Introduction to History PDF

Introduction to History Why Should We Study History? Historical Thinking Definition: Historical thinking involves the use of critical thinking skills to process information from the past. These skills include strategies that historians use to construct meaning of past events by comparing and co...

Introduction to History Why Should We Study History? Historical Thinking Definition: Historical thinking involves the use of critical thinking skills to process information from the past. These skills include strategies that historians use to construct meaning of past events by comparing and contrasting sources of information. I study records of events and prepare written accounts based on my research. I attempt to explain the causes and effects of events and offer interpretations of them. I use primary sources and secondary sources to learn basic information and the state of current knowledge. I am skillful in deciphering and interpreting documents and objects. I read documents in their original languages, and routinely master skills from other disciplines, ranging from art history archaeology to statistics and economics. I often get statistical information from original records and translate it into a form that computers can read and analyze. Historical thinking techniques 1\. Sourcing When, why, and what perspective? Is it reliable? 2\. Contextualization Context matters. How would the circumstances of the time have affected the document's content? 3\. Corroboration Do the sources generally agree with each other? If not, why, and what are the differences? Which documents are most reliable? 4\. Close Reading Observing facts and details about a text. Look at an author's claims, evidence, language, and word-choice patterns. Primary sources Imagine you are a detective investigating a crime. What would you need to help you find out what happened? What would you be looking for when you visited the scene of the crime? That\'s right - clues or evidence. Historians are no different. When they want to find out what happened in the past they need to look at the evidence. We call evidence that was created at the time of the event, primary evidence. Lots of sources can be counted as primary sources or evidence - letters, newspapers, maps, photographs, pictures, objects and film (just to name a few). Primary evidence can be broken down into four main categories: written sources images, artifacts oral testimony Secondary sources What is the first thing you do when you want to find out about what happened in the past? Most people would probably say that they would look in a book, ask a teacher or other expert or check it out on the internet. These are all excellent sources of information. Resources like this can tell us not only historical facts but we can also use them to find out what other people think about what happened, in other words, their interpretation of history. This type of information is called secondary evidence. Bias in History Bias means having an unfair or unbalanced opinion. Since history is a subject where people express their opinions it means that we have to be very careful to watch out for bias. It is also important to recognise that bias is not found just in secondary sources, primary sources can also be biased. People naturally show their feelings on a subject whenever they put pen to paper. Bias is not necessarily a bad thing. In fact it can be very useful as it lets us find out about what people believed or thought about a particular subject. What historians need to do is to try and find evidence from lots of different sources so that they can form a balanced opinion themselves. Recognising bias can be hard but it helps if you ask yourself the following questions: Auxiliary Sciences of History Archaeology is the study of the ancient and recent human past through material remains. Chronology is the science of arranging events in their order of occurrence in time. Consider, for example, the use of a timeline or sequence of events. It is also \"the determination of the actual temporal sequence of past events\". Codicology is the study of books as physical objects, especially manuscripts written on parchment (or paper) in codex form. It is often referred to as \'the archaeology of the book\', concerning itself with the materials (parchment sometimes referred to as membrane or vellum, paper, pigments, inks and so on), and techniques used to make books, including their binding. Epigraphy is the auxiliary science that contributes to the study of inscriptions, particularly from ancient and medieval history. Numismatics is the auxiliary historical science of (the history of) money, both coins and paper money, as well as their value (monetary history). Palaeography is the study of ancient and historical handwriting, that is to say, of the forms and processes of writing (not the textual content of documents). Included in the discipline is the practice of deciphering, reading, and dating historical manuscripts as well as the cultural context of writing, including the methods with which writing and books were produced, and the history of scriptoria. The discipline is important for understanding, authenticating, and dating ancient texts. Sphragistics refers to the study of seals attached to documents as a source of historical information. t concentrates on the legal and social meaning of seals, as well as the evolution of their design. It has links to diplomatics, heraldry, social history and the history of art. Genealogy is the study of family origins and history. Genealogists compile lists of ancestors, which they arrange in pedigree charts or other written forms. Heraldry, the science and the art that deal with the use, display, and regulation of hereditary symbols employed to distinguish individuals, armies, institutions, and corporations. Those symbols, which originated as identification devices on flags and shields, are called armorial bearings. What makes us human? What do you think are the characteristics of humans that make them different from other species? Archaeologists analyze all existing evidence, such as bones and artifacts. Bones might reveal what the people looked like, how tall they were, the types of food they ate, diseases they may have had, and how long they lived. Artifacts are human-made objects, such as tools and jewelry. These items might hint at how people dressed, what work they did, or how they worshiped. Anthropologists study culture or a people's unique way of life. Anthropologists examine the artifacts at archaeological digs. From these, they re-create a picture of early people's cultural behavior. Other scientists, called paleontologists, study fossils---evidence of early life preserved in rocks. Paleoanthropology uses fossils and other remains to study the origins and predecessors of the present human species. Human evolution Human evolution is the lengthy process of change by which people originated from apelike ancestors. Homo sapiens is part of a group called hominins, which were the earliest humanlike creatures. Based on archaeological and anthropological evidence, it is believed that hominins diverged from other primates(hominids) approximately 4 million years ago in eastern and southern Africa. Though there was a degree of diversity among the hominin family, they all shared the trait of bipedalism, or the ability to walk upright on two legs. Human family tree Scientists have different theories about why early hominins evolved. One theory called the aridity hypothesis, suggests that early hominins adapted to dry climates as the dry savannah regions in Africa expanded. According to this hypothesis, environmental changes caused the forested areas to shrink and the savannahs to grow, which may have forced early tree-dwelling hominids out of their habitats, leading them to adapt to living on the ground and walking upright. Key stages in human evolution - hominins Hominization is the evolutionary development of human characteristics that differentiate hominins from their primate ancestors. Signs of hominization: brain enlargement able to walk upright (bipedalism) opposing thumb changes in facial structure and shape of teeth changes in upper limbs allowing to use tools speech development D. Australopithecus: Extinct hominine genus, closely related to humans, that existed in Africa from about 4 million years ago to 2 million years ago. B. Homo habilis: Extinct hominine genus, closely related to humans, that existed in Africa from about 2 million years ago to 1.4 million years ago. E. Homo erectus: Extinct hominine relatives of modern humans that lived in Africa about 2 million years ago; some left Africa and journeyed to Eurasia. C. Neanderthal: Homo sapiens' closest extinct relatives, who lived concurrently with Homo sapiens and died out about 28,000 years ago. Homo sapiens: Appeared about 200,000 years ago and is currently the final species in the evolutionary process of humans and the species to which all modern humans belong. Culture In prehistoric times, groups of humans that lived near one another began to develop shared ways of doing things: common ways of dressing, similar hunting practices, favorite animals to eat. These shared traits were the first beginnings of what anthropologists and historians call culture. Culture is the way of life of a group of people. Culture includes common practices of a society, its shared understandings, and its social organization. By overcoming individual differences, culture helps to unify the group. The End of the Neolithic Age Between 4000 and 3000 BC, Neolithic towns saw new developments. Before 4000 BC, craftspeople discovered that heating metal-bearing rocks produced liquid metal, which could be cast into tools and weapons. This marked a new level of environmental control. Copper was the first metal used, but after 4000 BC, artisans in western Asia found that mixing copper with tin created bronze, a harder and more durable metal. The widespread use of bronze from 3000 to 1200 BC marked the Bronze Age. By 1000 BC, iron tools and weapons became common, starting the Iron Age. The Neolithic Age paved the way for change as farming villages grew into wealthier, more complex societies. To protect their wealth, they built armies and city walls. By the Bronze Age, large populations were concentrated in the river valleys of Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and China, leading to the rise of cities. How would you define civilization? A civilization is a complex human society, usually made up of different cities, with certain characteristics of cultural and technological development. In many parts of the world, early civilizations formed when people began coming together in urban settlements. The Emergence of Civilizations Over time, people formed stable agricultural communities, using domesticated animals and new tools like hoes and plows to improve farming. As technology advanced, larger harvests supported growing populations, leading to more complex social structures. From some of these settlements, cities gradually emerged, forming the backdrop of a more complex way of life---civilization. Economic Changes To cultivate more land and to produce extra crops, ancient people in larger villages built elaborate irrigation systems. The resulting food surpluses freed some villagers to pursue other jobs and to develop skills besides farming. Individuals who learned to become craftspeople created valuable new products, such as pottery, metal objects, and woven cloth. In turn, people who became traders profited from a broader range of goods to exchange---craftwork, grains, and many raw materials. Social Changes A more complex and prosperous economy affected the social structure of village life. For example, building and operating large irrigation systems required the labor of many people. As other special groups of workers formed, social classes with varying wealth, power, and influence began to emerge. As cities grew, these classes became more defined, and religion became more organized. Most historians believe that one of the first civilizations arose in Sumer. Sumer was located in Mesopotamia, a region that is part of modern Iraq. What makes a civilization? A civilization is often defined as a complex culture with five characteristics: \(1) advanced cities \(2) specialized workers \(3) complex institutions, \(4) record keeping \(5) advanced technology Advanced Cities Cities were the birthplaces of the first civilizations. A city is more than a large group of people living together. The size of the population alone does not distinguish a village from a city. One of the key differences is that a city is a center of trade for a larger area. Like their modern-day counterparts, ancient city dwellers depended on trade. Farmers, merchants, and traders brought goods to market in the cities. The city dwellers themselves produced a variety of goods for exchange. Specialized Workers As cities grew, so did the need for more specialized workers, such as traders, government officials, and priests. Food surpluses provided the opportunity for specialization---the development of skills in a specific kind of work. An abundant food supply allowed some people to become expert at jobs besides farming. Some city dwellers became artisans---skilled workers who make goods by hand. Specialization helped artisans develop their skill at designing jewelry, fashioning metal tools and weapons, or making clothing and pottery. The wide range of crafts artisans produced helped cities become centers of trade. Complex Institutions As early city populations grew, government became necessary to maintain order and establish laws. This is an example of an institution---a long-lasting community structure. Complex institutions like government, religion, and the economy are key characteristics of civilization. With city growth, religion became formalized, with large temples where priests oversaw religious duties. The Sumerians believed each city was governed by a god. Temples were central to both government and religious activities, also serving as economic hubs for distributing food and trade goods. Record Keeping As government, religion, and the economy grew more complex, record-keeping became essential. Officials documented taxes, laws, and grain storage, priests tracked calendars and rituals, and merchants recorded debts and payments. Most civilizations developed writing systems for this purpose. Around 3000 BC, Sumerian scribes created cuneiform, a wedge-shaped writing system. (Earlier Sumerian writing consisted of pictographs---symbols of the objects or what they represented.) Using a stylus to press symbols into clay, they baked tablets to preserve records. Over time, writing expanded beyond record-keeping to include accounts of significant events like wars, natural disasters, and the reigns of kings. Advanced Technology Improved technology was essential for solving problems in early civilizations. Farmers harnessed animals, using ox-drawn plows and irrigation systems to expand agriculture. Around 3500 BC, Sumerian artisans used the potter\'s wheel to shape vessels, and metalworkers discovered that combining copper and tin produced bronze. Two important inventions---the wheel and the sail---also enabled traders to move more goods over longer distances. Key Concepts of Civilization arrow\_back more\_vert Mesopotamia means 'land between rivers'. This is the name the Greeks gave the region between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. It was originally a dry region. However, the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers allowed its inhabitants to make the land fertile. This occurred when they developed the technology to construct irrigation systems. These fertile lands attracted migrations and invasions from communities in the mountains and nomadic tribes from the Syrian Desert. The Sumerians settled in southern Mesopotamia, founding independent city-states like Ur, Lagash, and Uruk. Frequent conflicts over land and trade led to the construction of defensive walls. Each city was governed by an ensi, a king-high priest with absolute religious, administrative, and military power. Religion was central, with each city having its own god. Taxes were paid at the ziggurat, the hub of religious, economic, and political activity. As cities grew wealthier, kings built powerful armies to conquer neighboring cities and form empires. Ziggurat The Sumerians founded the first civilization and invented writing. Sargon I of Akkad conquered Sumer and established the first empire, but Sumerian rule later resumed with Ur and Lagash as key cities. Semitic nomads made Babylon the capital under King Hammurabi. The Assyrians, with a powerful iron-armed army, controlled Mesopotamia for seven centuries, expanding widely and building a vast library in Nineveh. After Assyria\'s decline, Babylon rose under Nebuchadnezzar II, who expanded the empire and built the Ishtar Gate and Hanging Gardens. Cyrus II later conquered Babylon, making it part of the Persian Empire. Egypt On the banks of the Nile, a fascinating civilisation developed: Ancient Egypt. The natural environment The river Nile crosses the Sahara Desert and fertilises the narrow strip of land which it flows across. This strip is around 20 km wide. During the summer, the Nile floods due to the rains that fall in its upper course. Because of these floods, Egyptian agriculture was very productive. Unlike Mesopotamia, Egypt had great natural defences: the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Sahara Desert to the south, east and west. These defences reduced migrations and protected it from external attacks. During the fourth millennium B.C.E., the Neolithic villages in the oases near the Nile Valley began to expand towards the riverbanks. They built canals, using the water for agriculture. These villages eventually grew into important, prosperous cities. Some of these cities took control of others and, in time, two kingdoms formed: Upper Egypt, which was halfway along the river Lower Egypt, which was to the north, at the mouth of the Nile. In around 3100 B.C.E., the legendary King Narmer or Menes unified Upper and Lower Egypt. We divide the history of Egypt into four main periods: The Old Kingdom The Middle Kingdom The New Kingdom Late Period Between these, there were three periods of instability called the Intermediate Periods. The ruler of Egypt was called the pharaoh. The people considered him a god and he held absolute religious and political power. He governed with the help of government officials, such as viziers (ministers) and nomarchs (provincial governors, called nomes), priests and military leaders. The pharaoh passed his position on to members of his family or dynasty. In the Early Dynastic Period, the first unification occurred, with the capital in Thinis. During the Old Kingdom, Memphis became the capital. The Egyptians built the pyramids of the Pharaohs Khufu, Khafra and Menkaure. There was a series of internal rebellions, and the nomarchs became more powerful. In the First Intermediate Period Egypt divided again. In the 2100 B.C.E., the second unification occurred. The pharaohs defeated the nomarchs and the Middle Kingdom began. They moved the capital to Thebes and expanded the kingdom to Nubia, the lands to the south. This period ended when an Asiatic people, the Hyksos, conquered Egypt in around 1650 B.C. thanks to their superior army. The Second Intermediate Period followed. The New Kingdom began in the 16th century B.C., when Ahmose, the Pharaoh of Thebes, expelled the Hyksos. The most well-known pharaohs ruled in this period. Queen Hatshepsut, the powerful pharaoh-queen Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV) and his queen Nefertiti, who tried to impose the first monotheistic religion in history Tutankhamun, whose tomb was discovered intact Ramesses II, the great conqueror, was famous for his buildings and for fighting against the Hittites at the Battle of Kadesh (Syria). This was the first great battle in history about which we have details. Ramesses III defeated the Sea Peoples with their superior iron weapons. This occurred when the Sea Peoples tried to invade Egypt a