Canada-U.S. Relations & Physical Geography

Provinces and Territories of Canada

• Prince Edward Island: Created 1769, Joined Canada 1873
• New Brunswick: Created 1784, Joined Canada 1867 (Founding province)
• Ontario: Created 1867, Joined Canada 1867 (Founding province)
• Quebec: Created 1867, Joined Canada 1867 (Founding province)
• Nova Scotia: Created 1867, Joined Canada 1867 (Founding province)
• Manitoba: Created & Joined Canada: 1870
• British Columbia: Created 1858, Joined Canada: 1871
• Alberta: Created & Joined Canada: 1905
• Saskatchewan: Created & Joined Canada: 1905
• Newfoundland and Labrador: Created 1855 (responsible government), Joined Canada 1949
• Northwest Territories: Created 1870, Joined Canada 1870
• Yukon: Created & Became a Territory: 1898
• Nunavut: Created & Became a Territory: 1999 (split from Northwest Territories)

Regions in Canada

• A distinct area of Earth's surface, defined by human or natural characteristics that differentiate it from other areas
• Regionalism: The division of a large area into different parts with unique characteristics. Some countries experience regionalism more than others. Canada is prone to regionalism.
• Reasons for Regionalism in Canada: Vast geographic size and diverse physical geography, different historic settlement patterns.

Types of Regions

• Uniform characteristic → Shared characteristic across the region
• Function → How areas interact within the region
• Culture → Shared identity and experiences.
• Examples of Types of Region in Canada:
  • Manitoba's road and railway system: Winnipeg as the transportation hub
  • The Greater Toronto Area: Toronto as the economic/commercial hub, linking surrounding cities
  • Atlantic fishing industry: Coastal towns in Newfoundland & Labrador and Nova Scotia linked by fishing, processing, and export
  • Largest city: Serves as the regional hub for the province, in Manitoba, for example, Winnipeg.

Fault Lines Within Canada

• These are economic, social, and political divisions, shaping Canada's history & regional relationships.
• Four major fault lines impacting national unity are:
  1. Centralist vs. Decentralist visions of Canada (power struggles)
  2. English-Speaking vs. French-Speaking Canada (language & cultural differences)
  3. Indigenous Peoples vs. Non-Indigenous Canadians (historical injustices, self-governance)
  4. Newcomers vs. Old-Timers (cultural friction among immigrants and early settlers).

Linking Canada's Regions

• Due to Canada's vast size, transportation networks are essential to connect regions, with the federal government prioritizing national transportation infrastructure.
• Examples of Key Transportation Routes in Canada: Transcontinental Railways (Canadian Pacific & Canadian National), Trans-Canada Highway, and The Great Trail.

Summary of Economic Policies & Trade Agreements

• Policies and Agreements impact regional economies and the relationship between the core and periphery.
  • National Policy: protected Canadian industries but negatively affected Western Canada
  • Canada-U.S. Free Trade Agreement: created open markets and cheaper goods
  • NAFTA: included Mexico and integrated North America's economies
  • CUSMA: updated the agreement and modernized policies

Key Border Crossings Between Canada and the U.S.

• Ambassador Bridge (Windsor-Detroit): busiest international land border crossing in North America, vital for auto manufacturing.
• Blue Water Bridge (Sarnia-Port Huron): significant for trade and tourism, major truck traffic.

Canada's Physical Geography

• Canada's geography is analyzed through five main categories:
  1. Geologic Elements (e.g., Canadian Shield, Platform, Folded Mountains)
  2. Physiography
  3. Climate
  4. Vegetation (ecosystems)
  5. Soil

Role of Physical Geography in Population Distribution

• Canada's uneven population distribution is primarily shaped by physical factors (climate, fertile soil, accessible resources) — areas with favorable conditions are more densely populated.

Drainage Basins

• Defined as the area of land that collects and drains water into a river or lake in Canada
• Key Canadian Drainage Basins: Mackenzie, Great Lakes, and Grand River.
• Dividers separate adjacent drainage basins.
• Example: The Continental Divide in the Rocky Mountains.

Glaciation in Canada

• Glaciation shaped the Canadian landscape, including U-shaped valleys, fjords, moraines, and glacial lakes like the Great Lakes,
• Effects of glaciation: Reshaping land, forming valleys, glacial lakes, and moraines.

Climate and Climatic Controls

• Climate in Canada is influenced by latitude (solar radiation), altitude (cooler temperatures), and proximity to water bodies (moderates temperatures).
• Other factors include ocean currents (temperature variations), topography (affecting temperature inversions), wind patterns (temperature shifts), and pressure systems (weather patterns).

Climates and Climatic Zones in Canada

• Canada encompasses several climatic zones, based on factors including latitude, altitude, proximity to water bodies, and more.
  • Pacific, Cordillera, Prairies, Great Lakes-St. Lawrence, Atlantic, Subarctic, Arctic.
  • Temperature across Canada varies based on location.
  • Temperature controls vegetation types and the length of growing seasons, influencing crop types and regions suitable for agriculture.

Precipitation in Canada

• Precipitation types, like orographic precipitation (moist air rising over mountains, creating wet weather) and convective precipitation (storms in hot summers).
• Also regional precipitation patterns — some areas are dry, especially in winter, while areas on the west coast are very wet due to the orographic effect.
  • Growing seasons are based on days between the last spring frost and first fall frost.

Natural Vegetation Zones

• Regions of Canada with predominant vegetation types like Deciduous forests (shed leaves annually) — common in southern Ontario, Coniferous forests in northern regions, and Tundra, Grasslands in specific regions.

Adaptive Vegetation

• Adaptive vegetation (e.g., plants with waxy leaves to survive in dry conditions)
• Vertical and latitudinal zonation influence vegetation.

Permafrost in Canada

• Permafrost zones vary across Canada based on latitude, with continuous, discontinuous, and sporadic types.
• Formation and distribution are related to mean annual temperature (below 0°C).

Soil Classifications in Canada

• Cryosolic, Podzolic, and Luvisolic soils are prevalent, affecting land use and agricultural practices in different regions.

Special Region: Palliser's Triangle

• A dry semi-arid area in the western Prairies with challenges for agriculture.

Population Change

• Declining birth rates in Canada (due to urbanization, women's participation in the workforce, and family planning).
• Natural increase trends: Impacts of births and deaths on Canada's overall population
  • Rising life expectancy and improved healthcare mean falling death rates in Canada.
• Replacement fertility rate: Number of children needed to replace the parents in the population (often above 2.1 for population stability)

Demographic Transition Theory

• The model describes the changes in birth and death rates as a society transitions from pre-industrial to industrial.
• Various phases (high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates) are categorized for understanding population changes over time.
• The analysis is used to understand Canada's distinct characteristics.

Regional Population and Distribution Patterns

• Canada has areas of high population density, influenced by climates, geography (and resources).
  • Areas like the Great Lakes-St Lawrence Lowlands with high population density because of their arable land.
• Areas with few people: some northern regions that are sparsely populated due to environmental factors.

The Canadian Economy

• Canada's economy is highly tied to the U.S.
• Economic sectors: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.
• Canada's economy has transitioned from a resource-based economy to a post-industrial, knowledge-based economy.
• Manufacturing has declined due to offshore relocation.
• Emphasis on technology, research, and innovation in the shift.
• Dependence on natural resources.

The National Energy Program (1980-1984)

• Federal government measures to control oil prices and redistribute energy revenues, aimed at lowering costs and addressing regional imbalances.
• Created much opposition in regions with strong oil industry interests.

Equalization Payments

• Federal governmental support in Canada to ensure similar living standards and prevent regional disparities.
• Disputed by several regions about the amount and distribution.

Indigenous Peoples & Reconciliation

• Issues of land, rights, and relations between Indigenous communities.
• Impacts of residential schools, the ongoing land settlement, and issues related to self-governance, and financial compensation.

Immigration in Canada

• Immigration as a source of Canada's population growth.
• Historical patterns of immigration, showing the influence of British colonization and other immigration waves.
• Policies developed: economic development due to the arrival of new immigrants.

Three Major Indigenous Groups

• Breakdown of Indigenous population categories: First Nations, Métis, and Inuit.
• Detailed information about Indigenous peoples, including their historical context, regions of residency, and relationship with the Canadian government, including treaties and colonization issues.

The French/English Faultline

• Historical conflicts and tensions related to language (French and English) and cultural differences
• Policies developed to recognize both French and English languages as official in Canada.

Rebellions and Major Events in Canadian History

• Key events in the past, including the Manitoba Schools Question, the Quiet Revolution (Quebec), the Act of Union (1841), and other tensions between provinces and the federal government — affecting national unity.

Examine impacts of post-9/11 security on Canadian border cities, the North American security perimeter, and symbolic representations like the Canusa Road. Investigate Canada's trade within core-periphery theory and the influence of physical geography on population distribution.