Introduction to Psychology for Business and Public Life PDF

Introduction to Psychology for Business and Public Life Arnold, J. & Randall, R. (2016). Work Psychology: understanding human behavior in the workplace. London: Pitman Publishing Psychology is the study of the mind. It is a scientific study of behavior and mental processes; the science of behavior...

Introduction to Psychology for Business and Public Life Arnold, J. & Randall, R. (2016). Work Psychology: understanding human behavior in the workplace. London: Pitman Publishing Psychology is the study of the mind. It is a scientific study of behavior and mental processes; the science of behavior and mental processes that seeks to describe and explain aspects of human thought, feeling, perceptions and actions. Organizational Psychology refers to the scientific study of human behavior and cognitive processes in relation to the working environment. The application of psychological principles and techniques to business and industrial problems. An organization is an entity comprising of multiple people, can take various shapes and forms such as an institution or a volunteer association, and that has a collective goal and is linked to an external environment. Our main interest is organizational behavior which is the study of the behavior of people within an organizational setting. This refers to the study and understanding of individual and group behavior, and patterns of structure in order to help improve organizational performance and effectiveness. Every organization should operate with a defined organizational structure. A well thought out and strategic business configuration clarifies reporting relationships and supports good communication – resulting in efficient and effective work processes flow. Organizations can achieve nothing without the efforts of their individual members. Whatever the nature of an organization’s products or services, relationships at work and interactions among its members are at least equally important. One significant aspect of organizational behavior and the relationship between the individual and the process of management is the concept of the psychological contract. This is not a written document but implies a series of mutual expectations and satisfaction of needs arising from the people-organization relationship. It involves a process of giving and receiving by the individual and by the organization. The psychological contract covers a range of expectations of rights and privileges, duties and obligations, which do not form part of a formal agreement but still have an important influence on people’s behavior. Individuality Organizations are made up of their individual members. The individual is a central feature of organizational behavior, whether acting in isolation or as part of a group, in response to expectations of the organization, or as a result of the influences of the external environment. When the needs of the individual and the demands of the organization are incompatible, this can result in frustration and conflict. Managing relationships at work has always been a key skill, but the speed at which organizations and the external environment are undergoing change places increasing pressure on individuals at work. The effective management of people requires not only an understanding of the individual employees but also recognition of the culture of the organization. What is expected and accepted in one organization may not be the same in another. For instance, creativity and individuality may be encouraged in one business but undermined by bureaucracy in another. A discussion of individual behavior in organizations is therefore riddled with complexity and contradictions. Managers are required to be competent at selecting the individuals who will be valuable to the organization. They need to be observant about the individuals who are performing well and have the potential to develop within the organization. They also need to be able to value individual difference and be sensitive to contrasting needs. Finally, managers need to know themselves and understand their uniqueness and the impact their personality has on others. Work Analysis A happy worker is a productive/focused/respected worker. For the sake of the credit, we focus on understanding and improving the performance and well-being of employees. All of us have observed differences in the performance of group members at work. Some perform at a very high level, whereas others perform less effectively. Descriptive vs Prescriptive Theories or Models Descriptive theories explain how existing organizations work. A good descriptive theory will provide an accurate picture of how organizations are structured and how they operate. Whilst Prescriptive theories indicate how organizations should operate. Proper application of a good prescriptive theory will lead to an effective and efficient organization. However, the distinction between descriptive and prescriptive theories may not be totally clear. Elements of both may appear in a given theory. Two distinct models that we can consider vis-à-vis Job Design - The Job Characteristics Model (JCM) In a nutshell the JCM is a theory of work design and provides “a set of implementing principles for enriching jobs in organizational settings” Hackman and Oldham’s (1976) developed this model against a backdrop in the 1960s and 1970s of stable employment and mass manufacture in developed economies. The JCM is mainly concerned with developing jobs that are motivating, satisfying and performed well. This model concentrates on five key features or characteristics of work: § Skill variety (SV) – jobs with more skill variety require workers to use a wide range of skills. For example, a carpenter who designs and produces his own furniture using a range of tools and carpentry techniques has more skill variety than a warehouse worker who simply has to load boxes or goods onto trucks. § Task identity (TI) – jobs with task identity allow the worker to produce or deliver an identifiable, complete outcome. For example, a surgeon has more task identity than an auditing team whose final outcome may not be his responsibility. § Task significance (TS) – more significant jobs have an impact on other people, both inside and outside the organization. For example, jobs related to medical care or education have more task significance than jobs in retail and food outlets. § Autonomy (AU) – jobs with more autonomy allow the worker to make decisions concerning how to perform tasks, when and where to perform tasks, and even how success in performing work tasks is evaluated. For example, architects and construction engineers will usually have a great deal of autonomy than the construction  workers. The latter are constrained by the design and project management schedules decided by architects and construction engineers. § Feedback from the job (FB) – jobs that provide feedback give an indication of how well the worker is performing. For example, a computer programmer who compiles her own code gets feedback from the job when the program compiles or fails to compile even whilst on testing. In contrast, a car mechanic gets lower feedback direct from the job and the feedback does not occur close to task completion. These five job characteristics produce three critical psychological states: 1. Experienced meaningfulness of work 2. Experienced responsibility for the outcomes of work 3. Knowledge of the results of work activities This tendency for high levels of job characteristics to lead to positive outcomes can be formulated by the motivating potential score (MPS). MPS = (Skill Variety + Task Identity + Task Significance)(Autonomy)(Feedback) In summary, jobs that are high in motivating potential must be also high on at least one of the three factors that lead to experienced meaningfulness, and also must be high on both autonomy and feedback. If a job has a high MPS, the JCM predicts that motivation, performance, and job satisfaction will be positively affected and the likelihood of negative outcomes, such as absenteeism and turnover, will be reduced. - The Vitamin Model An organization is just like a living organism. It needs to be nourished with the right sustenance. Just like any organism, it needs different vitamins to support its growth and well-being. Motivated by the mass unemployment in the 1980s, Peter Warr, an organizational psychologist developed a model termed as the Vitamin Model. It is very useful to describe the most common job characteristics that impact employee well-being and development. These characteristics include: § Supportive supervision § Opportunity for personal control (autonomy) § Opportunity for interpersonal contact  § Externally generated goals (job demand, task demands, role responsibility) § Availability of financial reward § Variety (task/job variety) § Opportunity for skill use § Environmental clarity (the use of policy and consistent procedures) § Valued social position (task significance, meaningfulness of job) § Physical security You can think of the job characteristics as ‘psychological work vitamins’. They are like different kinds of vitamins for nourishment, that employees need to be fully productive at work. Your basic assumption is that all these characteristics are all positive so should be encouraged. Right? Yet Warr’s findings indicate that some job characteristics can be too harmful if present at levels that are too high or too low. Job characteristics that influence well-being at work, such as hands-on supervision may be important in the early stages of a project for instance but can also be harmful if it limits personal autonomy. Opportunities for task variety is also necessary, but when taken to extremes can contribute to work overload and increased stress. Warr’s Vitamin Model demonstrates the challenges researchers face in understanding the diverse characteristics that influence well-being at work, and the interplay between these characteristics. In summary, there are simply too many variables to consider. However, as much as there are variations in what organizations need to promote well-being, there are also fundamentals, described by Warr’s job characteristics that provide a solid framework for discerning and measuring the health of an organization. The Nature and Context of Organizations Organizational theories describe how organizations work. Some focus on the structure of organizations, including the various components and how they interrelate. Others are concerned with the interpersonal aspects of organizations, including communication and how people relate to one another. Finally, some focus on the interaction of the interpersonal and technical sides of an organization: in other words, how do people affect the technology of the organization, and how does the technology affect people? Understanding organizations is certainly not a new concept. If we look back at some of the great achievements of the ancient world, it is obvious there was considerable planning and co-ordination of people’s endeavors. It would be difficult to imagine the pyramids being built without someone managing the process. Fredrick W. Taylor The first notions of formulating modern ‘management theory’ can be probably attributed to Taylor (1911). Taylor identified the inefficiencies of workers because of the widely differing methods that they employed to perform their various tasks. In Taylor’s days, there were no work standards and no identified responsibilities for workers or managers. Managers made decisions ad hoc and workers performed deliberately at a slow pace. There was continual conflict between workers and managers. Taylor’s work or Taylorism sought to change things by defining clear guidelines for improved production efficiency. He defined four principles of management, arguing that following them would lead to prosperity for both managers and workers. The principles were as follows: - Define a science for each element of an individual’s work to replace the old ‘rule of thumb’ method. - Scientifically select, train, teach, and develop the worker (previously the worker tended to select their own work and train themselves as best they could) - Heartily co-operate with the workers so as to ensure that all work is done in accordance with the principles of the science that he was developing. - Divide work and responsibilities almost equally between management and workers, with management taking over the work for which it was better fitted (previously most of the work and responsibilities were thrown on workers). Taylor affirmed the role of managers to plan and control, and workers to perform as they were instructed. Taylor also favored incentive wage plans. Bureaucratic Management Another useful approach is bureaucratic management. In summary, it is a theory set forth by Max Weber. It contained two essential elements: 1. Structuring an organization into a hierarchy. 2. Having clearly defined rules to help govern an organization and its members. Key elements of the management theory include: - Clearly defined job roles - A hierarchy of authority - Standardized procedures - Meticulous record-keeping - Hiring employees only if they meet the specific qualifications of the job These two approaches are part of the classical theories. As a reaction, the neoclassical group of theories was born. It was a bold attempt at incorporating the behavioral sciences into management thought in order to solve the problems caused by classical theory practices. The idea that the role of management is to use employees to get things done in organizations. So rather than focus on production, structures, or technology, the neoclassical theory was concerned with the employee. Neoclassical theorists concentrated on answering questions related to the best way to motivate, structure, and support employees within the organization. An important study during this time is the popular Hawthorne study. Almost a century ago, researchers at a manufacturing plant in Illinois, observed a principle of employee behavior that is as true and applicable today as it was back then. Hawthorne Study In the late 1920s, managers at Hawthorne Works – a large manufacturing company in Illinois, asked themselves a question which regarded the production of workers in a well-lit environment vis-à-vis a poorly-lit environment. Managers at Hawthorne Works hired some consultants and commissioned a study. Well- lit rooms increased productivity, as did a few other variables, such as having a clean workstation, allowing employees to build and work in teams, and having regular breaks. While these were the direct findings from the Hawthorne study, none of them were ground-breaking. But the researchers made another key observation – one that led to an idea taught in nearly every business textbook used in the last 80 years. During the Hawthorne study, when researchers adjusted an independent variable, the variable that can be manipulated to measure its impact on another dependent variable, productivity changed. But, after a relatively short time, those productivity gains disappeared and output ended up drifting back to the previous level. The conclusion was that changes in the work environment could impact productivity, but those productivity gains are only short-term. One can compare it to receiving a speeding ticket, after a few days, you will end up going fast again. This is what is called The Hawthorne Effect. The study also revealed that social factors, such as employee relationships, were an important factor for managers to consider. It was believed that any manager who failed to account for the social needs of his or her employees could expect to deal with resistance and lower performance. Employees needed to find some intrinsic value in their jobs, which they certainly were not getting from the job that was highly standardized. Rather than placing employees into job roles, where they completed one specific task all day, with little to no interaction with co-workers, employees could be structured in such a way that they could frequently share tasks, information, and knowledge with one another. The belief was that once employees were placed into this alternative structure, their needs for socialization would be fulfilled and therefore, would be more productive. This social element is the core idea of the human relations movement (Elton Mayo and Fritz J. Roethlisberger) An approach to management based on the idea that employees are motivated not only by financial reward but also by a range of social factors, which can include appraisal, instill a sense of belonging, feelings of achievement and pride in one’s work. In his works, Elton Mayo completely contradicts the traditional views of Taylorism. 1. The power of natural groups, in which social aspects take precedence over functional organizational structures. 2. The need for reciprocal communication, in which communication is two way, from worker to chief executive, as well as vice versa. 3. The development of high quality leadership to communicate goals and to ensure effective and coherent decision making. Today it has become a concern of many organizations to improve the job-oriented interpersonal skills of employees. The teaching of these skills to employees is referred to as “soft skills” training. Organizations need their employees to be able to successfully communicate and convey information, to be able to interpret others’ emotions, to be open to others’ feelings, and to be able to solve conflicts and arrive at resolutions. By acquiring these skills, the employees, those in management positions, and the customer can maintain more compatible relationships. The Systems Approach More recently, attention has been focused on the analysis of organizations as ‘systems’ with a number of interrelated sub-systems. The classical approach emphasized the technical requirements of the organization and its needs – ‘organizations without people’; whilst the human relations approaches emphasized the psychological and social aspects, and the consideration of human needs – ‘people without organizations’. The systems approach seeks to reconcile these two earlier approaches and the work of the formal and the informal writers. Attention is focused on the total work organization and the interrelationships of structure and behavior, and the range of variable within the organization. This approach can be contrasted with a view of the organization as separate parts. The systems approach encourages managers to view the organization both as a whole and as part of a larger environment. The main idea is that any part of an organization’s activities affects all other parts. This is not a theory of management – but rather another way of conceptualizing and studying organizations. Systems theory is not new and has been used in the natural and physical sciences for a number of years. One of the founders of this approach was the biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy. Organizational management systems consist of many internal subsystems that need to be continually aligned with each other. As the organization grows, they develop more and more complex subsystems that must coordinate with each other in the process of transforming inputs to outputs. These interdependencies can easily become so complex that a minor event in one subsystem may amplify into serious unintended consequences elsewhere in the organization. The Contingency Approach The classical approach suggested one best form of structure and placed emphasis on general sets of principles while the human relations approach gave little attention at all to structure. In contrast, the contingency approach, showed renewed concern with the importance of structure as a significant influence on organizational performance. It highlights possible means of differentiating among alternative forms of organization structures and systems of management. There is not one optimum state. One size does not fit all. For example, the structure of the organization and its’ success, are dependent, that is contingent upon, the nature of tasks with which it is designed to deal and the nature of environmental influences. So, the most appropriate structure and system of management is therefore dependent upon the contingencies of the situation for each organization. The contingency approach implies that organization theory should not seek to suggest one best way to structure or manage organizations but should provide insights into the situational and contextual factors which influences management decisions. Gareth Morgan describes the main ideas underlying contingency theory in a nutshell: - Organizations are open systems that need careful management to satisfy and balance internal needs and to adapt to environmental circumstances. - There is no best way of organizing. The appropriate form depends on the kind of task or environment at hand. - Management must be concerned, above all else, with achieving alignments and good fits. - Different types of organizations are needed in different types of environments. Personnel Selection: Analyzing jobs, competencies, and selection methods The purpose of job analysis and competency modelling Job analysis is conducted to define the necessary knowledge, skills, attitudes and abilities for performance in the target job role. Applications include: - Recruitment and selection (Self-selection) - Induction - Performance management - Career development and counselling - Organizational change and diagnosis. The existence of a competency model has implications for equal opportunities legislation. Competency Competency is defined as the specific characteristics and behavior patterns a job holder is required to demonstrate in order to perform the relevant job tasks with competence. Trend towards more worker-oriented job analyses where job tasks are described with reference to the relevant person attributes. Main aim of competency analysis is to derive a competency model for the target role. job analysis – data collection Identify competencies by gathering behavioral data from job incumbents and existing data sets. Job officials define the role, such as: - senior managers - managers - direct reports/subordinates - colleagues - customers/user group examples of job analysis methods - Observation - Interviews - Expert Panels - Behavioral Event Interviews - Focus Groups - Behavioral Checklists Criteria for choosing a method - Worker or task orientation (precise tasks or psychological factors) - Level of knowledge required by the analyst - Capacity to generate usable outcomes - Cost (time and resource) - Sensitivity and access Criteria for choosing a recruitment technique - Reliability - Validity - Legality - Generality - Cost - Practicality - Professional image - Candidate reactions Interviews  - Ubiquitous in selection - Types: o Structured/Semi-structured/Open-ended o Situational o Competency-based o Panel vs. one-to-one - Functions: o Mutual Preview: initial stages of selection o Assessment: as one of a battery of techniques o Negotiation: to discuss contractual conditions (social exchange) Factors impacting upon interview validity - Interviewer training - Structure - Consistency - Manage interviewer’s cognitive load - Questions based on job analysis o Behavioral interviewing - assess a candidate's past behavior as a predictor of future performance. This method involves asking candidates to provide specific examples of how they have handled situations in the past that are relevant to the job they're applying for. o Situational interviewing - assess a candidate's ability to handle hypothetical situations they may encounter in the role. Unlike behavioral interviewing, which focuses on past experiences, situational interviewing evaluates how candidates think and act in potential future scenarios. Biodata Used to discover aspects of personal history that are indicative of psychological variables. Questions have a definite answer. Assumes best predictor of future behavior is past behavior. Danger that data is atheoretical: use of biodata must be justified through job analysis. It uses ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ items: - hard: ‘attended University’ (biographic) - soft: ‘prefers parties to reading books’ (interests) Psychometrics ‘a standardized sample of behavior which can be described by a numerical scale or category system’ A quantitative assessment of some psychological attribute. - Measure MAXIMAL performance – Achievement and ability  - Measure TYPICAL performance – Personality associated, values, attitudes and interests Cognitive ability tests (CATs) - Well-researched tests show good predictive validity - Measures of g offer prediction across job roles - Measures of specific abilities (e.g. numerical) need to be chosen according to job requirements - Job complexity can moderate predictive validity Situational judgement tests (SJTs) - Choice of response to job-related challenge - Judgements of ‘best’ and/or ‘worst’ option - Can turn into cognitive ability, knowledge and expression of traits - Good evidence of predictive validity, fairness and positive applicant reactions Values-based recruitment - People’s views about how they ought to behave - Multiple mini-interviews and SJTs used as measures - Limited research available Ability tests and personality approaches - Verbal - Numerical - Diagrammatic/abstract - Mechanical - Spatial - Clerical - Dexterity - Sensory - Psychoanalytic approach - Social learning approach - Humanistic approach - Type approach - Trait psychometric approach The big 5 personality factors - Extroversion: warmth, gregarious, activity - Neuroticism: anxiety, impulsiveness - Openness to experience: ideas, aesthetics - Agreeableness: compliance, straightforwardness - Conscientiousness: order, dutifulness, competence Work sample test - From behavioral consistency theory: Past behavior is the best predictor of future behavior - Types of work samples include o Psychomotor (typing, sewing, using tools) o Individual decision-making (in-tray exercises) o Job-related information tests o Group discussions/decisions - Trainability tests Assessment centers Performance is measured against a pre-determined set of competencies and job-related criteria. Assessors should be rigorously trained to observe candidate’s performance. Overall performance is evaluated on the basis of a combination of all reports i.e. the overall decision is not left to one (possibly) biased assessor. Components to an assessment center Group exercises - Assigned - Unassigned - Team exercise - Presentation Individual exercises - In-tray - Written report - Role play - Presentation - Interviews structured/situational Sources of error and bias in selection techniques - Halo and horns (1st impression) - Prejudice (Race, gender…) - Stereotyping and ‘red rags’ - Selective attention - Concentration - Similar-to-me effect/personal liking - Temporal extension (Decision made within 3 seconds) - Cognitive overload Applicant restrictions Heavily influenced by perceived job-relatedness of selection tools used. Perceived justice: - Distributive: equal treatment of all - Procedural: quality of selection process Impact on likelihood of accepting job offer and their opinion of the organization. Validity of methods doesn’t necessarily match popularity. Organizations often fail to conduct adequate job analysis and validation studies. Meta-analysis results can be informative but meta-analysis results should be interpreted with caution. Selection is a two-way process. In reality there is often a disparity between theory and practice. Communication Objectives: - The communication process. - Why communication is important in the workplace. - Communication at the workplace: what helps and what hinders effective communication. - Identify important communication skills. Essential skills: listening and feedback Types of communication: - Intra-personal: with oneself (encoding message) - Interpersonal: with one other person (husband/wife) - Group: with a small number of people (staff meeting) - Organization: with the whole organization (communication networks of a company) - Public: with a large audience (public speaking) - Mass: with society at large (mass media) Communication Communication is the process by which we exchange information through a common system of symbols, signs or behavior. Communication may be defines as a message sent by a member to one or more receivers with the conscious intent of affecting the receiver’s behavior. Effective communication exists when the receivers interpret the sender’s message in the same way that the sender intended it. The importance of communication at the workplace. Being able to interact effectively with people around you at work will enhance your work experience and your relationships with your colleagues. Discussing what the company is hoping to achieve. Today’s demanding workplace requires that one communicated with clarity, tact, and confidence. Team building, improving employee morale, motivation etc… cannot be achieved without effective communication skills. Large organizations rely on delegating work to the employees. Thus, effective communication lays the foundation for a professional working and comfortable environment. What helps communication? - Communication skills such as self-expression, self-disclosure, listening, empathy, feedback, assertiveness. - Written communication skills - Professional presentation skills - Technology Effective listening in the workplace: - Leads to effective communication - Helps to avoid misunderstanding - Helps to develop heathy and strong inter-personal relationship at the workplace - Improves work environment and personal growth - Helps to develop emotional intelligence Barriers to listening: - Lack of interest in the subject/speaker - Outside noises, distractions, fatigue - Limited vocabulary of sender and/or receiver - Poor delivery of message - Thinking ahead to a response - Speaker’s or listener’s lack of knowledge - Prejudices, or selecting what we want to hear Listening skills The most important communication skill is the ability to listen. Good listening skills are required at every level of an organization. - Become a better listener by using active listening. - Active listening is a conscious effort to hear what someone is saying and to be aware of what that person is communicating nonverbally. Feedback: recognizing appropriate feedback Feedback is information given back to a sender that evaluates the message and states what the receiver understood. At the place of work, feedback is ‘information about reactions to a product, a person’s performance of a task etc… which is used as a basis for improvement’. It is the ongoing process between the colleagues at the workplace. Appropriate feedback is essential in a workplace. It helps both employer and the employee in knowing that they are communicating and working effectively to achieve desirable outcomes. Lack of feedback creates uncertainty, poor teamwork, unproductive communication, rumors and gossip. The importance of feedback Feedback is useful at the workplace for indicating when things are going in the right direction or for redirecting problem performance. - It is a powerful motivator - Encourages goal accomplishment - Influence behavior - Continually improves performance Therefore, feedback is a vital ingredient of the communication process. It helps clarify communication, verify understanding, and overcome communication barriers such as distortions and blockages. Feedback may reframe our perceptions of the person or may force us to review our perceptions. Thus, it saves time and reduces the possibility of errors and human relations problems. Effective feedback is timely, often, and precise. Assertiveness Definition: assertiveness at the place of work Characteristics of assertiveness Assertiveness and legitimate rights at the place of work Assertion: three behavior types Assertiveness training Characteristics of assertiveness: - The ability to recognize and manage emotions - Maintaining self-control - Practice active listening - Accepting responsibilities and being able to delegate others - Regularly expressing gratitude - Behaving in a just and fair way Legitimate rights at the place of work Assertiveness is an attitude: that of defending your rights without hurting those of others. You have a right to: - make a mistake and be willing to correct it - have your own opinions and convictions - protest any treatment or criticism that feels bad for you - interrupt to ask for clarification - not to respond to a situation - negotiate for change - receive recognition for your work and achievement - not to take responsibilities for someone else’s problems. - Act in your own best interests as long as it does not deny the rights of others - Express your feelings - Stand up for yourself - Express your opinions  - Not to offer reasons or excuses for your opinions, beliefs, or behaviors - Say no and not feel guilty - Make requests of other people as long as you recognize their right to refuse - Change your beliefs and behaviors - Make mistakes and take responsibility for them - Choose not to be assertive - Be you Assertion communication styles Aggression: Trying to get what you want using whatever means necessary Fighting, threatening, or manipulating Neglecting other people’s rights or needs Non-assertion (submission)(passive): Hoping to get what you want without taking initiative Surrendering your rights out of timidity Keeping your feelings inside and getting angry at yourself Passive-aggressive: Appear cooperative but not actually feel that way Sabotage, frustrate, and disrupt Procrastinate Expressing assertiveness - Know what you want to say - Say what you want, directly, specifically, immediately - Assert your preferences appropriately - Stand up for your rights: make complaints, refuse requests, express personal opinions - Express positive feelings: affection, appreciation, compliments - Take initiative: make requests, ask for help, initiate conversation  - Accompany with adapted non-verbal and paralinguistic expressions: direct eye-contact, relaxed, confident posture - Avoid laughing nervously, avoid whining Assertive techniques Broken record-repeated assertion Calm repetition, saying what you want over and over again. Being persistent in your statements without having to rehearse beforehand your arguments or your expression of anger. Fogging Accepting criticism by calmly acknowledging to your critic that probably there may be some truth in their statement yet allows you to remain your own judge in what you do. That is, instead of getting defensive or counteracting with your own criticism, agree in principle to the truth expressed but insist on what you decide to do. Content to process shift Simply shift from the actual subject being discussed (the content) to what is happening between you and the other person (the process). Job motivation Objectives - Job motivation – preface - Maslow’s hierarchy of needs - Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory - Theory x and theory y - Equity theory - Expectancy theory Maslow’s theory MOTIVATORS Hygiene factors Hygiene factors: Motivation factors: Salaries, wages and other benefits. Sense of personal achievement. Company policy and administration. Status Good inter-personal relationships. Recognition Quality of supervision. Challenging, stimulating work. Job security. Responsibility Working conditions. Opportunity for advancement. Work/life balance. Promotion Growth When in place, these factors result in: When in place, these factors result in: General satisfaction High motivation Prevention of dissatisfaction High satisfaction Strong commitment Theory X and Theory Y Douglas McGregor described theory x and theory y in his book the human side of enterprise. Theory x and theory y each represent different ways in which leaders view employees. Theory x managers believe that employees are motivated mainly by money, are lazy, uncooperative, and have poor work habits. Theory y managers believe that subordinates work hard, are cooperative and have positive attitudes. The Three needs theory David McClelland and other, proposed the three-needs theory. The needs are defined as follows: 1. Need for achievement: the drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed. 2. Need for power: the need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise. 3. Need for affiliation: the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. Equity Theory Equity theory, developed by j. Stacey Adams, proposes that employees perceive what they get from a job situation (outcomes) in relation to what they put into it (inputs) and then compare their inputs-outcomes ratio with the inputs-outcome ratios of relevant others. If an employee perceives his or her ratio to be equal to those of the relevant others, a state of equity exists. In other words, if he or she perceives that their situation is fair, than justice prevails. Expectancy theory The most comprehensive explanation of motivation to date is victor vroom’s expectancy theory. Although the theory has its critics, most research evidence supports it. Expectancy theory states that an individual tends to act in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. Goal-setting theory Intention to work towards a goal is a major source of job motivation. Studies on goal setting have demonstrated the superiority of specific and challenging goals as motivating forces. Specific hard goals produce a higher level of output than the generalized goal of ‘do your best’. Difficult goals will lead to higher performance only if they are accepted. Employees try harder if they have the opportunity to participate. Although we cannot say that having employees participate in the goal-setting process is always desirable, participation is probably preferable to assigning goals when you expect resistance to accepting difficult challenges. Emotional intelligence recognition regulation Personal Self-awareness Self-management competence - Self-confidence - Getting along well with - Awareness of your others emotional state - Handling conflict - Recognizing how your effectively behavior impacts others - clearly expressing ideas - Paying attention to how and information others influence your - using sensitivity to another emotional state. person’s feelings (empathy) to manage interactions successfully. Social Social awareness Relationship management competence - Picking up on the mood in - Getting along well with the room others - Caring what others are - Handling conflict going through effectively - Hearing what the other - Clearly expressing person is ‘really’ saying. ideas/information - Using sensitivity to another person’s feelings (empathy) to manage interactions successfully. Leadership Evolution of leadership theories Great Man theory = leaders are born versus Leadership is a learned ability through education, observation and hands-on experience. Behavioral theory McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y Theory x Theory y Work avoiding Work is natural Need to control Capable of self-direction Avoid responsibility Seek responsibility Workers seek security Can make good decisions Situational/contingency theory Fiedler suggested that some leaders function best in highly directive situations while others are more permissive. Organizations should consider each situation before assigning leaders because the same person may be effective in one situation but not in another. Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Theory Their model says that leadership style used with followers will vary depending on: - The job to be done - Where it is to be done - How it is to be done - When it is to be done (job situation) Leadership styles A leadership style is a leader’s pattern of behavior. - Autocratic leadership style: authoritarian and directive. - Democratic leadership style: participative and easy-going, preferred by managers and employees.  - Free-rein leaders: integrative, employees lead themselves. Power can be legitimate, reward, referent, information, expert, coercive. Sources of power French and Raven identified five basic power sources: - Reward - Coercive - Legitimate - Expert - Referent: influence based on possession by an individual of desirable resources or personal traits. Work-life Balance: Is work-life balance a myth? What is stress? - Stimulus (Stress) - Response (Strain) - Transactional process (cognitive appraisal) Structural vs transactional approaches The demand-control model (Karasek, 1979). By combining demands and control, four categories of job were described: 1. Passive job – low decision latitude and low job demands 2. High-strain job – low decision latitude and high job demands; these increase the risk for psychological and physical stress. 3. Low-strain job – high decision latitude and low job demands 4. Active job – high decision latitude and high job demands; these provide learning motivation to develop new behavioral patterns. Job-related causes of stress Working conditions: unpredictable, uncontrollable, excessive Consequences of stress on individuals - Psychological symptoms - Emotional symptoms - Behavioral symptoms - Burnout: physical and psychological exhaustion as a result of long-term stress Stress management Lifestyle: - Social support - Physical exercise - Healthy diet Organizational interventions: - Primary interventions: changing sources of workplace stress (job re- design, changes in organizational structure) - Secondary interventions: helping employees to cope with stressors (Stress management training) - Tertiary interventions: Rehabilitation/helping those already damaged by stress (counselling services) Factors affecting life-work balance - Demographics (changes in family roles) - Technological advancements - Work overload Costs of work-life imbalance - Health: Rising health care costs are an area of concern for many organizations. Healthy behaviors can prevent or control the effects of chronic diseases. - Absenteeism: Unhealthy employees miss more days of work. Performance management Performance management is a process which brings together many aspects of people management. It is about performance improvement at individual, team, department and organizational levels. It is also about staff development as a means to both improve and enhance performance and as a means of managing behavior and attitudes. It logically follows that if there are good working relationships, individuals and teams are more likely to perform well together than if poor relationships exist. The appraisal as a tool of performance management One of the tools of performance management is the performance appraisal or personal development review. This is the formalized regular review of the individual’s performance where potential is highlighted and training and development needs are identified. This meeting should review performance against agreed criteria and measures based on expectations and objectives which ultimately derive from the organization’s business plan. The annual review should not be a top-down process which is done to the employee, but an opportunity for two-way communication about performance in the past year, expectations and objectives for the coming year and any learning and development needs that may arise as a result. Performance management and career plans Performance management is a crucial activity of the management of human resources. A comprehensive system can provide the basis for key managerial decisions such as: - Allocation of duties and responsibilities - Pay, empowerment - Levels of supervision - Promotions - Training and development needs - Career progression Groups and teams A group consists of two or more individuals who: - Are aware of one another - Interact with one another on a regular basis - Perceive themselves to be a group The purpose of a group is to satisfy organizational or individual needs. Groups at work fall into two general categories: formal and informal. Formal groups Formal groups are designated by the organization to fulfill specific tasks or accomplish certain organizational objectives. o Functional groups § Sales division § Customer service department o Task groups § Committee (ongoing or ad hoc) o Ongoing committees are relatively permanent groups that address organizational issues on a continuous basis. o Ad hoc committees serve only a one-time purpose and disband after accomplishing it. § Team Benefits of teams for employees: Allows for real, direct, and appreciated contributions. Improves commitment to the goals and objectives of the team and the organization. Offers valuable opportunities for networking. Allows for recognition and improves chances for better assignments and promotions. Informal groups o Jog or eat together o Learn new software Why people join groups The four most common reasons as to why people join groups are: - Social connection (stronger sense of affiliation) - Power (Security) - Self-esteem (increased sense of belonging) - Goal accomplishment (learning skills and acquiring knowledge from others) Team growth The four stages of team development 1. Forming 2. Storming 3. Norming 4. Performing Cohesiveness: is the degree to which a team ‘sticks together’ and acts as one. The more cohesive a group is, the more efficient it is. Cohesiveness develops as a result of: - Team size - Similarity of the individuals in a group Group norms: are the shared values about the kinds of behaviors that are acceptable to the team. Group norms are standards of behavior that each member is expected to follow. Group norms may enhance group effectiveness or prevent members from working towards the goals of the organization. Organizational culture The importance of culture Organizational culture is the combines beliefs, values, ethics, procedures, and atmospheres of an organization. The culture determined what goals the organization wants to accomplish and how it will go about accomplishing them. Subcultures may exist in an organization in different departments or functions. Harrison’s typology of organizational cultures 1. Power culture Based on key individuals who generate control from the center (typical hierarchal structure). Such cultures can move quickly and react well, however if the key individuals are removed, the organization is vulnerable to collapse. 2. Rose culture: Very rigid and formal. Often stereotypes and bureaucratical. Rules and procedures are the major methods of influence, e.g. military, schools… 3. Task culture: Project oriented. Emphasis on getting the job done. Attention given to skills. Result-oriented and very adaptable, e.g. software developers, marketing… 4. Person culture: The individual as the center point. These exist as the people within are doing their own thing, but also pulling in the same direction, e.g. lawyers in a firm. Implications of culture Behavior is shaped by values, beliefs, and assumptions. Culture guides actions but only when it is strong and unchallenged. Taking into account the organization’s goals, some cultures are ‘better’ than others. If values, beliefs and attitudes can be learned, they can also be changed. Types of structures There are three main types of organizational structure - Functional - Divisional - Matrix Change What is changing? Technology, how you get a job, employment contracts, work environment, work hours… The emergent approach Change is a continuous process. It involves experimentation, adaptation and risk-taking. Incremental change leads to wholesale change. Managers must foster a climate of learning and experimentation. Managers must create a collective vision for the organization. The key organization processes are: - Information-gathering - Communication - Learning The influence of technology at the workplace Career advancement Career has several definitions; career as advancement, as a profession, as a lifelong sequence of jobs, as a lifelong sequence of role-related experiences. Career as a calling Five/three components of calling, derived from data from three studies: 1. Identification 2. Person-environment fit 3. Sense and meaning 4. Values-driven behavior 5. Transcendent guiding force Organizational career management Interventions include: mentoring, internal vacancy advertising, personal development plans, development centers, career counselling or coaching, secondments and many more. It is important to be clear what the purpose of interventions are. - Filling vacancies? - Assessment of potential, competencies, skills, interests? - Identification of career options? - Action to implement career plans? Identify your CPD needs NB: it is important to think about what you want to achieve. Effective CPD should satisfy a range of needs, including those of: - Your employer: what importance does your employer place upon CPD activity… is it a mandatory requirement? - Your specific job role: what skills and knowledge do you need in order to remain competent in your role? - Professional organizations: what criteria do you need to meet in order to retain recognized professional standards? - Your personal career objectives: as an individual, what do you want to achieve from your career? Lifelong learning is not optional Training and development is a continuous and lifelong process. The self- development philosophy underlines the notion that the individual takes responsibility for learning and choosing the methods and place, to pursue goal- oriented learning activities, whether on-the-job (tasks themselves are highly effective instruments for development) of off-the-job. Self-development also means that individuals must be motivated – feeling strongly about developing, growing and taking action. Conflict Conflict is a fact of life in any organization as long as people compete for jobs, resources, power, recognition and security. Conflict can be related to power and politics. Possible positive outcomes include: - Better ideas produced - People forced to search for new approaches - Long-standing problems brought to the surface and resolved - Clarification of individual views - Stimulation of interest and creativity - An opportunity for people to test their capacities. Possible negative outcomes include: - Some people feeling defeated and demeaned - An increase in the distance between people - Development of a climate of mistrust and suspicion - Individuals and groups concentrating on their own narrow interests. - Development of resistance rather than teamwork. - An increase in employee turnover.