Introduction to Sociology Course Presentation PDF

3.2.8. Global Culture and Cultural Imperialism One of the main aspects of globalization is that a relatively uniform world culture is taking shape today in the world. The global culture may entail all speaking the some language, share the same values and norms, and sustain common und of kno...

3.2.8. Global Culture and Cultural Imperialism One of the main aspects of globalization is that a relatively uniform world culture is taking shape today in the world. The global culture may entail all speaking the some language, share the same values and norms, and sustain common und of knowledge as of residents of the same community.. Global culture may also be associated with cultural imperialism, the unequal cultural exchange in the global system whereby western material and non-material cultures have come to occupy a dominating and imposing roles over the indigenous cultures of the Third World peoples. The global culture is often promoted by: - The global spread of capitalism - Consumerism and the consumer culture - The growth of transnational media, particularly electronic mass media such as BBC, CNN, etc. The transnational media have often promoted the aggressive promotion that its value system is superior and preferable to those of other non–western cultures  Chapter four: socialization 4.1. The Concept of Socialization: Definition and Necessity Socialization is a process of making somebody social and fully human. Or more appropriately, it is a process whereby individual persons learn and are trained in the basic norms, values, beliefs, skills, attitudes, way of doing and acting as appropriate to a specific social group or society. From the point of view of individual persons, especially a newly born baby, socialization is a process whereby a biological being or organism is changed into a social being. In terms of the group, society or any professional organizations, socialization is a process whereby the organizations', social groups' and society's structure and well- being are kept and sustained. It is the process whereby the culture, skills, norms, traditions, customs, etc., are transmitted from generation to generation - orfrom one society to another. continue Socialization may be formal or informal. It becomes formal when it is conducted by formally organized social groups and institutions, like schools, religious centers, mass media universities, work places, military training centers, internships, etc. It is informal when it is carried out through the informal social interactions and relationships at micro-levels, at interpersonal and small social group levels. The most important socialization for us is that we get through informal agents like family, parents, neighborhood and peer group influences. It has a very powerful influence, whether negative or positive, in our lives. Socialization, thus, can be labeled as the way by which culture is transmitted and individuals are fitted into the society's organized way of life. 4.2. The Goals of Socialization In terms of individual persons, the goal of socialization is to equip him or her with the basic values, norms, skills, etc, so that they will behave and act properly in the social group to which  continue Socialization has also the following specific goals: To inculcate basic disciplines by restraining a child or even an adult from immediate gratification; a child who is toilet-trained will delay relieving himself/ herself until the proper environment is created. To instill aspirations; To teach social roles; To teach skills; To teach conformity to norms; and To create acceptable and constructive personal identities. 4.3. Human Biological Bases of, and Capacity for, Socialization From among the animal kingdom, humans are the only ones who are capable of socialization because they are endowed with the necessary biological bases that are lacking in other animals. The following are the key biological characteristics of human beings on which socialization is based: Absence of instincts, social contact needs, longer period of childhood dependence, capacity to learn and language. Absence of Instincts: The term "instinct" in its current social science usage refers to the complex behavior patterns for which some animal species as biologically programmed. Social Contact Needs: Humans need sustained social contacts. Studies conducted on primates and human infants revealed that lack of body stimulation and contact in infancy appear to inhibit and prevent the development of higher learning functions. Longer Period of Childhood Dependence: A third biological condition that makes extensive socialization essential for humans is that the human infant need much longer period of physical dependence and sexual immaturity than other animals.  continue Capacity to Learn: A high level of intelligence is an innate human biological potential. Hence, humans are highly educable; they can learn much more than other animals and can continue to learn more over a longer period of time. Language: Man's ability to learn is a function of his capacity for language. Other animals may have some degree of intelligence but only humans have reasoning capacity because they have language. 4.4. Modes of Social Learning. Sociologists have, identified four modes of social learning. These are: conditioning, identity taking, modeling-after and problem solving: Conditioning: This involves learning based on the principle of association. Conditioning refers to the response pattern which is built into an organism as a result of stimuli in the environment. There is what is called classical conditioning in which the response remains constant while the stimuli vary, as in Pavilovian experiment. In contrast, in operant or instrumental conditioning, response is controlled. The term "operant" signifies a behavior which is guided by an anticipated result. continue Identity Taking: Studies show that children begin to identify themselves and others by sex and learn to behave in the normative gendered ways according to the society of which they parts and This happens by age five. Modeling After: Children learn to model their behavior after someone who is an admired, loved or feared figure. This is considered as a typical stage in personality formation and in the development of personal autonomy and social involvement. Through modeling after someone, our behavior acquires meaning and coherence. Problem Solving: The above three mechanisms of social learning are ways in which individuals internalize the values and norms of society. They may be termed as modes of internalization. However, social learning transcends beyond simply internalizing values and norms. 4.5. Patterns of Socialization There are two broadly classified patterns of socialization. These are: Repressive and participatory socialization. Repressive socialization is oriented towards gaining obedience, while participatory socialization is oriented towards gaining the participation of the child. Punishment of wrong behavior and rewarding and reinforcing good behavior are involved in the two kinds of socialization, continue 4.6. Major Types of Socialization There are different types of socialization; the major ones include: primary or childhood socialization, secondary or adulthood socialization, and de-socialization and resocialization. Other minor types of socialization include: anticipatory socialization and reverse socialization 4.6.1. Primary or Childhood Socialization This is also called basic or early socialization. The terms "primary", "basic" or "early" all signify the overriding importance of the childhood period for socialization. Much of the personality make-up of individuals is forged at this period in life. Socialization at this stage of life is a landmark; without it, we would cease to become social beings continue 4.6.2. Secondary or Adult Socialization While socialization is an overbidding issue for children and adolescents, it is a never-ending process that continues through out life. Secondary or adult socialization is necessitated when individual take up new roles, reorienting themselves according to their changes social statuses and roles, as in starting marital life. The socialization process at this stage may sometimes be intense. Intense adult socialization may also occur among immigrants. When they go to other countries, they may need to learn the language, values, norms, and a host of other custom and folkways, coupled with experiencing economic hardships may prove to be truly stressful and most challenging. 4.6.3. Re-socialization and De-socialization In the lives of individuals, as they pass through different stages and life experiences, there is the need for resocialization and de-socialization. Re-socialization means the adoption by adults of radically different norms and lifeways that are more or less completely dissimilar to the previous norms and values. continue Resocialization signifies the rapid and more basic changes in the adult life. The change may demand abandonment of one lifeway with a new one, which is completely different from, and also incompatible with, the former. De-socialization typically precedes re-socialization. Desocialization refers to stripping individuals of their former life styles, beliefs, values and attitudes so that they may take up other partially or totally new life styles, attitudes and values. De-socialization and re-socialization often take place in what is called total institutions, which are an all encompassing and often isolated from the community. They demand a thorough de-socialization of the new entrants before they assume full-fledged membership. Total institutions include: mental hospitals, prisons, religious denominations and some other political groups, and military units. In each case, persons joining the new setting have first to be de-socialized, before they are re-socialized. 4.6.4. Anticipatory Socialization Anticipatory socialization refers to the process of adjustment and adaptation in which individuals try to learn and internalize the roles, values, attitudes and skills of a social status or  continue 4.6.5. Reverse Socialization Reverse socialization refers to the process of socialization whereby the dominant socializing persons, such as parents, happen to be in need of being socialized themselves by those whom they socialize, such as children. This idea seems to be associated with the fact that socialization is a two-way process. It involves the influences and pressures from the socializes that directly or indirectly induce change the attitudes and behaviors of the socializers themselves. In reverse socialization, children, for example, may happen to socialize their parents in some roles, skills, and attitudes which the latter lack. 4.7. Agents and Components of Socialization Agents of socialization are the different groups of people and institutional arrangements which are responsible for training new members of society. Some of them could be formal, while others are informal. They help individual members get into the overall activities of their society.  continue There are three component to socialization process: There is the socialize who could be either a newborn child, a recruit to the army or the police force or a freshman in a college or an intern in medical service. Then again there are the socializers who may be parents, peer groups, community members, teachers or church members. Both the socialize and the socializer interact with one another not in a vacuum but in a social environment which plays an important role in the socialization process. These different socializing environments are called socialization settings. The most socializing agencies are the family, peer relationships, schools, neighborhoods (the community), the mass media, etc. 4.8. Multiple and Contradictory Influences of Socialization So far, the picture of socialization presented may seem to be biased towards the structural functionalist view of society and socialization. In a critical conceptualization of socialization, the contradictory and ambiguous sources and influences of socialization need to be highlighted. continue A case in point could be alcohol and tobacco consumption. Evidences show that the consumption of tobacco and alcohol is rapidly increasing in the Third world. There are underlying and contradictory processes of socialization behind this phenomenon. Chapter five: Social Groups, organizations and institutions 5.1. social groups. ▪ A social group: consists of two or more people who regularly interact on the basis of mutual expectations and who share a common identity. ▪ It is easy to see from this definition that we all belong to many types of social groups: our families, our different friendship groups, the sociology class and other courses we attend, our workplaces, the clubs and organizations to which we belong, and so forth. Except in rare cases, it is difficult to imagine any of us living totally alone. ▪ It is important here to distinguish social groups from two related concepts: social categories and social aggregates. ▪ A social category: is a collection of individuals who have at least one attribute in common but otherwise do not necessarily interact. Women is an example of a social category.  continue social aggregate: is a collection of people who are in the same place at the same time but who otherwise do not necessarily interact, except in the most superficial of ways, or have anything else in common. The crowd at a sporting event and the audience at a movie or play are common examples of social aggregates. 5.2. types of groups ▪ Primary groups (i.e. families) play the most critical role in our lives and is usually fairly small and made up of individuals who generally engage face-to-face in long-term emotional ways, serving emotional needs (expressive functions). Sociologist Charles Cooley used the term “primary group” to refer to groups characterized by cooperative, intimate, long-term, face-to-face relationships. 1. It is essential to an individual’s emotional well-being, as humans have an intense need for associations that promote feelings of self-esteem. 2. The group becomes part of the individual’s identity and the lens through which life is viewed.  continue Secondary groups are larger, more anonymous, more formal and impersonal than primary groups, and are based on some interest or activity. 1. Members are likely to interact on the basis of specific statuses, such as president, manager, worker, or student. 2. In industrial societies, secondary groups have multiplied and become essential to our welfare. 3. Secondary groups tend to break down into primary groups within the larger group, such as friendship cliques at school or work. The primary group serves as a buffer between the individual and the needs of the secondary group. 4. Another type of secondary group is a voluntary association. This group consists of volunteers who organize on the basis of some mutual interest. 5. Sociologist Robert Michels coined the term the iron law of oligarchy to refer tohow organizations come to be dominated by a small, self-perpetuating elite. continue Secondary groups are often larger and impersonal, task-focused and time limited, serving an instrumental function that is goal or task oriented In-group (Sumner): a group in which an individual feels belonging and sees it as integral to self Out-group (Sumner): a group someone doesn’t belong to and may feel disdain or competition towards. Groups toward which individuals feel loyalty are called in-groups, while those toward which they feel antagonisms are called out-groups. 1. The division is significant sociologically because in-groups provide a sense of identification or belonging, which often produce rivalries between groups. 2. In-group membership leads to discrimination; given our loyalty, we favor members of our in-group. Sociologist Robert K. Merton identified a double standard produced by this: the behaviors by members of an in-group are seen as virtues, while the same behaviors by members of an out-group are viewed as vices.  continue ▪ While group affiliations can be neutral, they can also explain some negative behaviors (bullying, white supremacist movements) ▪ Reference group is one to which people compare themselves and provides a standard of measurement ▪ Reference group is one to which people compare themselves and provides a standard of measurement ▪ Most people have more than one reference group ▪ Reference groups can be one’s cultural center, workplace, family gathering, parents and can convey competing messages. Reference groups are the groups we use as standards to evaluate ourselves, whether or not we actually belong to those groups. 1. They exert great influence over our behavior; people may change their clothing, hair style, speech, and other characteristics to match what the reference group would expect of them. 2. Having two reference groups that clearly conflict with each other can produce intense internal conflict.  continue Social networks consist of people linked by various social ties. Clusters, or factions that form within large groups, are called cliques. Cliques, family, friends, and acquaintances can all be bases for social networks. 1. Interaction takes place within social networks that connect us to the larger society. 2. Stanley Milgram did an experiment that demonstrated how small our social world really is; his study led to the phrase “six degrees of separation”—meaning that, on average, everyone in the United States is separated by just six individuals. 3. Other studies have both confirmed and contradicted Milgram’s findings. In order to draw solid conclusions, it seems that the choice of samples and how researchers measure links will have to be clearly defined. 4. One reason it is so difficult to overcome social inequality is because our social networks contribute to inequality. continue Group Dynamics How individuals affect groups and groups affect individuals is known as group dynamics. 1. The study of group dynamics focuses on group size, leadership, conformity, and decision making. 2. Sociologists recognize a small group as one that is small enough for everyone in it to interact directly with all the other members. As Georg Simmel (1858-1918) noted, the size of the group is significant for its dynamics. 1. A dyad is a social group containing two members. It is the smallest and most fragile of all human groupings. Marriages and love affairs are examples: if one member loses interest, the dyad collapses. 2. A triad is a group of three persons—a married couple with a first child, for example. Triads basically are stronger than dyads but are still extremely unstable. It is not uncommon for coalitions to form in which there is alignment of two members of the group against another. Often, one member becomes an arbitrator or mediator because he or she always tries to settle disagreements between the other two members of the group. continue 3. As more members are added to a group, intensity decreases and stability increases, for there are more linkages between more people within the group. The groups develop a more formal structure to accomplish their goals, for instance by having a president, treasurer, and so on. This structure enables groups to survive over time. Dyads (Simmel)are two member groups with high intensity but low stability because it is dependent on both members’ commitment Triads (Simmel) has lower intensity, higher stability since one member can leave, but also has the chance for two members to hold majority opinion Small groups generally have strong internal cohesiveness and a sense of connection but may struggle to achieve large goals compared to larger groups Conformity is the extent to which an individual complies with group norms and expectations (Asch and Milgram research) A triad or three-person group, involves relationships that are still fairly intense, but it is also more stable than a dyad.  continue 5.3. Bureaucracies. Formal organizations, secondary groups designed to achieve explicit objectives, have become a central feature of contemporary life. B. Max Weber identified the essential characteristics of bureaucracies, which help these organizations reach their goals, as well as grow and endure. These include the following: 1. a hierarchy where assignments flow downward and accountability flows upward. 2. a division of labor. 3. written rules. 4. written communications and records. 5. impersonality and replaceability. C. Weber believed that bureaucracies would dominate our lives through a process he called the rationalization of society.  continue D. Goal displacement occurs when an organization adopts new goals after the original goals have been achieved and there is no longer any reason for it to continue. E. Weber’s model only accounts for part of the characteristics of bureaucracies. Dysfunctions can also be identified. 1. Red tape, or the strict adherence to rules, results in nothing getting accomplished. 2. Bureaucratic alienation, a feeling of powerlessness and normlessness, occurs when workers are assigned to repetitive tasks in order for the corporation to achieve efficient production, thereby cutting them off from the product of their labor. 3. To resist alienation, workers form primary groups within the larger secondary organization, relating to one another not just as workers, but as people who value one another. 4. Bureaucratic incompetence is reflected in the Peter principle—members of an organization are promoted for good work until they reach their level of incompetence. If this principle were generally true, then bureaucracies would be staffed by incompetents and would fail. In reality, bureaucracies are highly successful. 5.3. leadership type and style A leader may be defined as someone who influences the behaviors, opinions, or attitudes of others. Sociologists would disagree that people are born to be leaders. Rather, they find that people with certain characteristics are more likely to become leaders—those who represent the group’s values, are seen as capable of leading the group out of crisis, are more talkative, express determination and self-confidence, are taller or are judged better looking. 5.3.1 types of group leaders. Instrumental (task-oriented) leaders try to keep the group moving toward its goals, reminding the members of what they are trying to accomplish. Expressive (socioemotional) leaders are less likely to be recognized as leaders but help with the group’s morale. These leaders may have to minimize the friction that instrumental leaders necessarily create. 5.3.2: leadership style There are three types of leadership styles. 1. Authoritarian leaders give orders and frequently do not explain why they praise or condemn a person’s work. 2. Democratic leaders try to gain a consensus by explaining proposed actions, suggesting alternative approaches, and giving “facts” as the basis for their evaluation of the members’ work. 3. Laissez-faire leaders are very passive and give the group almost total freedom to do as it wishes. 5.4. social structure ▪ Definition : Several Sociologists and social anthropologists have tried to define it, let us see the main definitions such ▪ According to Radcliffe Brown : “Social structure consists of the sum total of all the social relationships of all individuals at a given moment of time.” ▪ According to Ginsberg : “Social structure is concerned with the principal forms of social organization, i.e., types of Groups, associations and the complex of these which continue societies.” continue According to Persons : “Social structure is the term applied to the particular arrangement of the interrelated institutions, agencies and social patterns, as well as the statuses and roles which each person assumes in the group.” 5.4.1. Characteristics of Social Structure 1) Social Structure are abstract. (2) Social structure is related to the external nature of society. (3) Sequence in units of Social Structure. (4) Every Unit of Social Structure has a definite Position. (5) Social structure is influenced by local features. (6) Hierarchy of sub structure in Social Structure. (7) Social Structure is relatively a permanent concept. (8) Elements of disintegration are also found in the social structure  5.4.2; Elements of social structure In a Social Structure the human beings organize themselves into associations for the pursuit of some object or objects. The aim can be fulfilled only if the social structure is based upon certain principles. (1) Normative System : Normative system presents the society with the ideals and values. The people attach emotional importance to these norms. The institution and associations are interrelated according to these norms. The individuals perform their roles in accordance with the accepted norms of society. (2) Status system : It refers to the status and roles of the individuals. Members of the society are required to perform different roles in accordance with their position social placement or social status and their capacities, capabilities, education, experience, skill etc. (3) Sanction system : In every society there is a sanction system to decide what is proper law permitted and acceptable by society. (4) Anticipated response system : The anticipated response system calls upon the individuals to participate in the social system. ‘His preparation sets the social structure in motion Continue (5) Action System : It is the object or goal to be arrived at by the social structure. The whole structure revolves around it. The Action is the root cause which weaves the web of social relationships and sets the social structure in motion. 5.4.3. Statuses Sociologists usually speak of three types of statuses. The first type is ascribed status, which is the status that someone is born with and has no control over. The second kind of status is called achieved status, which, as the name implies, is a status you achieve, at some point after birth, sometimes through your own efforts and sometimes because good or bad luck befalls you. The third type of status is called a master status. This is a status that is so important that it overrides other statuses you may hold.  Chapter six: social stratification, mobility and social movement 6.1. understanding social stratification ▪ Social strata are levels of social statuses. Members of a society who possess similar amount of wealth, power, and privileges occupy each social stratum. ▪ We can see layers of social statuses occupied by members of society. Organized systems of such strata are conceptualized as social stratification system. ▪ Social stratification refers to a system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy. Four basic principles of stratification: 1. Social stratification is characteristic of society, not simply a reflection of individual differences. 2. Social stratification persists over generations. 3. Social stratification is universal but variable. 4. Social stratification involves not just inequality but beliefs.  Continue there are two systems of social class: 1. Closed social system: A system of stratification where the status of person is determined by birth. There is a rigid social hierarchy. Social stratification is based on ascription and there is little social mobility. Such a system is supported by its culture. 2. Open social system: A social system based largely on individual achievement; therefore it permits considerable social mobility. Here strata are called as social classes. Social class is a stratum of people of similar social standing. They have their own way of life. MEASURING SOCIAL CLASS Subjective Method: Ask people what their social class is. This approach has limitations. For example there may be just denial of social class. Similarly people may classify themselves by aspiration. But the most commonly observed situation is where everybody belongs to middle class.  continue Reputational Method. We ask the informants to classify others. They do it by using their own criteria. Objective Method. Develop some objective criteria so that the others know exactly what measurements were made. If others like to verify they could do so. The components of these criteria could be the income, education, occupation (prestige), and other wealth related items. SIGNIFICANCE OF SOCIAL CLASS Social class determines the life chances of an individual: It implies that the social class determines the probabilities concerning the fate we can expect in life. Social class influences physical and mental health: Underlying the differential death rates is unequal access to medical care and nutrition. Social class and family life: Social class influences the mate selection, age at marriage, number of children, child rearing patterns, women empo werment, educational aspirations and achievements. Lower class children supposed to be obedient at home and at work, whereas middle class children are trained to be creative, independent, and tolerant. The vision of children about future varies by social class.  continue Social class and lifestyles: Social class determines the lifestyle of the people. In the current age ‘symbols’ and markers related to consumption are playing an ever-greater role in daily life. 6.2 THEORIES OF CLASS AND STRATIFICATION. The ideas developed by Karl Marx and Max Weber forms the basis of most sociological analysis of class and stratification. Broadly theories have been divided into conflict and functionalist perspectives and these two will be the focus of our discussion. 6.1 Stratification and Conflict Social conflict perspective argues that, rather than benefiting society as a whole, social stratification benefits some people at the expense of others. This analysis draws heavily on the ideas of Karl Marx, with contributions from Max Weber. Karl Marx: Class and Conflict: Marx (1818-1883) argued that the distinctions people often make between themselves – such as clothing, speech, education, or relative slavery – are superficial matters that camouflage the only real significant dividing line: people either (the bourgeoisie) own the means of production or they (the proletariat) work for those who do.  continue Marx saw great disparities in wealth and power arising from this productive system, which made class conflict inevitable. Over time, Marx believed, oppression and misery would drive the working majority (labor class) to organize, challenge the system, and ultimately overthrow the capitalist system. Such a class struggle has been part of the history of societies. According to Marx; through this revolution the capitalist system is replaced by socialist system resulting in a classless society. In such a society, humans will be able to live in a world where they are not prevented from realizing their full potential by the constraints of class societies. In a classless society the principle of “from each according to his ability, to each according to his need” comes into operation. social class and stratification according max weber Max Weber (1864-1920) built his approach to stratification on the analysis developed by Marx, but he modified and elaborated it. Like Marx, Weber regarded society as characterized by conflicts over power and resources. Yet where Marx saw polarized class relations and economic issues at the heart of all conflict, Weber developed a more complex, multidimensional view of society.  continue Social stratification is not simply a matter of class, according to Weber, but is also shaped by two other aspects: status and power. These three overlapping elements of stratification produce an enormous number of possible positions (inequality) within society, rather than the rigid bipolar model, which Marx proposed. Status in Weber’s theory refers to differences between social groups in the social honor or prestige they are accorded by others. Presently status is being expressed through people’s styles of life. Markers and symbols of status—such as housing, dress, manner of speech, occupation – all help to shape an individual’s social standing in the eyes of others. While Marx believed that status distinctions are the result of class divisions in society, Weber argued that status often varies independently of class divisions. Possession of wealth normally tends to confer high status, but there are many exceptions. power: the third element of social class, is the ability to control others, even against their wishes. Weber agreed with Marx that property is a major source of power, but he added that it is not the only source. continue According to weber, With time, industrial societies witness the growth of the bureaucratic state. This expansion of government and other types of formal organizations means that power gains importance in the stratification system. 6.2. Social mobility. Social mobility is an act of moving from one social class to another. The amount of movement up and down the class structure would indicate the extent of social mobility prevalent in the society. The social mobility is greatly influenced by the level of openness of the society. Open society is the one where people attain their status primarily by their own efforts. social mobility is an important political issue, particularly in countries committed to liberal vision of equality of opportunity to all citizens. Social mobility can be classified as: Vertical mobility: The movement of individuals and groups up or down the socioeconomic scale. Those who gain in property, income, status, and position are said to be upwardly mobile, while those who move in the opposite direction are downwardly mobile. continue Horizontal mobility: The movement of individuals and groups in similar socioeconomic positions, which may be in different work situations. This may involve change in occupation or remaining in the same occupation but in a different organization, or may be in the same organization but at a different location. Lateral mobility: It is a geographical movement between neighborhoods, towns or regions. In modern societies there is a great deal of geographical mobility. Lateral mobility is often combined with vertical as well as horizontal mobility. Intra-generational mobility consists of movement up and down the stratification system by members of a single generation (the-social class in which you began life compared with your social class at the end of your life). Inter-generational mobility consists of movement up and down the stratification system by members of successive generations of a family (your social class location compared with that of your parents, for example). Comparison is usually made between social class status of son and father. 6.2.1. Mobility determinants Three main factors that affect mobility: 1. Structural factors: Structural factors are the ones, which determine the relative proportion of high-status positions to be filled and the ease of getting them. 2. Individual factors: While structural factors may determine the proportion of high-status, well-paid positions in a society, individual factors greatly affect which persons get them. It means that one has to look into the procedures of access and entry to the available positions. There could be the possession of the entry based qualifications by the individuals and there could be number of individual factors that influence the possession of necessary qualifications. 3. Differential fertility by social class: The number of suitable off-springs available to fill the positions from the same class is another factor influencing social mobility. The inadequate number of children available in the middle class to fill jobs will provide an opportunity for the children from the adjacent class to fill the vacancies.  6.2.2. The cost of social mobility While social mobility permits society to fill its occupational vacancies with the most able people and offers the individual a chance to attain his or her life goal, it also involves certain costs. The costs could include: fear of falling in status, as in downward mobility; the strain of new roles learning in occupational promotions, the disruption of primary group relationships as a person moves upward or downward. Parents and children may become strangers because of changes in social attitudes. Mobility oriented parents may work hard, come home late, and have less interaction with their children. It may lead to bitterness and estrangement. Social mobility often demands geographic mobility, with a painful loss of treasured social ties. marriages may be threatened when spouses are not equally interested in mobility. It can result in mental illness and conflict.  Chapter seven: understanding deviance and crime: 7.1 Deviance and Control ▪ According to sociologist William Graham Sumner, deviance is a violation of established contextual, cultural, or social norms, whether folkways, mores, or codified law (1906). It can be as minor as picking your nose in public or as major as committing murder. ▪ Although the word “deviance” has a negative connotation in everyday language, sociologists recognize that deviance is not necessarily bad (Schoepflin 2011). In fact, from a structural functionalist perspective, one of the positive contributions of deviance is that it fosters social change. ▪ Whether an act is labeled deviant or not depends on many factors, including location, audience, and the individual committing the act (Becker 1963). ▪ As norms vary across culture and time, it makes sense that notions of deviance change also.  Social control The underlying goal of social control is to maintain social order, an arrangement of practices and behaviors on which society’s members base their daily lives. The means of enforcing rules are known as sanctions. Sanctions can be positive as well as negative. Positive sanctions are rewards given for conforming to norms. A promotion at work is a positive sanction for working hard. Negative sanctions are punishments for violating norms. Sociologists also classify sanctions as formal or informal. Although shoplifting, a form of social deviance, may be illegal, there are no laws dictating the proper way to scratch your nose. That doesn’t mean picking your nose in public won’t be punished; instead, you will encounter informal sanctions. Formal sanctions, on the other hand, are ways to officially recognize and enforce norm violations. If a student violates her college’s code of conduct, for example, she might be expelled. Someone who speaks inappropriately to the boss could be fired. Someone who commits a crime may be arrested or imprisoned. 7.2 Theoretical Perspectives on Deviance Why does deviance occur? How does it affect a society? Since the early days of sociology, scholars have developed theories that attempt to explain what deviance and crime mean to society. These theories can be grouped according to the three major sociological paradigms: functionalism, symbolic interactionism, and conflict theory. Functionalism Émile Durkheim: The Essential Nature of Deviance Emile Durkheim believed that deviance is a necessary part of a successful society. One way deviance is functional, he argued, is that it challenges people’s present views (1893). Moreover, Durkheim noted, when deviance is punished, it reaffirms currently held social norms, which also contributes to society (1893). Robert Merton: Strain Theory Sociologist Robert Merton agreed that deviance is an inherent part of a functioning society, but he expanded on Durkheim’s ideas by developing strain theory, which notes that access to socially acceptable goals plays a part in determining whether a person conforms or deviates.  continue Merton defined five ways people respond to this gap between having a socially accepted goal and having no socially accepted way to pursue it. 1. Conformity: Those who conform choose not to deviate. They pursue their goals to the extent that they can through socially accepted means. 2. Innovation: Those who innovate pursue goals they cannot reach through legitimate means by instead using criminal or deviant means. 3. Ritualism: People who ritualize lower their goals until they can reach them through socially acceptable ways. These members of society focus on conformity rather than attaining a distant dream. 4. Retreatism: Others retreat and reject society’s goals and means. Some beggars and street people have withdrawn from society’s goal of financial success. 5. Rebellion: A handful of people rebel and replace a society’s goals and means with their own. Terrorists or freedom fighters look to overthrow a society’s goals through socially unacceptable means.  Social Disorganization Theory Developed by researchers at the University of Chicago in the 1920s and 1930s, social disorganization theory asserts that crime is most likely to occur in communities with weak social ties and the absence of social control. An individual who grows up in a poor neighborhood with high rates of drug use, violence, teenage delinquency, and deprived parenting is more likely to become a criminal than an individual from a wealthy neighborhood with a good school system and families who are involved positively in the community. Social disorganization theory points to broad social factors as the cause of deviance. A person isn’t born a criminal but becomes one over time, often based on factors in his or her social environment. Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay: Cultural Deviance Theory Cultural deviance theory suggests that conformity to the prevailing cultural norms of lower-class society causes crime.  Conflict Theory Conflict theory looks to social and economic factors as the causes of crime and deviance. Unlike functionalists, conflict theorists don’t see these factors as positive functions of society. They see them as evidence of inequality in the system. They also challenge social disorganization theory and control theory and argue that both ignore racial and socioeconomic issues and oversimplify social trends (Akers 1991). Conflict theorists also look for answers to the correlation of gender and race with wealth and crime. Karl Marx: An Unequal System Conflict theory was greatly influenced by the work of German philosopher, economist, and social scientist Karl Marx. Marx believed that the general population was divided into two groups. He labeled the wealthy, who controlled the means of production and business, the bourgeois. He labeled the workers who depended on the bourgeois for employment and survival the proletariat. Marx believed that the bourgeois centralized their power and influence through government, laws, and other authority agencies in order to maintain and expand their positions of power in society.  C. Wright Mills: The Power Elite sociologist C. Wright Mills described the existence of what he dubbed the power elite, a small group of wealthy and influential people at the top of society who hold the power and resources. Wealthy executives, politicians, celebrities, and military leaders often have access to national and international power, and in some cases, their decisions affect everyone in society. Symbolic Interactionism Symbolic interactionism is a theoretical approach that can be used to explain how societies and/or social groups come to view behaviors as deviant or conventional. Labeling theory, differential association, social disorganization theory, and control theory fall within the realm of symbolic interactionism. Labeling Theory Labeling theory examines the ascribing of a deviant behavior to another person by members of society. Thus, what is considered deviant is determined not so much by the behaviors themselves or the people who commit them, but by the reactions of others to these behaviors. As a result, what is considered deviant changes over time and can vary significantly across cultures.  continue Sociologist Edwin Lemert expanded on the concepts of labeling theory and identified two types of deviance that affect identity formation. Primary deviance is a violation of norms that does not result in any long-term effects on the individual’s self-image or interactions with others. Individuals who engage in primary deviance still maintain a feeling of belonging in society and are likely to continue to conform to norms in the future. Secondary deviance occurs when a person’s self-concept and behavior begin to change after his or her actions are labeled as deviant by members of society. The person may begin to take on and fulfill the role of a “deviant” as an act of rebellion against the society that has labeled that individual as such. For example, consider a high school student who often cuts class and gets into fights. Secondary deviance can be so strong that it bestows a master status on an individual. A master status is a label that describes the chief characteristic of an individual. Some people see themselves primarily as doctors, artists, or grandfathers. Others see themselves as beggars, convicts, or addicts.  7.3 Crime and the Law all societies have informal and formal ways of maintaining social control. Within these systems of norms, societies have legal codes that maintain formal social control through laws, which are rules adopted and enforced by a political authority. Those who violate these rules incur negative formal sanctions. Normally, punishments are relative to the degree of the crime and the importance to society of the value underlying the law. 7.3.1. types of crimes. Society generally socializes its members to view certain crimes as more severe than others. crimes are classified as one of two types based on their severity. Violent crimes (also known as “crimes against a person”) are based on the use of force or the threat of force. Rape, murder, and armed robbery fall under this category Nonviolent crimes involve the destruction or theft of property but do not use force or the threat of force. Because of this, they are also sometimes called “property crimes.” Larceny, car theft, and vandalism are all types of nonviolent crimes.  continue An often-overlooked category is corporate crime, or crime committed by white-collar workers in a business environment. Embezzlement, insider trading, and identity theft are all types of corporate crime. An often-debated third type of crime is victimless crime. Crimes are called victimless when the perpetrator is not explicitly harming another person. As opposed to battery or theft, which clearly have a victim. Hate Crimes: Attacks based on a person’s race, religion, or other characteristics are known as hate crimes.