Work & Organizational Psychology Past Paper PDF

WORK & ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Work-life balance SOME OF THE TOPICS: 1.​ Organization and contest of its functioning 2.​ Determinants of people’s behavior in organization​ 3 levels: individual, group, organizational 3.​ Role of the psychologist 4.​ HR management, incl. pathological (“counter...

WORK & ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Work-life balance SOME OF THE TOPICS: 1.​ Organization and contest of its functioning 2.​ Determinants of people’s behavior in organization​ 3 levels: individual, group, organizational 3.​ Role of the psychologist 4.​ HR management, incl. pathological (“counter-productive”) behaviors at work EXAM: 25 mcqs covering lectures + readings + slides + case studies Lecture 1. Organization and context of its functioning ​ WHAT DO W/O PSYCHOLOGISTS DO? Work and Organizational Psychology ​ An applied division of psychology concerned with the study of human behaviour related to work, organizations and productivity ​ ​ W/O psychologists are involved in research on employees and the ​ application of psychological principles of that research to the workplace to ​ help to optimize an organization’s success (Schultz and Schultz, 2014). HR HRD: D for Development (stressing not only the recruitment process) Coaching, mentoring Statistics Researchers Consultants Daily activities, tasks assigned: -​ Team building activities (eg onboarding processes for new employees) -​ Solve problems/conflicts between employees -​ Recruitment, selection, development -​ Design and implement studies to monitor employees wellbeing -​ Design and conduct interventions to improve employees wellbeing. W/O psychology Focus on applying knowledge, to achieve a particular outcome WOP IS MULTIDIPLISCINARY Organizational behavior is one. Huge list of journals publishing research in WOP & co What do the best places to work have in common? -​ Growth opportunities -​ Hard benefits (salary, extras) -​ Work-life balance -​ Culture/climate 🡺​ See Glassdoor website Management Skills 1.​ Technical skills – the ability to apply specialized knowledge or expertise. All jobs require some specialized expertise, and many people develop their technical skills on the job.​ eg ability to design a questionnaire. Usually related to job position, we are not able to transfer them 2.​ Human (interpersonal) skills (aka soft skills) – the ability to work with, understand, and motivate other people, both individually and in groups.​ empathy, team work, communication, negotiation, conflict resolution 3.​ Conceptual skills (also soft skills): cognitive level. Critical thinking, innovation the mental ability to analyze and diagnose complex situations. 2&3 are transferable from job to job 3 levels of management. Type A, B, C (ceos). Different competences might be less or more i Lower level (team leaders): their success very often depends on their technical skills. Often very skilled workers who are promoted. Top level: Conceptual skills are most important. They need the strategical vision to run the entire organization All of them: need human skills Human (interpersonal) skills are important because... Understanding behavior of people in organizations helps determine manager effectiveness. Leadership and communication skills are critical as a person progresses in his or her career. Better interpersonal skills result in lower turnover of quality employees and higher quality applications for recruitment. ‘Good places to work’ have better financial performance. Lecture 2. The Past and the Present of WOP THE BEGINNINGS OF ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 3 scholars who made significant contributions in the field: Munsterberg, Scott, Taylor Hugo Munsterberg - experimental psychologist, interested in the design of work and personnel selection (1913) 🡺​ M worked in 1913.. realized that there were individual differences that made people do some jobs better. Person-job fit.. He was also the father of forensic psychology Walter Dill Scott - interested in studying salespersons and the psychology of advertising (70’), the first professor in Industrial Psychology 🡺​ Scott was interested in advertising Frederick W. Taylor – father of: -​ scientific management - a method of using scientific principles to improve the efficiency and productivity of jobs -​ time-and-motion studies - procedures in which work tasks are broken down into simple component movements and the movements timed to develop a more efficient method for performing the tasks 🡺​ more about management (of human behavior) than psychology. Most jobs were industrial / in factories time and motion studies. Break down the smaller tasks in a production line, measuring time… Elton Mayo studied the effects of physical work environment on worker productivity. Eg.: -​ optimal level of lighting for performing the tasks -​ the length and timing of work breaks First to focus on improving the wellbeing of employees -​ Hawthorne effect – changes in behavior occurring as a function of participants’ knowledge that they are being observed and their expectations concerning their role as research participants. 🡺​ Human relations movement - a movement that emphasizes the importance of social factors in influencing work performance (based on the studies of Mayo) -​ Found that any kind of change resulted in a steady increase in worker output. What really matters are not the changes, but the fact that they are being observed and timed/evaluated. Everybody wants to be the “perfect participant” of the experiment. W/O PSYCHOLOGY TODAY AND TOMORROW​ ​ One of the fastest growing areas of psychology​ ​ 4 key trends: 1.​ The changing nature of work -​ Downsizing -​ Outsourcing -​ Remote working -​ Use of AI Downsizing is more and more called “rightsizing” Outsourcing = secondary functions of a company (eg HR, building maintenance) that can be done by other companies Remote working, after Covid, is no longer considered as a benefit, but just as a form of work. BUT employees if they do not form bonds with colleagues, they will probs quit in the long run bc of isolation ⇨​ It is hard to find the perfect solution 2.​ Expanding focus on human resources -​ Talent management -​ Individual development -​ Work-life balance Talent management: finding those rising stars employees and help them develop 3.​ Increasing diversity and globalization of the workforce -​ Functioning of work -​ teams -​ Global marketplace -​ Focus 4.​ Increasing relevance of I/O psychology in policy and practice Making work conditions „better" Selecting and developing leaders Reducing discrimination 21st CENTURY CHALLENGES FOR PSYCHOLOGY 1. Increasing patterns of delivering services over substantial distances by electronic means (i.e., telepsychology) 2. Identifying Our Clients and the Role of the Invisible Psychologist 3. Witnessing the Demise of Psychiatry Telepsychology What we traditionally agreed to as we formed alliances and contracts with clients in the past will require rethinking, as will our traditional professional standards. When we agree to work with clients via telemetry, the nature and terms of how we relate change significantly from those in traditional vis-a`-vis relationships. Some important questions: Will we agree to conduct all assessment, consultation, or therapy relationships entirely via telemetry? Will we offer only a limited range of electronically mediated services? Will we offer real-time electronic access 24/7/365? What contracts or agreements for providing services will we make with our clients? What competencies will we need in order to offer services remotely? What new factors will constrain confidentiality protections? Will our fees and reimbursement policies differ from those for office-based services? Ethical Responsibilities Ethical responsibilities both to individuals and to society at large. Individual client and confidentiality limits Should psychologist report cases of abuse to the authorities? Couples, Families, and Groups of Clients Some parties may experience feelings of harm resulting from participation in multiple-client psychological interventions. Eg. Two employees seek help of a psychologist to mediate a conflict. Request for a psychologist’s services originated with a third party. The rule: helping and not harming the client. But who is the „client”? Eg. A psychologist is asked to evaluate the suitability for employment Eg. A coach is asked to work with two competing employees. „Invisible Third Parties” Psychologists may help advise as experts behind the scenes (eg. recruitment and selection process, court). The person under study may never know that he/she has been studied, profiled or subjected to behavioral analysis The person may experience harm as the result of the psychologist’s work. Witnessing the Demise of Psychiatry Will psychiatry disappear as a medical specialty? Value of psychology: scientific foundations in assessment, psychotherapy, and other nonmedical interventions. Prescribing psychologists? -​ The demand of the marketplace - more lucrative to prescribe than to talk? -​ Commercial pharmaceutical sponsorship. -​ Selfmedication hazards. Mini Case-study We often have limited info when having to make decisions.  L3. Determinants of People’s Behavior in the Organization (1) There are THREE different levels of determinants: individual, group, organizational structure & culture I.​ INDIVIDUAL LEVEL Main aspects analyzed on the individual level of the OB INDIVIDUAL LEVEL [but always with the goal of maximizing company performance] Robbins & Judge (2022) -​ Personality: what is the predictive validity of future performance MARS Model of Individual Behavior and Performance 🡺​ All four factors are critical influences on an individual’s voluntary behavior and performance. Perception People’s behaviors are based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself. Perception is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. Perception and Selectivity Selective perception Any characteristic that makes a person, object, or event stand out will increase the probability that it will be perceived. Since we can’t observe everything going on around us, we engage in selective perception. Perceptual Expectation Halo effect: occurs when we draw a general impression on the basis of a​ single characteristic. Aureola vs Horn effect. People in wop should be aware of this bias​ Contrast effect: ​ - We do not evaluate a person in isolation. Our reaction to one person is influenced by other persons we have recently encountered. For example, an interview situation in which one sees a pool of job applicants can distort perception. strategies to limit it (eg discuss impressions with colleagues, take breaks) Self-fulfilling Prophecy: A prediction that becomes true because someone expects it to happen. People respond to the way we treat them. What will happen if we believe the employees are lazy and careless? What will happen if we believe the employees are motivated and competent? Theory X and Theory Y (McGregor): about the expectations supervisors have about the staff. -​ Theory X assumptions are basically negative. Employees inherently dislike work and must be coerced into performing.: they come only bc they have to. Motivated by threats SFP: they will perform poorly  -​ Theory Y assumptions are basically positive. Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play. McG believed Y assumptions were more valid, altho there is no evidence for either way Personality Defining Personality (Robins and Judge, 2022) The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others. Personality is a dynamic concept describing the growth and development of a person’s whole psychological system. Early research tried to identify and label enduring personality characteristics (e.g. shy, aggressive, submissive, lazy, ambitious, loyal, and timid). These are personality traits. Early efforts to identify the primary traits that govern behavior often resulted in long lists that were difficult to generalize from and provided little practical guidance to organizational decision makers. P-E fit. Predisposition for certain jobs vs others. Important for the decision-making. Starts from the recruitment process. How is personality usually measured? -​ Self-report tests -​ Risk of lying, esp if you know the tests and the criteria for higher scores. Managers need to know how to measure personality. Personality tests are useful in hiring decisions and help managers forecast who is best for a job. The most common means of measuring personality is through self- report surveys. Big Five Personality Model Most widely used model in jobs: Big Five (explains 80% of human behavior variance in the context of organizations). 1.​ Extraversion: Extraversion is a comfort level with relationships. Extroverts tend to be gregarious, assertive, and sociable. Introverts tend to be reserved, timid, and quiet. -​ Good leaders. But Introverts have better listening skills -​ Sales  ​ Introversion -​ Research -​ IT​ 2.​ Agreeableness Agreeableness is Individual’s propensity to defer to others. People who are high on agreeableness are cooperative, warm, and trusting. Low agreeableness is indicated by people who are cold, disagreeable, and antagonistic. -​ High: team work -​ Low: executive roles, lawyers 3.​ Consciousness Conscientiousness is a measure of reliability. A highly conscientious person is responsible, organized, dependable, and persistent. Those who score low on this dimension are easily distracted, disorganized, and unreliable. -​ Very important to be high in all job settings (importance of being reliable) 4.​ Emotional stability Emotional stability describes a person’s ability to withstand stress. People with positive emotional stability tend to be calm, self-confident, and secure. Those with high negative scores tend to be nervous, anxious, depressed, and insecure. -​ High: pilots, doctors, many jobs nowadays -​ Low: artists 5.​ Opennes to experience Openness to experience suggests the range of interests and fascination with novelty. Extremely open people are creative, curious, and artistically sensitive. Those at the other end of the openness category are conventional and find comfort in the familiar. -​ High: arts, marketing, any creativity involved -​ Low: judges, policemen Which is the best predictor of job performance? Conscientiousness​ How The Big Five Traits Predict Behavior At Work * in jobs requiring significant teamwork or frequent interpersonal interactions Other personality traits relevant to the workplace:​ The Dark Triad – Negative personality traits 1.​ Machiavellanism – the degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and believes that ends can justify means. 2.​ Psychopathy – the tendency for a lack of concern for others and a lack of guilt or remorse when their actions cause harm. 3.​ Narcissism – the tendency to be arrogant, have a grandiose sense of self-importance, require excessive admiration, and have a sense of entitlement. 4.​ (Sadism) Theory of many leaders being high-functioning psychopaths  L4. Determinants of People’s Behavior in the Organization (2) II.​ GROUP LEVEL 3 levels: individual (personality vs perception), group (right now), organization Groups and Teams GROUP vs. TEAM – differences (in WOP) Group: individual efforts, individual responsibility Team: synergy, shared responsibility Work group – a group that interacts primarily to share information and to make decisions to help each group member perform within his or her area of responsibility. Work team – a group whose individual efforts result in the performance that is greater that the sum of the individual inputs. Types of Groups Groups can be either formal or informal. Formal groups – those defined by the organization’s structure. Informal groups – alliances that are neither formally structured nor organizationally determined. Eg a group of friends​ 🡺​ Information flows faster and better through informal groups (esp Gossip). Aka Grapewine communication Five Stages of Group Development Prestage: there is no group, no aim Forming stage: It is characterized by a great deal of uncertainty about the group’s purpose, structure, and leadership. Members try to determine what types of behaviors are acceptable. 🡺​ People start to get to know wach other and their goal Storming stage. This is a period of intragroup conflict. Members accept the existence of the group, but there is resistance to constraints on individuality. Conflict arises over who will control the group. 🡺​ Where we may expect some conflict. A leader emerges Norming stage. It is one in which close relationships develop and the group demonstrates cohesiveness. There is now a strong sense of group identity. 🡺​ At the end, people have a clear understanding of the roles Performing stage. The structure at this point is fully functional and accepted. Group energy has moved from getting to know and understanding each other to performing. Adjourning stage. For temporary committees, teams, task forces, and similar groups that have a limited task to perform. In this stage, the group prepares for its disbandment. Attention is directed toward wrapping up activities. Responses of group members vary in this stage.​ Group Effectiveness Groups proceed through the stages of group development at different rates. -​ Those with a strong sense of purpose and strategy rapidly achieve high performance and improve over time. -​ Similarly, groups that begin with a positive social focus appear to achieve the “performing” stage more rapidly. Groups don’t always proceed clearly from one stage to the next, especially temporary groups with deadlines. ⇨​ a new model was proposed: The Punctuated-Equilibrium Model Transition point happens exactly in the midpoint of the time available. Temporary groups with deadlines often don’t seem to follow the Five-stage model. Their first meeting sets the group’s direction. A transition takes place at the end of this phase, which occurs exactly when the group has used up half of its allotted time. A transition initiates major changes. A second phase of inertia follows the transition. The group’s last meeting is characterized by markedly accelerated activity. Group Size and Performance The whole is greater than the sum of its part. – Aristotle 🡺​ Synergy = An effect arising between two or more agents, entities, factors, or substances that produces an effect greater than the sum of their individual effects. but... Does it work in case of groups? Group size affects the group’s overall behavior. Large groups are good for gaining diverse input. Smaller groups are better doing something with input. Group size has to be appropriate to the type of work to do. If not, then groups do less than the sum of their parts. Literature: 3-5 members perform best. Too small team: people feel overwhelmed Too big: some people feel uninvolved Social loafing: the tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than alone. Strengths and Weaknesses of Group Decision Making Strengths: -​ More complete information and knowledge -​ Increased diversity of views -​ Increased acceptance of solutions Weaknesses: -​ More time consuming -​ Conformity pressures (eg in political settings -​ Dominance of a few members -​ Ambiguous/Diffuse responsibility Effectiveness and efficiency of group decisions: Depends how we define effectiveness… -​ Speed individuals -​ Creativity groups -​ Accpetance (of the solution) groups -​ Accuracy depends So since there are so many weaknesses, why do organizations rely on teams so much? -​ Teams offer a better way to offer empoloyee talent -​ Are more flexible and responsive to changing events -​ Can be quickly assembled, deployed, refocused, and disbanded -​ Facilitate participation in operating decisions Popularity of Teams in Organizations To better compete, organizations are using teams. Teams: Offer a better way to use employee talents Are more flexible and responsive to changing events Can quickly assemble, deploy, refocus, and disband Facilitate participation in operating decisions Five Types of Teams 1.​ Problem-solving teams. In the past, teams were typically composed of 5–12​ hourly employees from the same department who met for a few hours each week to discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency, and the work environment. These problem-solving teams rarely had the authority to implement their suggested actions. -​ Task: to identify a problem and propose the solution, but rarely to implement it 2.​ Self-managed teams are groups of employees who perform highly related or interdependent jobs and take on many of the responsibilities of supervisors. -​ Assembled to solve some problem, able to do so without leadership, at least after the beginning -​ Was very popular at a certain point, but it has many weaknesses​ 3.​ Cross-functional teams are made up of employees from about the same hierarchical level but different work areas, who come together to accomplish a task. -​ People representing different units -​ Usually assembled to solve more complex problems​ 4.​ Virtual teams use computer technology to tie together physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal. -​ Esp after covid, more and more organizations rely on it -​ Rely heavily on technology 5.​ Multiteam system are collections of two or more interdependent teams that share a superordinate goal – they are a team of teams. -​ New, emerging type -​ A team of teams (2+)  L5. Determinants of People’s Behavior in the Organization (3) III.​ ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE LEVEL Organizational structure - the arrangement of positions in an organization and the authority and responsibility relationships among them. Strong ties between the concept of power and the structure of organizations. Traditional organizations have formally defined roles for their members, are very rule driven, and are stable and resistant to change. “mechanistic” or “bureaucratic” structures. Nontraditional organizations are characterized by less-formalized work roles and procedures. As a result, they tend to be rather flexible and adaptable, without the rigid status hierarchy characteristic of more traditional structures. “organic” structures. Traditional vs Organic (nontraditional) structures. 1.​ Have clear hierarchies. Often called mechanistic (company as a machine) and bureucratic (esp in big organizatinos). Often resistant to change (stable but inflexible) 2.​ Nontraditional are the product of current times. Less formalized roles and procedures. Much more flexibility and adaptability Traditional organizations Characterized by an authority hierarchy that is represented in the organizational chart (organigram). Chain of command - the number of authority levels in an organization. Span of control - the number of workers who report to a single supervisor. ⇨​ “tall” vs “flat” in structure wider span of control = flattter Benefits of taller structures: -​ More task specialization -​ Easier to coordinate -​ More efficient goods production Benefits of flatter structures: -​ Closer to the boss Drawbacks: -​ Harder to coordinate -​ Often difficult to implement -​ Harder to manage by the managers (supervise larger groups of employees) Traditional Organizational Structures = Bureaucracies characterized by standardization -​ Highly routine operating tasks. -​ Very formalized rules and regulations. -​ Tasks grouped into functional departments. -​ Centralized authority: We clearly know who is in charge -​ Do very well when having to offer similar goods to a lot of people -​ Narrow spans of control => pyramid shape -​ Decision making follows the chain of command (time-consuming)  Eg. Manufacturing organizations Nontraditional Organizational Structures Workers have broadly defined jobs Collaboration among workers Much less emphasis on organizational status than in case of traditional structures Tendency toward group decision making Eg. When people from different depts (having diff functions) are members of the same​ team The Matrix Organization Midway between the previous two Employees report to two different supervisors Can be very confusing The matrix structure combines two forms of departmentalization—functional and product: The strength of functional is putting specialists together. Product departmentalization facilitates coordination. -​ It provides clear responsibility for all activities related to a product, but with duplication of activities and costs. The most obvious structural characteristic of the matrix is that it breaks the unity of command concept. They tend to be best suited for projects and products that require creativity and innovation Advantages: -​ Clear responsibilities -​ Fosters creativity and innovation (brings people from different areas of expertise) Organigram vs Sociagram Sociogram = how info flows informally Power Distance in the Workplace From Hoefstede’s values in cultural differences Small vs Large African countries, Latin americans: very large Samll: northern and western europe ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE Organizational culture refers to a system of shared meaning held by members that distinguishes the organization from other organizations. Culture as a Descriptive Term Organizational culture is concerned with employees’ perceptions of the characteristics of the culture, not whether they like them. -​ Does it encourage teamwork? -​ Does it reward innovation? -​ Does it stifle initiative? It differs from job satisfaction : -​ Job satisfaction is evaluative. -​ Organizational culture is descriptive. Schlein’s Model of Organizational Culture Artifacts. E.g. the organigram, the documents issued Beliefs, values and attitudes -​ What are the three values of swps? Opennes, Courage, Responsibility Basic assumptions about work, colleagues (basically reflected by Hoefstede’s values9 Do Organizations Have Uniform Cultures? Most organizations have a dominant culture and numerous sets of subcultures. The dominant culture expresses the core values a majority of members share and that give the organization distinct personality. Subcultures tend to develop in large organizations to reflect common problems, situations, or experiences that members face. Strong versus Weak Cultures Strong culture – core values are intensely held and widely shared. Competing Values Culture Model (Cameron & Quinn) One of the most commonly used models to describe org culture:​ ​ Most org cults vary on 2 dimensions (integration/market vs flexibility/stabilitycontrol) ​ Four competing (but complementary) traits (value sets):​ clan, hierarchy, adhocracy and market culture. ​ A company may have a dominant value set, but the other value sets are also present to a lesser degree. ​ Well-researched and validated model (over 10.000 companies used it). ​ Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument (OCAI). 1.​ Control/Hierarchical culture​ [high stability/control and high internal focus/integration] -​ This is a formalized and structured workplace. -​ Procedures direct what people do. -​ Most often traditional -​ Leaders are proud of efficiency-based coordination and organization -​ Keeping the organization functioning smoothly is most crucial. -​ No room for mistake -​ Formal rules and policies keep the org together​ Manuals (rules and regulations) are very common -​ The long-term goals are stability and results, paired with efficient and smooth execution of tasks. -​ Reliable delivery, continuous planning, and low cost define success. 🡺​ Typical in sectors like: medicine, nuclear power, military, government, banking and insurance, transportation. 2.​ Compete/Market Culture​ [High stability/control and high external focus/differentiation] -​ This is a results-based workplace that emphasizes targets, deadlines and getting things done. -​ People are competitive and focused on goals. -​ They have to compete with similar organizations that offer similar groups -​ Leaders are expected to be hard drivers, producers, and rivals (tough with high expectations). -​ Goal: winning​ The emphasis on winning keeps the organization together. -​ Importance of reputation and success (see financial indicators eg share of market) Market dominance, achieving your goals, and great metrics are the definitions of success.  🡺​ Typical of sectors like accountancy, sales and marketing, services, manufacturing -​ Red and Blue ocean market – two situations. Red = many customers and many competitors. Blue ocean market = few customers, weak competition. Compete market culture regards the RED OCEAN 3.​ Collaborative/Clan Culture​ [high internal focus/integration and high flexibility/freedom to act] -​ Typical of family companies -​ This working environment is friendly. -​ People have a lot in common, and it feels like a large family. -​ The leaders are seen as mentors or maybe even father figures. -​ The organization is held together by loyalty and tradition. -​ They emphasize long-term Human Resource Development. Invest a lot in employees development (perceived as important resources even if they are not very productive) Most preferred by employees -​ Success is defined within the framework of addressing the needs of the clients and caring for the people. -​ The organization promotes teamwork, participation, and consensus. 🡺​ Typical in sectors like: health care, education, some government agencies, not-for-profits. -​ Example of IKEA 4.​ Create/Adhocracy Culture​ [High flexibilite/freedom to act and high External focus/Differentiation] -​ Ad hoc creation of solutions -​ This is a dynamic and creative working environment. -​ Employees take risks. -​ Experiments and innovation are a way of bonding. -​ Charismatic leaders often, well known, very visible​ Leaders are seen as innovators and risk takers. -​ The availability of new products or services is seen as a success. -​ The organization promotes individual initiative and freedom. -​ Team flexibility​ 🡺​ Typical in sectors like: o​ Tech startups o​ Technology-driven industries (communications, sustainability) o​ Disruptive services (Uber, Airbnb) o​ Example of NASA ​ Lecture 6. ​ The role of a psychologist in organizational processes Four Areas: I.​ Human Resources Management II.​ Marketing Psychology III.​ Consumer Behavior IV.​ Economic Psychology I.​ HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT (HR) Evolution of language. Now HR is called “people and culture” Performance management is one of the key areas of responsibility setting goals and standards for employees to meet Talent Inventory Workforce forecasting aka strategic workforce planning what will be needed in the future Strategic HR really looks into the future. IT has to be very responsive to the context: political, legal 3 pillars that take us into the future 1.​ Creating a high performance environment -​ As psychologists we know a lot about how to design meaningful work 2.​ Managing talent (attracting, assessment, hiring, developing, retaining) Lecture 7. ​ The role of a psychologist in organizational processes HRM – Your questions Methods used in recruitment How to face (approach?) recruitment and selection process (as candidate?) Red Flags for HR Manager (related to employees? Or organisation?) What are the career options for psychologists in HR Explore the CIPD website -​ Talent Assessment and Management: -​ Employee Research and Engagement: eg employee satisfaction survey -​ Learning and Development -​ Organisational Change and Development -​ Wellbeing and Mental Health: intersection with clinical psych. How clinical psychologists can work in HR (developing such programs) How clinical psychology can be applied at work/in developing tools in HR How to balance organisation’s demands and individual needs? THM: It is also very important that you as an employee feel in control of the selection proces Tools used for customer segmentation: 1.​ Customer/User Personas a persona is a semifictional representation of a target customer really help with communication Checklist of characteristics: What’s taken into account when creating personas 1. Demographics: Age, gender, income, education, occupation, and location. 2. Psychographics: Personality traits, values, interests, and lifestyle. 3. Behavioural Insights: Buying habits, technology use, preferred communication channels. 4. Goals and Motivations: What the customer aims to achieve with the product or service. 5. Pain Points and Challenges: Barriers or frustrations that hinder their satisfaction. 6. Quotes or Anecdotes: Snippets that capture the essence of the persona's mindset. 2.​ Lecture 8. ​ The role of a psychologist in organizational processes 3 KEY ELEMENTS OF MOTIVATION Intensity Direction Persistence of effort THEORIES OF MOTIVATION Content models more about needs Process models about how we make choices; more complex MCGREGOR’S THEORY X AND THEORY Y Basic assumptions of managers FIVE CORE DIMENSIONS OF ANY JOB (JOB CHARACTERISTICS MODEL) Single predictive index: Motivating Potential Score (MPS) Employee Involvement is supposed to increase autonomy.​ How to do it? -​ Particiaptive management (i.e., joint decision making) -​ ??? -​ Representative participation “Lived experience” External Reward can also be avoiding punishment Performance Ratings Example I am being supported = lowest rating I am exceeding  Lecture 9. ​ The role of a psychologist in organizational behaviors management (Part 1) EMOTIONS AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE Emotions and Management In the past, emotions were ignored in OB - Myth of rationality - Managers worked to make emotion-free environments. Emotions were believed to be disruptive. -​ Emotions interfered with productivity. Now we know that emotions can’t be separated from the workplace. Differentiate Between Emotions and Moods Emotions and Decision Making ​ There is a belief among some people that emotions are linked to irrationality and that expressing emotions in public may be damaging to career or status. However, research has shown that emotions are necessary for rational thinking. Do emotions make us ethical? Research on moral emotions questions the previous belief that emotional decision making is based on higher-level cognitive processes. Our beliefs are shaped by our groups, resulting in an unconscious feeling that our shared emotions are “right.” People who are behaving ethically are at least partially making decisions based on their emotions and feelings, and this emotional reaction will often be a good thing. Sources of Emotions and Moods Sleep Poor sleep quality increases negative affect. Exercise Does somewhat improve mood, especially for depressed people. Age Older people experience fewer negative emotions. Gender Women tend to be more emotionally expressive, feel emotions more intensely, have longer-lasting moods, and express emotions more frequently than do men. Impact of Emotional Labor on Employees Emotional labor – an employee’s expression of organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions at work. (Emotional labor was originally defined as managing one's emotions to serve one's job. But the term has broadened within society and now refers to managing emotions in any context, including within a relationship, family, or on social media.) Emotional dissonance - occurs when employees have to project one emotion while simultaneously feeling another. Can be very damaging and lead to burnout. Types of Emotions Felt: the individual’s actual emotions. Displayed: required or appropriate emotions. -​ Surface acting: hiding one’s inner feelings and foregoing emotional expressions in response to display rules. -​ Deep acting: trying to modify one’s true inner feelings based on display rules. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE Emotional Intelligence (EI or EQ) The ability to identify and manage one’s own emotions, as well as the emotions of others Psychology Today The ability to recognize your emotions, understand what they're telling you, and realize how your emotions affect people around you. It also involves your perception of others: when you understand how they feel, this allows you to manage relationships more effectively. Mind Tools Being smart about feelings. 5 elements that define EQ (Goleman, 1995) 1. Self-Awareness 2. Self-Regulation 3. Motivation 4. Empathy 5. Social Skills The importance of EQ over IQ​ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5XqXsLnDV-U The Evidence For and Against the Existence of Emotional Intelligence How Emotionally Intelligent Are You? Short test – not psychologically diagnostic Link to the test (Mind Tools) https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/ei-quiz.htm EI is controversial and not wholly accepted. The case for EI Intuitive appeal. Predicts criteria that matter. Is biologically-based. The case against EI Researchers do not agree on definitions – too vague as a concept. Can’t be measured. Is nothing but personality with a different label.  Lecture 10. ​ The role of a psychologist in organizational behaviors management (Part 2) STRESS AND STRESS MANAGEMENT Stress Stress – an unpleasant psychological process that occurs in response environmental pressures. Stress is a dynamic condition in which an individual is confronted with an opportunity, constraint, or demand related to what he or she desires and for which the outcome is perceived to be both uncertain and important. Work for most people is the most important source of stress in life (Stress management poll, 2009). Stress is not necessarily bad in and of itself. Challenge stressors—stressors associated with workload, pressure to complete tasks, and time urgency Hindrance stressors—stressors that keep you from reaching your goals (for example, red tape, office politics, confusion over job responsibilities, etc.). Cultural Differences Research suggests the job conditions that cause stress show some differences across cultures. -​ For example, U.S. employees are stressed by a lack of control, whereas Chinese employees are stressed by job evaluations and lack of training. Research also shows that stress is equally bad for employees of all cultures. Consequences of Stress Physiological changes - e.g. respiratory, blood, digestive, immune, nervous systems activation. Changes in behavior: e.g. agitation, hyperactivity, aggression, reductions in productivity, absence, turnover. Changes in emotions: fear, anxiety, anger. Cognitive changes: attention, memory, information processing Managing Stress Because low to moderate levels of stress can be functional and lead to higher performance, management may not be concerned when employees experience stress at these levels. What management may consider to be “a positive stimulus that keeps the adrenaline running” is very likely to be seen as “excessive pressure” by the employee. Individual Approaches An employee can take personal responsibility for reducing stress levels. Individual strategies include: Time-management techniques. Increased physical exercise. Relaxation training. Expanded social support networks. Organizational Approaches Several organizational factors that cause stress are controlled by management. -​ Task and role demands can be modified or changed. Strategies include: -​ Better employee selection and job placement. -​ Training. -​ Realistic goal-setting. -​ Redesign of jobs. -​ Improved organizational communication. -​ Employee sabbaticals. -​ Corporate wellness programs. Mini-case study – Royal Mail Watch the video and make notes of the following: Who is the audience of the video? What are the key messages the video is trying to get across? What steps did Royal Mail take as an employer? What is the objective of the video and how effective is it in meeting it? Which of the 5 ways to wellbeing are exemplified in this case study? PATHOLOGICAL ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIORS Roles Role – a set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit. Role perception – one’s perception of how to act in a given situation. Role expectations – how others believe one should act in a given situation. -​ Psychological contract: an agreement, unwritten but understood, that outlines the expectations, beliefs, ambitions, and obligations that characterize the relationship between employer and employee. Role conflict – situation in which an individual faces divergent role expectations. Norms Norms – acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the group’s members. Performance norms – how hard one should work, how to get the job done, what is the acceptable level of tardiness etc. Appearance norms – dress code, unspoken rules when to look busy, etc. Social arrangement norms – with whom to eat lunch, forming friends, etc. Resource allocation norms – assignment of difficult jobs, distribution of resources (equipment, payment), etc. The Hawthorne Studies – physical environment and productivity Conformity – the adjustment of one ‘s behavior to align with the norms of the group. Deviant workplace behavior – also known as antisocial behavior or workplace incivility – refers to voluntary behavior that violates significant organizational norms and, in doing so, threatens the well-being of the organization or its members Counter-productive Work Behavior ​ = any intentional employee behaviour viewed by the organization as being harmful to its legitimate interests. Social Status Status – a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others. Status characteristics theory – differences in status characteristics create status hierarchies within groups. 🡺​ Status is derived from one of three sources: The power a person wields over others (control of the group resources and outcomes). A person’s ability to contribute to a group’s goals. An individual’s personal characteristics (intelligence, good looks, money, friendly personality) 🡺​ Status and Norms High status individuals often have more  freedom to deviate from norms. 4 Functions of Management Controlling What are the interventions which we contribute to as psychologists to elicit desired positive behaviours at work? Example 1: Example 2: Greater London Authority Competency Framework Competencies are defined as behaviours of the individual that are essential for effective performance in a role and that can be measured and observed Competencies are concerned with HOW someone goes about their job Behavioural competencies are more transferable than technical skills and are often shared across different roles, e.g communicating, planning, problem-solving. All staff have between 6-8 competencies in job descriptions which help identify what behaviours are required for effective performance in role Working with others -​ Building and managing relationships -​ Stakeholder focus -​ Communicating and influencing Leadership -​ Strategic thinking -​ Managing and developing performance -​ Decision making Delivering results -​ Planning. And organizsing -​ Problem solving -​ Research and analysis Organisational context -​ Responsible use of resources -​ Organisational awareness -​ Responding to pressure and change Example of Competency Performance Management Performance management framework aligns organisational, team and individual goals 6-12 month performance goals are set (what the person should be achieving) A two-way feedback process operating as a continuous cycle from 1 April to 31 March Learning and development needs identified Human Resources Policies HR Policies are sets of rules and procedures which employees and managers must abide by. If they are in breach, they may face disciplinary action or even dismissal. Examples include: Terms and conditions of employment Dignity at Work Policy Grievance Policy Harassment Policy  Lecture 11. ​ Cultural Competence & Intercultural Intelligence These topics are also included in the bachelor’s exam pool of questions Part of Cross-cultural Psychology. Triandis was the father of CCP Objective vs subjective culture Intercultural competence as made of: 1.​ Emotional intelligence (Goleman) 2.​ Interpersonal intelligence (Gardner) 3.​ Contextual intelligence (Sternberg) Knowledge is important but is not enough. You should also know how to adapt your behavior to the situation. Observation is also important Ethnocentricity vs Ethnorelativity. Bennett & Bennett’s model. Stages based on Erikson ones. Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity. -​ After minimization the switch takes place. Most important moment to become ethnorelative ETIC (macrophsychology) vs EMIC (more strictly ccp) perspectives in ccp Hofstede’s model falls into the Etic category. Emic perspective is about Indigenous psychology = regional/ethnic Macropsychology is about comparing some aspects between culture A and B and C. INTERCULTURAL INTELLIGENCE Similar concept to Interpersonal Intelligence CQ – cultural quotient There will be exam questions based on the 4 factors (slide with blue oblique titles):​ 1.​ Cognition 2.​ Metacognition  3.​ Motivation 4.​ Behavior For next week: Read “Leading across cultures” on the classroom