Week 1: Provinces & Regions of Canada PDF

Provinces 1.​ Prince Edward Island – Created: 1769, Joined Canada: 1873 2.​ New Brunswick – Created: 1784, Joined Canada: 1867 (Founding province) 3.​ Ontario – Created: 1867, Joined Canada: 1867 (Founding province) 4.​ Quebec – Created: 1867, Joined Canada: 1867 (Founding province)...

Provinces 1.​ Prince Edward Island – Created: 1769, Joined Canada: 1873 2.​ New Brunswick – Created: 1784, Joined Canada: 1867 (Founding province) 3.​ Ontario – Created: 1867, Joined Canada: 1867 (Founding province) 4.​ Quebec – Created: 1867, Joined Canada: 1867 (Founding province) 5.​ Nova Scotia – Created: 1867 (as a province, originally part of a British colony since 1713), Joined Canada: 1867 (Founding province) 6.​ Manitoba – Created & Joined Canada: 1870 7.​ British Columbia – Created: 1858, Joined Canada: 1871 8.​ Alberta – Created & Joined Canada: 1905 9.​ Saskatchewan – Created & Joined Canada: 1905 10.​Newfoundland and Labrador – Created: 1855 (as a colony with responsible government), Joined Canada: 1949 Northwest Territories – Created: 1870 (from land acquired from Hudson’s Bay Company), Joined Canada: 1870 Yukon – Created & Became a Territory: 1898 Nunavut – Created & Became a Territory: 1999 (split from Northwest Territories) Regions ​ A distinctive area of Earth's surface ​ Defined by human or natural characteristics that set it apart from other areas What is Regionalism? ​ The division of a large area into different parts with unique characteristics ​ Some countries experience more regionalism than others ​ Canada is highly prone to regionalism Why is Regionalism So Prevalent in Canada? ​ Vast geographic size and diverse physical geography ​ Different historic settlement patterns  ​ Cultural and linguistic diversity ​ Uneven population distribution ​ British North America Act (1867) granted significant power to provinces Designing Canada ​ Choose a province or group of provinces ​ Study the area, economy, demographics, and physical geography Types of Regions ​ A region can be defined by provincial boundaries or by other factors: ○​ Uniform characteristic → Shared feature across the region ○​ Function → How areas interact within the region ○​ Culture → Shared identity and historical experiences Examples of Functional Regions in Canada: ​ Manitoba’s road and railway system: Winnipeg serves as the transportation hub, with major highways and railways branching out from the city. ​ The Greater Toronto Area (GTA): Toronto is the economic and commercial center, with surrounding cities (Mississauga, Brampton, Vaughan) connected through work, transportation, and trade. ​ Atlantic fishing industry: Coastal towns in Newfoundland & Labrador and Nova Scotia are linked through fishing, processing, and export activities. ○​ ​ Example: ○​ Manitoba’s major roads and highways branch out from Winnipeg, the region’s largest city Cultural Regions ​ Defined by a sense of belonging and shared identity ​ Shaped by history, values, and common goals ​ Example: Francophone identity in Quebec Fault Lines Within Canada ​ Not physical fault lines, but economic, social, and political divisions ​ These divisions shape Canada’s history and regional relationships ​ Four major fault lines impact national unity 1. Centralist vs. Decentralist Visions of Canada ​ Debate over federal power vs. provincial power ​ Example: Disputes over equalization payments ​ Demographic impact: Ontario & Quebec dominate politics due to population size ​ Economic disputes: ○​ Stephen Harper’s government → Supported energy sector expansion ○​ Justin Trudeau’s government → Supports carbon tax, leading to provincial conflicts 2. English-Speaking vs. French-Speaking Canada ​ French-speaking population is declining ​ In Quebec, a divide exists between: ○​ Federalists (support staying in Canada) ○​ Separatists (support independence) ​ Quebec’s language policies aim to preserve French despite being surrounded by English-speaking regions 3. Indigenous Peoples vs. Non-Indigenous Canadians ​ High poverty and unemployment rates in many Indigenous communities ​ Three main Indigenous groups: First Nations, Métis, Inuit ​ Nunavut (created in 1999) allows Inuit self-governance (84% Inuit population) ​ Historical injustices: ○​ Residential schools aimed at assimilation ○​ Land treaties and self-government agreements now shaping Indigenous rights The 4 Fault Lines Within Canada 4. Newcomers vs. Old-Timers ​ Canada is a country of immigrants, which can sometimes create cultural friction  ​ New immigrants often settle in major cities, forming: ○​ Support networks (family, friends, communities) ○​ Cultural hubs (language, food, traditions) ​ However, this can create isolation from long-established Canadians, especially in rural areas ​ Example: The completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway in Vancouver fulfilled a promise to British Columbia when it joined Confederation in 1871 Linking Canada’s Regions ​ Due to Canada’s vast size, transportation networks have been essential in connecting regions ​ The federal government has prioritized national transportation infrastructure Examples of Key Transportation Routes Transcontinental Railways The Canadian Pacific (CP) Railway, completed in 1885, originally ran from Montreal, Quebec, to Port Moody, British Columbia. ​ Canadian National (CN) Railway – Established in 1919, now Canada’s longest railway, spanning from Halifax to Prince Rupert, B.C. The Trans-Canada Highway ​ Opened in 1962, linking all 10 provinces ​ One of the longest highways in the world (7,821 km) ​ Highway maintenance and route numbering are under provincial jurisdiction, not federal The Great Trail ​ Network of paths, greenways, waterways, and roads ​ Connects Canada’s three ocean coasts ​ 80% of Canadians live within 30 minutes of the trail ​ After 25 years of planning, it was commemorated in 2017 for Canada’s 150th anniversary Week 2 Slide 4: The Six Regions of Canada ​ Regional Division: ○​ Canada is divided into six regions based on provinces, making census and statistical analysis more manageable. ○​ These regions play a role in regional identity and economic distribution. ​ Criteria for Regional Definition: ○​ Manageable Size: Regions are designed to be of a balanced and practical scale for governance and analysis. ○​ Physical & Economic Features: Each region is identifiable by geographical features, natural resources, and economic strengths. ​ Demographic Distribution: ○​ 62% of Canada's population resides in only two provinces (Ontario and Quebec). ○​ Quebec Population Trends: In 1971, one-third of Canadians living in Quebec were also born there, highlighting strong regional attachment. Lecture 2: Core/Periphery Theory and Regional Development in Canada Slide 7: Introduction to Core/Periphery Theory ​ Definition: A model describing the interaction among regions within a country. ​ Alternative Name: Also called the Heartland/Hinterland Theory. ​ Core Concept: ○​ Capitalist economies lead to regionally uneven development. ○​ Some areas (the core) become economically dominant, while others (the periphery) remain dependent. Slide 8: Core/Periphery in Canada ​ Core Region: ○​ Southern Ontario & Southern Quebec → Industrial and economic hub. ​ Periphery Regions: ○​ Upward Transitional Peripheries: British Columbia & Prairie Provinces → Growing economically. ○​ Downward Transitional Periphery: Atlantic Provinces → Facing economic decline. ○​ Resource Frontier Periphery: Territorial North → Primarily resource extraction with limited economic diversity.  ​ Economic Relationship: ○​ The core dominates the periphery by controlling economic activities and decision-making. ○​ The periphery relies on the core for markets, investment, and manufactured goods. Slide 9: Characteristics of Core Regions ​ Receive raw materials from the periphery. ​ Manufacturing-based economy with industrial development. ​ Geographically small but densely populated. ​ Diverse economy (finance, technology, trade, and industry). ​ Urban centers with major cities. ​ Corporate headquarters concentrated in core regions. Slide 10: Characteristics of Peripheries ​ Purchase manufactured goods from the core. ​ Geographically large but sparsely populated. ​ Resource-based economy (forestry, mining, agriculture, fishing). ​ Rural and isolated communities with fewer economic opportunities. Slide 11: Trends from Core to Periphery As one moves from the core to the periphery, several trends emerge: 1.​ Population & Density: ○​ Total population decreases. ○​ Population density declines (fewer urban centers). 2.​ Economic Indicators: ○​ Median income drops. ○​ Unemployment rates rise due to limited job opportunities. Slide 12: Two Models of Core/Periphery Interaction 1.​ Regional Exploitation Model: ○​ The wealthy core exploits the periphery’s resources. ○​ Results in economic inequality, leaving the periphery impoverished.  2.​ Modern Model: ○​ The core invests in the periphery. ○​ Leads to economic growth and development in peripheral areas. Slide 13: Sub-Cores in Canada ​ Definition: A sub-core shares characteristics with a core but on a smaller scale. ​ Sub-Core Examples in Canada: ○​ Vancouver/Victoria (B.C.) ○​ Edmonton/Calgary (Alberta) ○​ Halifax (Nova Scotia) Slide 14: The Staples Thesis ​ Definition: ○​ A theory explaining how Canada’s economy has evolved based on its natural resource exploitation. ○​ Focuses on staple products—resources that are extracted and exported for quick and cheap profit. ​ What is a “Staple” Product? ○​ A raw material or primary resource that drives economic growth. ○​ Examples: Fur, fish, timber, wheat, minerals, oil, and gas. ○​ Staples industries shape regional economies and influence national ​ The Staples Thesis The regional economic history of Canada was linked to the discovery, utilization, and export of staple resources in Canada’s peripheries. Harold Innis proposed this thesis in the early 1930s. Over time, economic diversification occurred, reducing peripheries' reliance on natural resources. Staples and Regional Development ​ The Atlantic Provinces were the first region to be settled and initially served as a periphery for England. ​ Canada’s economic history follows an east-to-west progression of the most important staple resources. Advancement of Canada’s Staples 1.​ Fur Trade – Early economic driver, mainly in Quebec and Ontario. 2.​ Lumber – Progressed from the east to the west. 3.​ Fishing – Particularly significant in the Atlantic region.  4.​ Mining – Expanded westward over time. 5.​ Oil – Became a dominant industry in the western provinces. Economic Linkages for Growth Three types of economic linkages are essential for growth and job creation: 1.​ Backward Linkage – Supplies for the staple industry (e.g., saws and tools for the lumber industry). 2.​ Forward Linkage – Local processing before export (e.g., squaring lumber before shipment). 3.​ Final Demand Linkage – Servicing the needs of workers and families. The National Policy (1879) The National Policy contributed to the development of Canada’s economic core by creating a nationwide market for Canadian-made goods. Implementation: ​ Tariffs were placed on foreign-made goods to protect Canadian industries. Implications: ​ Increased the price of goods from the U.S., which would have been cheaper. ​ Favored economic and manufacturing growth in Southern Ontario and Southern Quebec, where transportation costs were minimized. ​ Negatively impacted Western Canada, as they had to purchase expensive Canadian-made goods while exporting wheat and grain to the U.S. at low prices (due to U.S. tariffs). The Canada – U.S. Free Trade Agreement (1988) ​ Signed in 1988, this agreement helped peripheries by providing access to cheaper products and expanding markets for staple exports. ​ Many large companies consolidated operations, choosing to operate factories in a single location rather than maintaining separate factories in each country.  ​ Superseded by NAFTA (1994) when Mexico joined. ​ Replaced by CUSMA (2020) (Canada-United States-Mexico Agreement). Summary of Economic Policies & Trade Agreements: Policy/Agreement Year Impact National Policy 187 Protected Canadian industries, but negatively affected 9 Western Canada Canada-U.S. Free Trade 198 Opened markets and provided cheaper goods Agreement 8 NAFTA 199 Included Mexico, further integrating North American 4 economies CUSMA 202 Updated trade agreement, modernizing policies 0 These policies have played a significant role in shaping Canada's regional economies, influencing the core-periphery relationship and trade dynamics. Key Border Crossings Between Canada and the U.S. 1.​ Ambassador Bridge (Windsor) ○​ Connects Windsor, Ontario, to Detroit, Michigan. ○​ One of the busiest international land border crossings in North America. ○​ Vital for the auto manufacturing industry, as it facilitates the movement of parts and finished vehicles between Canada and the U.S. 2.​ Blue Water Bridge (Sarnia) ○​ Links Sarnia, Ontario, to Port Huron, Michigan. ○​ Important for trade and tourism. ○​ A major crossing for trucks transporting goods between the two countries.  3.​ Windsor-Detroit Tunnel ○​ One of the few vehicular underwater tunnels between Canada and the U.S. ○​ Provides a secondary crossing option to the Ambassador Bridge. ○​ Used for both commercial and personal travel. 4.​ Photo 5.2: The Thickening Canada-U.S. Border ○​ Since the September 11, 2001 attacks, border security has significantly increased. ○​ Auto manufacturing assembly plants in Southern Ontario depend on efficient border crossings for just-in-time delivery systems. ○​ Pre-2001: Canadian citizens could enter the U.S. without passports. ○​ Post-2001: Stricter documentation requirements affected tourism and commerce, particularly in border cities like Niagara Falls, Windsor, and Sarnia. The Thickening Canada-U.S. Border ​ Increased security measures have made cross-border travel more time-consuming. ​ The U.S. government supports the idea of a North American security perimeter, which would standardize immigration, military, and trade policies between Canada, the U.S., and Mexico. ​ The goal of this perimeter is to reduce terrorism risks while maintaining strong economic ties. Canusa Road ​ A unique border road separating Stanstead, Quebec, and Derby Line, Vermont. ​ The international border runs directly through buildings and streets, symbolizing the close ties and complications of the Canada-U.S. relationship. Canada in the Global Economy ​ Core-periphery theory on a global scale: ○​ Global Core: North America and Western Europe dominate economically and politically. ○​ Sub-Core: Asia (China, South Korea, Japan) is experiencing rapid economic growth. ​ Canada’s Trade Strategy: ○​ Diversification of trade is a key priority to reduce reliance on the U.S. ○​ Expanding trade with Asian economies is seen as an opportunity. ○​ Despite efforts to diversify, the U.S. will likely remain Canada’s primary trading partner. Physical Geography Definition ​ Physical geography: The study of natural features and processes of the Earth.  ​ Includes: ○​ Landforms (mountains, valleys, plains). ○​ Climate (weather patterns, temperature variations). ○​ Vegetation (forests, grasslands). ○​ Water bodies (rivers, lakes, oceans). ○​ Ecosystems (interactions between living organisms and their environment). Studying Canada's Physical Geography Canada’s physical geography is analyzed through five main categories: 1.​ Geologic Elements 2.​ Physiography 3.​ Climate 4.​ Vegetation 5.​ Soil Role of Physical Geography in Population Distribution ​ Canada's uneven population distribution is primarily influenced by physical geography. ​ The location of economic and population cores is shaped by environmental factors. ​ Regions with favorable conditions (mild climate, fertile soil, accessible resources) are more likely to become densely populated cores. ​ Physical geography also affects biodiversity, with different regions hosting unique ecosystems. Geologic Elements of Canada Canada has three major geologic elements, each associated with a distinct rock type: 1. Canadian Shield (Igneous Rock) ​ Composed of highly resistant igneous rock, which is extremely old (over 1 billion years). ​ The oldest geological formation in North America. ​ Extends across the Northwest Territories, Northern Prairie Provinces, Northern Ontario, Northern Quebec, and Labrador. ​ Rich in minerals and natural resources (nickel, copper, gold, uranium), making it vital to Canada’s economy. 2. Platform (Sedimentary Rock) ​ Underlies the Interior Plains, stretching from the Northwest Territories to Texas. ​ Composed mainly of sedimentary rock, which often contains significant oil and natural gas reserves. ​ Major contributor to Canada’s energy sector. 3. Folded Mountains (Metamorphic Rock) ​ Formed by tectonic activity, where pressure and movement cause sedimentary rock to transform into metamorphic rock. ​ Canada has three major folded mountain regions: 1.​ Appalachian Mountains ​ Located in Quebec and the Atlantic Provinces. ​ Old, eroded, and relatively low mountains. ​ Covered with vegetation, making them rich in biodiversity. 2.​ Innuitian Mountains ​ Found in Northern Nunavut. ​ Jagged but partially eroded due to harsh Arctic conditions. ​ Mostly inaccessible and sparsely populated. 3.​ Cordillera (Rocky & Coast Mountains) ​ Includes the Rocky Mountains and the Coast Mountains. ​ Youngest, highest, and most rugged mountains in Canada. ​ Snow-capped peaks and glacial formations. ​ A key factor in climate patterns and precipitation levels in Western Canada. Physiographic Regions of Canada A physiographic region is a large area with common topographic features. Each region is defined by its landforms, elevation, and geological history. More details on specific physiographic regions can be explored further. Physiographic Regions of Canada Canada is divided into seven physiographic regions, each with unique geological and topographical characteristics. 1. Canadian Shield  ​ Covers more than half of Canada’s landmass. ​ Composed mainly of rugged, exposed igneous rock. ​ Rich in minerals such as nickel, copper, gold, and uranium. ​ Poor soil quality, making it unsuitable for agriculture. ​ Extends across Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and the northern territories. 2. Cordillera ​ A complex region of mountains, plateaus, and valleys. ​ Has the highest variation in relief of all regions. ​ Runs north to south from Yukon to Southern British Columbia. ​ Includes the Rocky Mountains and Coast Mountains. ​ Prone to earthquakes and landslides due to tectonic activity. 3. Interior Plains ​ Once covered by a shallow inland sea, which deposited layers of sedimentary rock. ​ Deep, wide river valleys formed by glacial spillways. ​ Rich in oil and natural gas reserves (e.g., Alberta oil sands). ​ Covers parts of Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and the Northwest Territories. 4. Hudson Bay Lowlands ​ Flat, swampy terrain with many bogs and muskeg (poorly drained soil). ​ Least variation in relief among all physiographic regions. ​ Permafrost is widespread, limiting vegetation and human settlement. ​ Few small settlements due to harsh conditions. 5. Arctic Archipelago ​ Located north of the Arctic Circle, consisting of coastal plains, plateaus, and mountains. ​ Northern section: Permanently covered in snow and ice. ​ Southern section: Contains tundra vegetation. ​ Continuous permafrost prevents tree growth. ​ Sparse population due to extreme climate and isolation. 6. Appalachian Uplands ​ Contains rounded uplands and narrow river valleys. ​ Features an indented coastline with many small bays and harbors. ​ Found in Quebec and the Atlantic Provinces. ​ One of the oldest mountain ranges in North America. 7. Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands ​ Smallest physiographic region in Canada. ​ Flat to gently rolling landscape formed by underlying sedimentary rock. ​ Extremely fertile soil, making it ideal for agriculture. ​ Densely populated, includes Toronto, Montreal, and Ottawa. Glaciation in Canada Glaciation played a major role in shaping Canada’s landscape. Effects of Glaciation ​ All of Canada (except Northern Yukon) was covered by ice sheets 18,000 years ago. ​ The advance and retreat of glaciers reshaped the land, forming: ○​ U-shaped valleys ○​ Glacial lakes ○​ Moraines, eskers, and drumlins ​ Canada has over 2 million lakes (60% of the world’s total), most of which were formed by melting glacial ice. Types of Glaciers 1.​ Continental Glaciers ○​ Large ice sheets that cover entire continents. ○​ Today, they exist in Greenland and Antarctica (up to 3 km thick). 2.​ Alpine Glaciers ○​ Found in mountainous regions. ○​ Formed by snow accumulation in high-altitude areas. Glaciation in Canada Glaciation has played a key role in shaping Canada's landscapes and water systems. Formation of Glaciers ​ A glacier develops when snow accumulates over time, compacts, and turns into ice. ​ Alpine glaciers form in mountainous regions. ​ Continental glaciers cover large land masses like Greenland and Antarctica. Alpine Glacial & Postglacial Landscapes  ​ Glacial landscapes are shaped by erosion and deposition. ​ Postglacial landscapes include U-shaped valleys, fjords, and moraines. Glacial Retreat ​ 18,000 years ago: Much of Canada was covered by an ice sheet. ​ 9,500 years ago: The ice had begun to retreat, shaping the modern landscape. Evolution of the Great Lakes ​ The Great Lakes are remnants of ancient glacial lakes. ​ The lake basins were created by glacial scouring, then filled with meltwater. Former Lake Agassiz ​ The largest glacial lake in North America, mostly in present-day Manitoba. ​ Melted into today’s Red River Valley, leaving behind flat, fertile farmland. Climate and Climatic Controls in Canada Climate is influenced by seven major climatic controls: 1.​ Latitude: ○​ Lower latitudes receive more solar radiation, leading to warmer temperatures. 2.​ Altitude: ○​ Higher elevations experience cooler temperatures because air molecules are fewer, allowing heat to escape into space more easily. 3.​ Proximity to Bodies of Water: ○​ Water moderates temperatures, keeping coastal areas warmer in autumn and cooler in spring. 4.​ Ocean Currents: ○​ Warm currents (e.g., Gulf Stream) increase temperatures. ○​ Cold currents (e.g., Labrador Current) reduce temperatures. 5.​ Variations in Topography: ○​ Cold air sinks into valleys, creating temperature inversions. 6.​ Prevailing Wind Patterns: ○​ Wind systems transport air masses, leading to rapid temperature shifts. 7.​ Position of Pressure Systems: ○​ The location of warm and cold fronts influences weather patterns. Climatic Zones of Canada Canada has seven distinct climatic zones: 1.​ Pacific 2.​ Cordillera 3.​ Prairies 4.​ Great Lakes–St. Lawrence 5.​ Atlantic 6.​ Subarctic 7.​ Arctic ​ Most of Canada’s landmass falls within the Subarctic and Arctic zones. ​ Moderate climate is found in coastal regions (e.g., British Columbia). Temperature Across Canada ​ January Temperatures: ○​ Coldest in northern regions due to high latitude. ​ July Temperatures: ○​ Warmer in southern regions and interior plains. Physical Effects of Temperature ​ Temperature controls vegetation types and determines the length of the growing season. ​ Plant hardiness zones dictate which crops can grow in different regions. Precipitation in Canada Types of Precipitation 1.​ Orographic Precipitation: ○​ Caused by moist air rising over mountains. ○​ West Coast (B.C.) is the wettest region due to this effect. 2.​ Convective Precipitation: ○​ Occurs in hot summers when warm air rises, leading to thunderstorms. ○​ Common in the Prairies and Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands. 3.​ Frontal Precipitation: ○​ Caused by the meeting of warm and cold air masses. ○​ Leads to moderate and consistent precipitation in regions like Ontario and Quebec. Regional Precipitation Patterns ​ Prairie Provinces & Northern Canada: Relatively dry, especially in winter. ​ West Coast (B.C.): Very wet, due to orographic precipitation. ​ Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands: Moderate year-round precipitation. ​ Southern Ontario: Experiences lake effect snow in winter. ​ Desert regions: Areas receiving less than 250 mm of annual precipitation. Growing Season in Canada ​ Defined as the number of days between the last spring frost and the first fall frost. ​ Victoria, B.C. has the longest growing season in Canada. Geographic Definitions ​ Arête: ○​ A jagged, spine-like ridge running along the side of a mountain. ○​ Formed by glacial erosion, separating two valleys. ○​ Example: Knife-edge ridges in the Rocky Mountains. ​ Cirque: ○​ A bowl-shaped, steep-sided hollow at the head of a valley or on a mountainside. ○​ Created by glacial erosion as ice carves out a depression. ○​ Often becomes a mountain lake when the glacier melts. Lecture 3 Natural Vegetation Zones in Canada: Detailed Notes Overview ​ Human Impact: Much of the vegetation in Canada today is not natural due to agricultural and other human activities. ​ Major Natural Vegetation Zones: 1.​ Forests (Deciduous and Coniferous) 2.​ Grasslands 3.​ Tundra Vegetation Zones 1. Deciduous Forests ​ Characteristics: ○​ Composed of trees that shed their leaves each winter. ○​ Found in areas with a temperate climate and sufficient rainfall. ​ Examples in Canada: ○​ Broadleaf Forest: Covers most of southern Ontario. ○​ Carolinian Forest: Found north of Lake Erie. 2. Coniferous Forests ​ Characteristics: ○​ Composed of evergreen trees (also called needleleaf forests). ○​ Trees retain leaves (needles) year-round, adapting to colder climates. ​ Examples in Canada: ○​ Boreal Forest: Found in the Canadian Shield and is the largest forest zone. ○​ Montane Forest: Located in the interior of British Columbia (B.C.). ○​ Coastal Rainforest: Located along the coast of British Columbia (B.C.). 3. Grasslands ​ Characteristics: ○​ Found in relatively dry areas; grass height varies based on moisture availability. ○​ Known for prairie ecosystems with fertile soil. ​ Location in Canada: ○​ Restricted to the Prairie Provinces (Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba). 4. Tundra ​ Characteristics: ○​ Consists of small plants that survive in harsh, cold climates. ○​ Plants reproduce through runners (offshoots of the main plant). ○​ Shallow root systems due to underlying permafrost. ​ Location: ○​ Found in Arctic areas and alpine regions (high altitudes). Adaptive Vegetation ​ Xerophyte: ○​ Plants with waxy leaves to minimize moisture loss. ○​ Adapted to arid conditions. ​ Krumholz: ○​ Plants that grow sideways due to harsh, dry winds. ○​ Common in areas with extreme weather conditions. Vertical and Latitudinal Zonation ​ Vegetation and permafrost zones vary based on latitude (north-south gradient) and altitude (elevation). Permafrost in Canada Types of Permafrost 1.​ Continuous Permafrost: ○​ Covers at least 80% of the ground. ○​ Found in northern Canada, where temperatures remain consistently below freezing. 2.​ Discontinuous Permafrost: ○​ Covers 30–80% of the ground. ○​ Found in southern fringes of the continuous permafrost zone, often in sloped areas with northerly aspects. 3.​ Sporadic Permafrost: ○​ Covers less than 30% of the ground. ○​ Found in areas transitioning between permafrost zones. Formation and Distribution ​ Permafrost forms where the mean annual soil temperature is below 0°C. ​ The tree line roughly separates continuous and discontinuous permafrost zones. Aspect and Permafrost Overview ​ Aspect: Refers to the direction a slope faces (e.g., north-facing or south-facing). ○​ Impact on Vegetation: Aspect influences sun exposure, moisture retention, and vegetation growth. ​ Tree Line Movement: ○​ The tree line (boundary where trees can no longer grow) has shifted northward by ~100 km over the past 50 years, likely due to climate change. ​ Talik: ○​ A permafrost-free zone found beneath lakes, where the ground remains unfrozen year-round. ​ Infrastructure in Permafrost Areas: ○​ Utilities and pipelines must be constructed above ground. ○​ Many buildings are built on stilts to prevent permafrost melting beneath them. Permafrost and Its Effects ​ Permafrost Melt: ○​ Causes roads to buckle and buildings to fracture due to ground instability. ○​ Melting permafrost releases stored carbon dioxide and methane, contributing to climate change. Soil Classifications in Canada 1. Cryosolic Soil ​ Location: ○​ Found north of the tree line in the Arctic Archipelago and around Hudson Bay. ​ Characteristics: ○​ Exists where mean annual temperature is below 0°C. ○​ Dominant in areas with continuous permafrost. 2. Podzolic Soil ​ Location:  ○​ Found in the Canadian Shield (cool, moist climates). ​ Characteristics: ○​ Light grey in color and common in boreal forests. ○​ Has large pore spaces, allowing moisture to percolate downward easily. 3. Luvisolic Soil ​ Location: ○​ Found in humid continental climates (e.g., Southern Ontario). ​ Characteristics: ○​ Associated with deciduous forests. ○​ High organic content from decomposing leaves. ○​ Warm summers lead to rapid decomposition, enriching the soil. 4. Chernozemic Soil ​ Location: ○​ Found in Prairie Provinces (dry climates). ​ Characteristics: ○​ Color ranges from light brown to dark brown. ○​ Contains high organic content, though moisture does not percolate easily. Special Region: Palliser’s Triangle ​ Location: ○​ A dry area in the western Prairies. ​ Historical Context: ○​ Named after John Palliser, a surveyor of western North America in the 1850s. ​ Significance: ○​ Known for its semi-arid climate and challenging conditions for agriculture Palliser's Triangle ​ Agricultural Unsuitability: ○​ Initially declared unsuitable for agriculture by John Palliser due to its semi-arid climate. ○​ Despite this, wheat farming and cattle ranching are now the dominant land uses. ○​ Farmers often rely on government subsidies to endure long drought conditions. Drainage Basins ​ Definition: ○​ The area of land that collects and drains water into a river or lake. ​ Key Canadian Drainage Basins: ○​ Mackenzie River Drainage Basin: Drains northern regions. ○​ Great Lakes Drainage Basin: Feeds into the Great Lakes system. ○​ Grand River Drainage Basin: Smaller, localized drainage area. Divides ​ Definition: ○​ Divides are ridges of higher land that separate adjacent drainage basins. ​ Continental Divide: ○​ Runs along the Rocky Mountains (British Columbia–Alberta border). ○​ Determines which ocean rivers will drain into: ​ Atlantic Ocean: Rivers flow eastward. ​ Pacific Ocean: Rivers flow westward. Drainage Basins as Open Systems ​ Dynamic Equilibrium: ○​ Rivers constantly adjust to the inputs and outputs of water. ​ Inputs: ○​ Precipitation (rain, snow) ○​ Snowmelt ​ Outputs: ○​ River discharge ○​ Evaporation Columbia Icefield ​ Location: ○​ Situated in the Rocky Mountains, it straddles the British Columbia–Alberta border. ​ Significance: ○​ The last remaining ice sheet in southern Canada.  ○​ Plays a key role in feeding major rivers and sustaining water flow. Columbia Icefield ​ Location and Features: ○​ Straddles the Continental Divide in Jasper National Park. ○​ Comprises 8 large alpine glaciers. ​ Significance: ○​ Source of the North Saskatchewan River, which flows through Edmonton and Saskatoon. Athabasca Glacier ​ Notable Glacier: ○​ The most well-known glacier within the Columbia Icefield. ​ Retreating Trend: ○​ Shrinking at a rate of 2-3 meters per year. Glacial Retreat and Albedo Effect ​ Reflection vs. Absorption: ○​ Ice and snow reflect sunlight, preventing heat absorption. ○​ As ice melts, exposed water and land absorb more sunlight, intensifying heat and accelerating nearby ice melt. Arctic Sea Ice and Future Changes ​ Global Warming Impact: ○​ Polar regions, including the Arctic, are expected to experience faster warming than any other regions on Earth in the coming decades. Week 4 Three Major Events in Canadian History 1.​ The Arrival of the First People in North America 2.​ The Colonization of North America by France and England 3.​ The Influx of Settlers from Eastern Europe The First People Migration to North America ​ The first humans arrived in North America about 20,000 years ago. ​ These early hunters crossed the Beringia land bridge from Siberia to Alaska, which was accessible due to lower sea levels during the Ice Age. ​ Some continued eastward into Yukon, while others traveled south along the Pacific coast. Migration Routes & Adaptation ​ As the continental ice sheet retreated, early people traveled along an ice-free corridor along the Rocky Mountain foothills. ​ Initial food source: ○​ Early hunters primarily relied on mammoths, using pointed spears for hunting. ○​ However, mammoths became extinct about 11,000 years ago due to climate change and overhunting. ​ Diet shift: ○​ Early people adapted to a mixed diet of buffalo, caribou, fish, and plants. ○​ This new diet allowed them to settle in specific geographic regions rather than being purely nomadic. Development of Indigenous Tribes ​ Around 10,000 years ago, trade among groups developed, leading to the formation of distinct social units. ​ Over time, these separated groups evolved into the Indigenous tribes of Canada. Arctic Migration & Inuit Ancestors ​ 5,000 years ago: The Laurentide Ice Sheet began to retreat from Nunavut, opening new areas for migration. ​ Sea hunters moved eastward and northward, hunting walruses, seals, and other marine animals. ​ 1,000 years ago: The Thule people, ancestors of today’s Inuit, migrated into the Arctic. Contact with Europeans European Exploration and Indigenous Contact ​ European explorers saw the New World (Western Hemisphere) as terra nullius (empty land). ​ Contact between Europeans and Indigenous Peoples happened between the late 1400s and the 1500s. Impact on Indigenous Populations ​ Just before first contact, an estimated 500,000 Indigenous People lived in what is now Canada. ​ By 1871, the Indigenous population declined by 80% to approximately 100,000. Causes of Population Decline 1.​ Introduction of European Diseases ○​ Smallpox, measles, and influenza were introduced by European explorers and fur traders. ○​ Indigenous Peoples had no immunity to these diseases, leading to massive fatalities. 2.​ Loss of Hunting Grounds ○​ As European settlers expanded, Indigenous communities lost access to traditional hunting areas, affecting their food supply and survival. French and British Settlement: ​ French explorers established Quebec City in 1608, creating New France. ​ British explorers arrived by the mid-1700s and conquered New France in 1759. British Immigration Waves: ​ First Wave (Late 1700s): British Loyalists, who supported Britain during the U.S. War of Independence, moved to Canada after Britain’s defeat. ​ Second Wave (Early to Mid-1800s): Over 1 million people, mainly from the British Isles, immigrated due to economic hardship and the Irish potato famine. They mainly settled in Nova Scotia and Southern Ontario. Canada at Confederation (1867): ​ Population Distribution: 75% lived in Ontario and Quebec; 20% in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. ​ Demographics: 60% of the population was of British descent, with a population of 3.5 million. ​ In the Red River region, Métis people (of mixed Indigenous and European ancestry) represented over 80% of the population. Confederation (1867): ​ Canada became a country through the union of four provinces: Ontario (Upper Canada), Quebec (Lower Canada), New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. ​ The union was encouraged by Britain to strengthen the colonies and prevent U.S. annexation. Land Transfer (1870): ​ Rupert’s Land and the North-Western Territory, previously controlled by the Hudson's Bay Company, were sold to the federal government in 1870. Settlement of Western Canada Reasons for Federal Government's Land Purchase and Organization: 1.​ Diminish the Threat of U.S. Annexation ○​ The U.S. had been expanding westward and could have claimed the land. ○​ The Canadian government wanted to secure its western territories to prevent U.S. expansion into the region. 2.​ Building a Transcontinental Railroad ○​ A key goal of the federal government was to connect the country through the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR). ○​ The railway would help with economic development and transportation of goods and people across Canada. Role of Clifford Sifton (Minister of the Interior) ​ Tasked with settling the Prairie region (Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba). ​ Encouraged mass immigration to populate the land. Population Growth in the Prairie Region (1901–1921) ​ 1901: 400,000 people ​ 1921: 2 million people Targeted Immigrants for Settlement ​ The federal government encouraged immigration from: ○​ Scandinavia (Norway, Sweden, Denmark) ○​ Russia ○​ Ukraine ​ These regions had a similar climate and landscape to the Canadian Prairies, making it easier for immigrants to adapt. The "Third People" in Canada ​ Before this wave of immigration, Canada’s population consisted mainly of: ○​ French Canadians ○​ British Canadians ○​ Indigenous Peoples ​ The arrival of Eastern Europeans and Scandinavians added a new ethnic and cultural dimension to Canada. Impact on the Prairie Landscape ​ Immigrants established homesteads and began farming. ​ Before European settlement, the area was occupied by semi-nomadic Indigenous Peoples who relied on buffalo hunting. ​ The transformation of the landscape led to conflicts over land and disrupted Indigenous ways of life. Evolution of Canada’s Provinces and Territories British North America Act (July 1, 1867) ​ This act created Canada as a self-governing Dominion under British rule. ​ The first four provinces were: 1.​ Ontario 2.​ Quebec  3.​ New Brunswick 4.​ Nova Scotia Expansion of Canada (Provinces & Territories Joining the Confederation) Frequent Boundary Changes After Confederation ​ As Canada expanded, provincial and territorial borders shifted over time. ​ The Northwest Territories originally covered a vast area but gradually reduced in size as new provinces and territories were created. Labrador Boundary Dispute (Quebec vs. Newfoundland) ​ Greatest territorial dispute in Canada’s history. ​ 1927: The dispute was settled by an impartial judicial court in Britain. ​ Ruling: ○​ All land that drains into the Atlantic Ocean was awarded to Labrador (which belonged to Newfoundland, then a British colony). ​ Quebec's Reaction: ○​ Never formally accepted the ruling. ○​ The dispute remains a point of contention between Quebec and Newfoundland. Canada’s Internal Boundaries Over Time ​ 1873: Expansion of Canada with the addition of Prince Edward Island. ​ 1905: Creation of Alberta and Saskatchewan from the Northwest Territories. ​ 1927: Settlement of the Labrador boundary dispute. Regional Tensions in Canada ​ Regions vs. Federal Government: 1.​ Each region has unique demands and interests. 2.​ The federal government struggles to balance regional needs. ​ Causes of Tension in National Unity: 1.​ Competition for federal funding – Provinces argue over how federal resources are allocated. 2.​ Geographic separation – Trade and commerce are difficult due to vast distances between regions. 3.​ Stronger U.S. economic ties – Some Canadian regions (e.g., Western provinces) trade more with the United States than with Eastern Canada.  4.​ Expensive provincial responsibilities – Healthcare, education, social services, and transportation fall under provincial jurisdiction, creating financial strain. Major Faultlines in Canada 1.​ Centralist vs. Decentralist Faultline ○​ Ontario and Quebec dominate politically and economically. ○​ House of Commons Representation (338 seats): ​ Seats are distributed based on population (each MP represents ~118,000 people). ​ 2024 Update: Five new seats were added, benefiting fast-growing regions. 2.​ Rules for Representation in the House of Commons: ○​ Each province must have at least as many MPs as it has senators. ○​ Each province must have at least as many MPs as it did in 1976. ​ This protects provinces like Quebec, ensuring they maintain a minimum number of MPs. 3.​ Indigenous vs. Non-Indigenous Faultline ○​ Ongoing disputes over land rights, treaties, and self-governance. ○​ Indigenous communities often have less access to resources, infrastructure, and economic opportunities. 4.​ Immigration Faultline ○​ Immigration policies influence the demographic balance of regions. ○​ Some provinces argue they receive too few or too many immigrants, impacting jobs and housing. 5.​ French vs. English Faultline ○​ Quebec seeks to preserve its French language and culture, leading to tensions with English-speaking Canada. ○​ Movements for Quebec sovereignty (e.g., 1995 Referendum) have created national unity challenges. Western Alienation ​ Part of the Centralist vs. Decentralist faultline. ​ Western provinces (Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and British Columbia) feel politically and economically neglected by the federal government. ​ Causes of Western Alienation: ○​ Federal policies on oil and energy (e.g., National Energy Program in the 1980s). ○​ Perceived lack of representation in Ottawa.  ○​ Economic reliance on natural resources, which are regulated by federal policies. The National Energy Program (1980–1984) Context Leading to the NEP ​ Energy prices surged in the 1970s due to global oil crises. ​ Mid-1970s: The federal government agreed to match the Canadian oil price to the world oil price, benefiting Alberta’s economy. ​ 1980: The Liberal federal government under Pierre Trudeau introduced the National Energy Program (NEP), reversing this policy. Objectives of the NEP: 1.​ Lower oil costs for Canadians by preventing domestic prices from rising with global oil prices. 2.​ Redistribute oil industry revenue from Alberta to the federal government and other provinces. Controversy Over the NEP: ​ Resource management is a provincial responsibility, but the federal government forced the program through, angering Alberta. ​ Alberta’s oil revenues plummeted, while the federal government gained from the new policy. ​ Western alienation deepened, as Albertans saw this as economic interference by Ottawa. Long-Term Political Impact on Alberta: ​ Alberta distrusted the federal Liberal Party, which is still evident today. ​ Alberta did not elect a single Liberal MP in: ○​ 1984, 1988, 2006, 2008, 2011, 2019 federal elections. ​ In 2015, when Justin Trudeau won a majority government, only 4 out of Alberta’s 34 ridings voted Liberal. Equalization Payments in Canada Purpose of Equalization Payments: ​ Payments made by the federal government to some provinces to ensure a relatively equal standard of living across Canada. ​ Only provinces with below-average revenue-generating ability receive payments. Terminology: "Have" vs. "Have Not" Provinces ​ “Have” provinces (do not receive equalization payments): ○​ British Columbia (BC) ○​ Alberta (AB) ○​ Saskatchewan (SK) ○​ Ontario (ON) ○​ Newfoundland and Labrador (NL) ​ “Have Not” provinces (receive equalization payments): ○​ Manitoba (MB) ○​ Quebec (QC) ○​ New Brunswick (NB) ○​ Nova Scotia (NS) ○​ Prince Edward Island (PEI) Why Equalization Is Controversial: ​ Provinces like Alberta argue that they contribute more to federal revenue but do not receive equalization payments. ​ Quebec is a major recipient, leading to debates about fairness. ​ The program exacerbates regional tensions, particularly between Alberta and Ottawa. The Indigenous / Non-Indigenous Faultline in Canada Federal Responsibility for Indigenous Affairs ​ The federal government is responsible for Indigenous matters in Canada. ​ Historically, policies of assimilation were pursued, with devastating effects on Indigenous communities. Indigenous Residential Schools (1892–1996) ​ Established in 1892, operated by Christian churches. ​ Goal: Forced assimilation of Indigenous children. ​ Methods of Assimilation: ○​ Children removed from families and placed in boarding schools. ○​ Indigenous languages were banned; students were required to speak English or French. ○​ Many children suffered physical, emotional, and sexual abuse. ​ 2008: The federal government formally apologized for the harm caused. ​ 2015: The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) issued 94 Calls to Action to address the legacy of residential schools. Current Federal Policies for Indigenous Reconciliation ​ Resolving outstanding land claims. ​ Recognizing Indigenous rights and self-governance. ​ Investing in Indigenous economic development. ​ Improving access to healthcare, education, and infrastructure in Indigenous communities. Three Major Indigenous Groups in Canada 1.​ First Nations ○​ People who are members of a band and have signed treaties with the federal government. ○​ Entitled to certain rights, including land and financial compensation. 2.​ Métis ○​ People of mixed Indigenous and European ancestry (French-Indigenous or English-Indigenous). ○​ Historically lived in the Prairie provinces and played key roles in the fur trade. 3.​ Inuit ○​ Descendants of the Thule people, who traditionally lived in Arctic and Subarctic regions. ○​ Primarily located in four Inuit regions: 1.​ Inuvialuit Settlement Region (Northwest Territories) 2.​ Nunavut 3.​ Nunavik (Northern Quebec) 4.​ Nunatsiavut (Labrador) ○​ Over 80% of the population in these regions is Inuit. Indigenous Land Rights and Reserves ​ Land rights are the most fundamental Indigenous rights. ​ Treaties negotiated with the federal government led to the establishment of reserves. ​ Key facts about reserves in Canada: ○​ Over 600 reserves exist across the country. ○​ 35% of Indigenous Canadians live on a reserve.  ○​ Indigenous bands collectively manage their reserves. ​ Many land claims remain unresolved, leading to ongoing legal and political disputes. Bridging the Indigenous / Non-Indigenous Faultline ​ Indigenous economic development is a priority for the federal government. ​ Efforts include: ○​ Self-governance agreements allowing Indigenous communities to control their own affairs. ○​ Investment in Indigenous-owned businesses and resource projects. ○​ Funding for education and job training to support economic independence. Indigenous Self-Governance & Economic Disparities ​ Ongoing transfer of power from the federal government to Indigenous communities is necessary to improve self-determination and governance. ​ Economic conditions on reserves vary significantly: ○​ Some flourish due to natural resources, tourism, or businesses. ○​ Many are isolated with little economic base, leading to extreme poverty, lack of infrastructure, and limited job opportunities. The Immigration Faultline Immigration as a Tool of Colonial Power ​ After the British conquest of New France (1759), the British government controlled immigration policy. ​ Goal: Offset the French-speaking population by encouraging large-scale British immigration to British North America. Imperial Influence on Immigration (1800s – Early 1900s) ​ After Confederation (1867), Canada remained closely tied to the British Empire. ​ Immigration policies were shaped by an imperialist belief that British people were superior to other groups. ​ Chinese labourers (15,000 people) built the Canadian Pacific (CP) Railway through the Cordillera region. ​ Immigrants from Eastern Europe, Scandinavia, and Asia faced discrimination and were expected to assimilate into Canadian society. ​ Non-British farmers in the Prairies struggled due to government bias favoring British settlers. The Red River Rebellion (1869–1870) Causes of the Rebellion ​ The Red River Rebellion was a clash between the Métis and the federal government over land rights. ​ The federal land survey system ignored Métis land use patterns. ​ Métis feared losing their land and rights in the new province. Key Events of the Red River Rebellion ​ Louis Riel led the Métis resistance. ​ He placed his foot on a land surveyor’s chain and ordered the surveyors to leave. ​ The Métis seized control of the Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) headquarters. ​ They formed a provisional government to negotiate the province’s entry into Canada. Results of the Red River Rebellion ​ Manitoba became a province on July 15, 1870. ​ The Métis were granted land rights, but many later lost their land due to government policies and settler expansion. ​ Louis Riel was later exiled to the U.S., but returned in the 1880s to lead another Métis resistance—the Northwest Rebellion (1885). Louis Riel: The Father of Manitoba ​ Louis Riel is now recognized as the Father of Manitoba for his leadership in securing Métis rights. ​ The Métis secured key demands in their negotiations with the federal government: 1.​ Bilingual government: English and French were both recognized within Manitoba's government. 2.​ Dual education system: Manitoba established both Protestant and Catholic schools. The Northwest Rebellion (1885) Causes of the Rebellion ​ The Métis and First Nations in what is now Saskatchewan felt threatened by increasing numbers of settlers moving into their lands. ​ Louis Riel, who was living in Montana, was called upon to help. ​ Riel sent a petition to the federal government, but this time, their demands were ignored. Key Events of the Rebellion ​ The uprising began when an Indigenous group ambushed a Northwest Mounted Police contingent. ​ The ambush led to the deaths of 12 police officers and 6 Indigenous fighters. ​ The Canadian army moved in, overwhelming the Métis and Indigenous forces. ​ Riel was captured and executed by hanging, along with eight Indigenous leaders. Newcomers to Manitoba (1870–1880) ​ The Métis lost their majority in Manitoba due to mass migration from Ontario. ​ Reasons for the influx of settlers: 1.​ Land scarcity in Ontario—agricultural land was no longer readily available. 2.​ Advances in wheat farming: Machinery improvements and rising grain prices made farming in Manitoba profitable. Doukhobors in Western Canada ​ The Doukhobors were a Russian religious group who migrated to Western Canada. ​ Why did they leave Russia? ○​ They refused to serve in the Russian military and were persecuted by the Russian government. ​ Many Doukhobors settled in the prairie region, preferring to maintain their cultural traditions rather than assimilate. The Doukhobors in Canada ​ Beliefs & Lifestyle: ○​ The Doukhobors were communalists, rejecting individual land ownership and government control.  ○​ They were pacifists, refusing military service and oaths of allegiance to Britain. ○​ They also refused to participate in the Canadian census. ​ Land Settlement & Conflict with the Government: ○​ They were granted blocks of land in the Prairie region with exemptions from military service. ○​ In 1905, Frank Oliver, the new Minister of the Interior, enforced the Dominion Lands Act. ○​ This allowed the federal government to revoke Doukhobor land rights, forcing many to relocate. The French/English Faultline in Canada Canadian unity depends on compromise between French and English communities, a relationship dating back to: 1. The British Conquest (1759–1763) ​ Battle of the Plains of Abraham (1759): The British defeated the French near Quebec City. ​ Treaty of Paris (1763): France formally ceded New France to Britain. 2. The Quebec Act (1774) ​ To appease the French-speaking population, Britain granted them: ○​ Continuation of the seigneurial landholding system (long, narrow farms along rivers). ○​ Religious freedom (allowed Catholicism to remain dominant). ○​ Right to retain the French language. ​ Seigneurial System vs. Concession System: ○​ French land was divided into long, narrow strips along rivers (seigneurial system). ○​ The British used a grid-like concession system. ○​ The act was well received by French Canadians. 3. British Loyalists & the Constitutional Act (1791) ​ After the American Revolution, 40,000 British Loyalists moved to Canada. ​ Many settled in the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands and demanded more control over their affairs. The Constitutional Act (1791) ​ The British colony of Quebec was divided into two provinces: 1.​ Upper Canada (now Ontario) → Predominantly English-speaking. 2.​ Lower Canada (now Quebec) → Predominantly French-speaking. ​ This division allowed the English and French populations to govern themselves separately, reducing tensions. The Path to a More Democratic Canada 1. Rebellions and the Act of Union (1841) ​ Over time, many people in Upper and Lower Canada became frustrated with elitist rule. ​ The Ottawa River was the dividing line between the two provinces. ​ Rebellions erupted in both regions, leading Britain to send Lord Durham to investigate. ​ Lord Durham’s recommendations: ○​ Unite the two provinces under one large government (the Province of Canada). ○​ This would make the French-speaking population a minority, favoring English political dominance. 2. The Manitoba Schools Question ​ When Manitoba became a province (1870), it was guaranteed bilingual rights and religious schooling. ​ However, as Anglo-Protestants became the majority, the Manitoba government ended funding for Catholic schools in 1890. ​ This angered Quebec and deepened tensions between French and English Canadians. 3. The Quiet Revolution (1960s) ​ A cultural and political shift in Quebec that led to: ○​ A stronger sense of identity among French-speaking Quebecers. ○​ A push for secularism and modernization in Quebec society.  ○​ The growth of Hydro-Québec, symbolizing Quebec’s economic independence. ​ The idea of Quebec separatism gained traction. 4. Quebec Separatism & Referendums ​ The movement for an independent Quebec intensified when French President Charles de Gaulle visited in 1967 and declared: 1.​ "Vive le Québec libre!" (Long live a free Quebec!) ​ Two referendums were held on Quebec’s separation from Canada: 1.​ 1980: 60% voted against separation. 2.​ 1995: 49.5% voted against separation, while 48.7% voted for it (a very close result). 5. Quebec Recognized as a Nation (2006) ​ In 2006, the federal government officially recognized Quebec as a nation within Canada. ​ Definition of "Nation" in this context: ○​ A distinct cultural group with a unique language, history, and identity. Week 5 Detailed Summary of Canadian Population Trends and Density Population Overview ​ Estimated Population: 41.6 million ​ Global Comparison: Only 20% of countries have a higher population than Canada. Trends in Population 1.​ Declining Natural Increase: Birth rates are decreasing. 2.​ Aging Population: More elderly individuals as life expectancy increases. 3.​ Indigenous Birth Rate: Higher compared to the general population. 4.​ Fastest-Growing Provinces: Ontario, British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan. Provincial Growth Trends ​ Alberta: ○​ Grew fastest during high oil prices (2005–2014). ​ Saskatchewan: ○​ Strong economic growth due to: ​ Resource-based industries (natural gas, potash, agriculture). ​ Knowledge-based industries (alternative fuels, bio-agriculture). ​ Construction boom in Saskatoon and Regina. Population Density ​ Definition: Number of people divided by land area. ​ Canada's Rank: 2nd largest country by land area. ​ Low Population Density: 3.7 people per km² (one of the lowest in the world). ​ Physiological Density: Similar to the United States when considering arable land. Ecumene (Inhabited Areas) ​ Varies by Region: ○​ Ontario has the highest population density (13 people per km²). ○​ Northern Ontario is sparsely populated. ​ Major Population Centers: ○​ Ontario + Quebec = 62% of Canada's population.  ○​ Transportation networks influence population distribution. Population Distribution ​ Definition: How people are spread across the land. ​ Highly Uneven Distribution: ○​ 75% of Canadians live within 100 km of the U.S. border. Urban Population ​ Definition of Urban: ○​ Settlement with ≥1000 people and ≥400 people per km². ​ Canada’s Urbanization: ○​ 82% of the population lives in urban areas. ○​ Urban growth surged in the 1920s. ​ Least Urbanized Region: ○​ Atlantic Canada (many fishing villages have 1 million) 1.​ Toronto 2.​ Montreal 3.​ Vancouver 4.​ Ottawa 5.​ Calgary 6.​ Edmonton ​ Toronto overtook Montreal in size in 1971. Census Metropolitan Areas (CMAs) Definition: Urban areas with at least 100,000 people, including adjacent suburban areas that are economically/socially linked to the urban core. ​ 41 CMAs in Canada ​ 16 CMAs are in Ontario Urban Sprawl & Environmental Impact Urban Sprawl Concerns: ​ Increased traffic congestion ​ Decline of downtown retail ​ Air pollution ​ Loss of agricultural land ​ Most severe in largest CMAs, but also affects smaller cities Four Population Zones in Canada 1.​ Densely Populated Zone ○​ Location: Great Lakes – St. Lawrence Lowlands ○​ Cities: Toronto, Montreal, Ottawa, Quebec City, Hamilton, Kitchener, London, St. Catharines, Windsor, Oshawa ○​ Agriculture: Most fertile farmland in Canada 2.​ Moderately Populated Zone ○​ Location: Coast to coast, between the 49th and 50th latitude ○​ Major Cities: Vancouver, Calgary, Edmonton, Winnipeg, Halifax ○​ Population Growth: Uneven 3.​ Sparsely Populated Zone ○​ Location: Mid-section of Canada (mostly boreal forest) ○​ Cities: Fort McMurray, Whitehorse, Yellowknife ○​ Population: ~1% of Canadians live here 4.​ Isolated Settlements Zone ○​ Location: Northern Canada (inhospitable conditions) ○​ Cities: Labrador City, Iqaluit, Inuvik ○​ Population: Fewer than 0.1% of Canadians (mostly Indigenous communities) Population Change: Key Terms ​ Crude Birth Rate: Number of births per 1,000 people per year ​ Crude Death Rate: Number of deaths per 1,000 people per year ​ Rate of Natural Increase: Difference between birth rate and death rate ​ Net Migration: Difference between immigration and emigration Natural Increase Trends ​ Birth rates have dropped significantly over the past 100 years. Summary of Population Trends & Demographic Changes in Canada Reasons for Declining Birth Rates 1.​ Urbanization – More people moving from rural areas to cities 2.​ Increased Female Workforce Participation – More women working, delaying or having fewer children 3.​ Widespread Family Planning – Greater acceptance and use of contraception 4.​ Immigration Is Driving Population Growth – More population growth now comes from immigration rather than natural increase Natural Increase & Declining Death Rates Reasons for Falling Death Rates 1.​ Medical Advances – Improved healthcare and treatments 2.​ Better Nutrition – More access to healthy food 3.​ Improved Healthcare Systems – Better hospitals, doctors, and public health Replacement Fertility Rate ​ Definition: The number of children a woman must have to replace herself in the population ​ Rate: 2.1 births per woman ensures stable population ​ Canada’s Current Fertility Rate: 1.26 births per woman (below replacement level) Demographic Transition Theory Definition: A model explaining how birth and death rates change as a society evolves from pre-industrial to industrial. ​ Death rates decline first, followed by birth rates ​ 5 Phases of Demographic Transition: 1.​ Late Pre-Industrial – High birth & death rates → No population growth 2.​ Early Industrial – Death rates fall, birth rates stay high → Rapid population growth 3.​ Late Industrial – Birth rates start to fall → Population growth slows 4.​ Early Post-Industrial – Low birth & death rates → Little to no growth 5.​ Late Post-Industrial – Birth rates fall below death rates → Population decline Population Growth in Canada ​ Most of Canada's population growth today comes from immigration. ​ "Baby Boom" (1946-1964): High birth rates after WWII as soldiers returned home. ​ Median Age in Canada: 41 years old and increasing. Demographic Regional Differences ​ Youth Population Highest: North & Prairies ​ Elderly Population Highest: Atlantic Canada Age Dependency Ratio ​ Definition: The ratio of people younger than 15 or older than 64 (dependent) to those aged 15-64 (working population). ​ Higher dependency ratios mean greater pressure on social services like healthcare and pensions. Dependency Ratios Definition: The ratio of dependent age groups (youth & elderly) to the working-age population (15-64). Youth Dependency Ratio (Under 15 / Working-Age Population) ​ 1961: 58 youth per 100 working-age people  ​ 1991: 25 youth per 100 working-age people ​ 2021: 24 youth per 100 working-age people Old Age Dependency Ratio (Over 64 / Working-Age Population) ​ 1961: 14 elderly per 100 working-age people ​ 1991: 18 elderly per 100 working-age people ​ 2021: 29 elderly per 100 working-age people Trend: The old-age dependency ratio is rising rapidly as baby boomers retire. Implications of an Aging Population ​ Increased Healthcare Costs – More senior citizens = higher government healthcare spending. ​ Fewer Working Taxpayers – Less revenue to fund pensions, healthcare, and social services. Immigration in Canada Canada is one of the most multicultural countries in the world. Main Sources of Immigrants Over Time ​ Early 1800s: Britain ​ 1840s: Ireland ​ Early 1900s: Eastern Europe ​ Since 1960s: East Asia, South Asia, Middle East Why Does Canada Encourage Immigration? 1.​ To sustain population growth – Without immigration, Canada’s population would shrink. 2.​ To support the workforce – Immigrants pay taxes and contribute to the economy. 3.​ To help refugees – Canada provides asylum to people fleeing conflict. 4.​ To fill labor shortages – Some immigrants take seasonal or specialized jobs. Key Immigration Facts: ​ Immigration accounts for 75% of Canada's population growth. ​ 24% of Canada’s population was born outside the country. ​ By 2030, annual deaths will outnumber annual births. Cultural & Ethnic Diversity in Canada ​ Ethnic Group: A population with shared values, traditions, language, and culture. ​ Culture: Learned behavior shared by a group of people. ​ Over 200 ethnic groups in Canada. Ethnicity in Quebec ​ Strong cultural identity among French-speaking residents. ​ Fear of assimilation fuels Quebec nationalism. ​ Many Quebecers rely more on the provincial government for cultural protection. Language & Identity ​ Language is the strongest tool for maintaining cultural identity. ​ Canada is linguistically diverse, with English and French as official languages. ​ "Allophones" – People whose first language is not English, French, or an Indigenous language. Official Languages & Bilingualism ​ Canada’s official languages: English & French. ​ Federal government services are provided in both languages. ​ New Brunswick is the only officially bilingual province. ​ Ontario has 26 French-designated areas that are officially bilingual. Indigenous Languages ​ Language preservation is key to maintaining Indigenous culture. ​ Economic survival often requires fluency in English. ​ Cree and Inuktitut are the only Indigenous languages growing in Canada. Religion in Canada ​ Canada is historically Christian, but immigration is diversifying religious demographics. Religious Affiliation (%) ​ Christian: 63% ○​ Catholic: 36% ○​ Protestant: 27% ​ Nonreligious: 26% ​ Islam: 4% ​ Hinduism: 2% ​ Judaism: 1% Catholicism in Quebec ​ The Catholic Church played a major role in preserving French culture in Quebec. ​ It sponsored group immigration and influenced education. ​ Its influence has declined in recent years. Religious Freedom in Canada ​ Canada protects religious freedom, attracting immigrants from diverse backgrounds. ​ Pacifism (opposition to war/violence) is common among some religious communities. Hutterites in Canada ​ Similar to Amish & Mennonites, Hutterites live in close-knit, communal societies. ​ They reject military service and migrated to Canada from the U.S. in 1918. ​ There are over 30,000 Hutterites living in eastern Prairie provinces today. Multiculturalism in Canada ​ 1971: Canada officially adopted multiculturalism as a government policy. ​ Cultural Mosaic vs. Melting Pot: ○​ Canada = Cultural Mosaic – Different ethnic groups coexist while maintaining distinct identities. ○​ U.S. = Melting Pot – Cultures blend into a single national identity over time. Multiculturalism in Canada ​ 1971: Canada officially adopted multiculturalism as policy, allowing funding for ethnic organizations and educational programs.  ​ Compromise is a national trait in Canada, unlike in some countries where ethnocentrism is more common. Potential Concerns with Multiculturalism ​ Ethnic enclaves may form in large cities. ​ Social/economic barriers (low income, racism) can limit upward mobility. ​ Education is key to breaking cycles of poverty. Canadian Values 1.​ Parliamentary system based on British institutions. 2.​ Two official languages (English & French); no official recognition for other languages. 3.​ Indigenous Peoples hold special treaty rights and land claim agreements. 4.​ Equal rights for all under the Charter of Rights and Freedoms (1982). Regional Immigration Patterns ​ 57% of immigrants settle in Toronto, Montreal, or Vancouver. ​ Urban areas attract most immigrants, while rural areas see fewer newcomers. ​ Proposals exist to spread immigration more evenly, but no official policies have been implemented. Indigenous Population Growth in Canada ​ The Indigenous population is growing rapidly, mostly due to natural increase. ​ Prairie cities have seen the highest growth in urban Indigenous populations. ​ The Indigenous population is growing six times faster than Canada’s overall population. ​ While the population on reserves is increasing, some Indigenous people are moving into cities. Indigenous Population Breakdown ​ 62% First Nations ​ 34% Métis ​ 4% Inuit Phases of Indigenous Population Growth 1.​ Pre-Contact: Population size fluctuated with food availability, weather, and migration. 2.​ 1500-1940: Decline due to disease and loss of hunting lands. 3.​ 1940-1960: Stabilization with high birth rates and high death rates. 4.​ 1960-Present: Rapid growth due to high birth rates and lower death rates.  ○​ Population increased from 105,000 (1910) to nearly 1.9 million today. The Canadian Economy ​ Manufacturing has declined over the last 20 years due to offshore relocation (cheaper wages in other countries). ​ Canada’s economy is heavily tied to the U.S., meaning economic trends mirror those of the U.S. Economic Sectors 1.​ Primary Sector: Extraction of natural resources (fishing, forestry, mining). 2.​ Secondary Sector: Processing & manufacturing (auto industry, meatpacking, paper production). 3.​ Tertiary Sector: Services industry (retail, healthcare, education, law). 4.​ Quaternary Sector: Knowledge-based industries (government, corporate decision-making). Economic Shift ​ Canada has transitioned from a resource-based economy to a post-industrial economy. The Shift to a Knowledge-Based Economy in Canada As Canada's manufacturing sector declines, the country is transitioning to a knowledge-based economy that relies on research, innovation, and technology. Key Characteristics of a Knowledge-Based Economy: ​ Highly educated population – A significant portion of the workforce has post-secondary education. ​ Urbanization – Most Canadians live in cities, where knowledge industries thrive. ​ Government-supported research – Public funding prioritizes scientific and technological innovation. The hope is that advancements in technology and research-driven industries will compensate for job losses in traditional manufacturing.