solubility of solids depends on: Temperature, Melting point and Molar heat absorbed when the solid melts Heat of Fusion – the - ① molar neat of Fusion  The Heat of solution is s equal to the heat of fusion. HS = AF 1) heat absorbed when the solid melts NON-IDEAL SOLUTION -against dissolution Favorslubility  The heat of solution has a & positive (energy absorbed) or negative (energy liberated) value ⑲  A negative heat of solution favors solubility while a positive heat works against dissolution SOLUBILITY OF STRONG ELECTROLYTES The process of dissolution is generally accompanied by; - + S 1. ABSORPTION OF HEAT (Endothermic) , %  The solution becomes 6  Dissolution of Na2SO4.H2O 2. EVOLUTION OF HEAT cold; Increase in temperature, increases solubility PT bS = 0  Exothermic, so the solution is hot; Solubility decreases with an elevation of the temperature  Dissolution of anhydrous Na2SO4 Sodium chloride--- does not evolve or absorb heat when it dissolves in water, thus its solubility is not ⑤altered much by a change of temperature, and the heat of solution is zero. Effect of Temperature on Solubility  Decrease in solubility with temperature (exothermic); Increase in solubility with temperature d (endothermic) Solubility of Slightly Soluble Electrolytes 6 SOLUBILITY PRODUCT , Ksp d  Describes the solubility of slightly soluble electrolytes to form a saturated solution; Ksp = A+aB-b COMMON ION EFFECT -  Reduces the solubility of a slightly soluble electrolytes  When the common ion forms a complex with the salt, the ⑤ net solubility may be increased I =  Example: If an ion common with AgCl (e.g. Ag + or Cl-) is added, the equilibrium is altered  AgCl + NaCl AgCl() Commonly Used Concentration Expressions for Solution Conc. Expression Definition/Units Percent weight 9) sol/long sol ① Grams of solute/100 g of solution Percent volume mL/sol/100mL sol & mL of solute per 100 mL of solution Percent w/v G sol / Icom2 801 ① Gram of solute/100 mL of solution Normality 0 eg uts sol/2 of sol. of * Gram eq.weights of solute/L of solution Molarity mol/sol/