Introduction to Psychology PDF

Introduction to Psychology Chapter 3 - Brain and Behaviour Module 3.1: Neurons and Behavior 1. Neurons and the Nervous System ​ Neurons: ○​ Cells of the nervous system that receive and transmit information through electrochemical impulses. ○​ Three main parts:...

Introduction to Psychology Chapter 3 - Brain and Behaviour Module 3.1: Neurons and Behavior 1. Neurons and the Nervous System ​ Neurons: ○​ Cells of the nervous system that receive and transmit information through electrochemical impulses. ○​ Three main parts: 1.​ Cell Body: Contains the nucleus and controls the cell’s activities. 2.​ Dendrites: Branch-like structures that receive input from other neurons. 3.​ Axon: A long, thin fiber that transmits information to other neurons, muscles, or glands. ​ Glia (Glial Cells): ○​ Support neurons by insulating them, synchronizing activity, and removing waste products. ○​ Often referred to as the "glue" of the nervous system. 2. Action Potential ​ Action Potential: 1.​ An electrical impulse that travels along the axon at a constant strength. 2.​ All-or-None Law: The action potential either occurs fully or not at all; it does not vary in strength or speed. ​ Process of Action Potential: 1.​ Sodium gates open, allowing sodium ions (Na+) to enter the axon, creating a positive charge.  2.​ After the action potential passes, sodium gates close, and potassium gates open, allowing potassium ions (K+) to exit the axon, restoring the negative charge. 3.​ This process repeats along the axon, propagating the signal. 3. Synapses and Neurotransmitters ​ Synapse: ○​ The junction between two neurons where communication occurs. ○​ Terminal Bouton (Presynaptic Ending): The end of the axon that releases neurotransmitters. ○​ Postsynaptic Neuron: The neuron receiving the signal. ​ Neurotransmitters: ○​ Chemicals released by the presynaptic neuron that activate receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. ○​ Examples: ​ Quick & Sudden: Hearing, vision. ​ Slower, Longer Lasting: Taste, smell. ​ Very Slow: Hunger, thirst, sex drive. ○​ Important Neurotransmitters: ​ Dopamine, Serotonin, Acetylcholine, GABA, Glutamate, etc. Module 3.2: Drugs and Their Effects 1. How Drugs Affect Behavior ​ Drugs alter behavior by influencing synaptic communication. ​ They can: ○​ Increase or decrease neurotransmitter release. ○​ Block or mimic neurotransmitter action. ○​ Alter receptor sensitivity. 2. Classes of Drugs ​ Stimulants: Increase alertness and energy (e.g., cocaine, amphetamines). ​ Hallucinogens: Alter perception and mood (e.g., LSD, psilocybin). ​ Anxiolytics: Reduce anxiety (e.g., benzodiazepines). ​ Opiates: Relieve pain and induce euphoria (e.g., heroin, morphine). 3. Mechanisms of Commonly Abused Drugs ​ Cocaine: Blocks dopamine reuptake, increasing dopamine levels. ​ Alcohol: Enhances GABA activity, reducing neural activity. ​ Nicotine: Mimics acetylcholine, stimulating reward pathways. Module 3.3: Brain and Behavior 1. Monism ​ Monism: The view that mental activity is inseparable from physical brain activity. ​ Consciousness is a product of brain processes. 2. Brain Structure and Function ​ Cerebral Cortex: ○​ Outer layer of the forebrain. ○​ Divided into four lobes: 1.​ Occipital Lobe: Vision. 2.​ Temporal Lobe: Hearing, memory, and emotion. 3.​ Parietal Lobe: Spatial attention and sensory integration. 4.​ Frontal Lobe: Motor control, decision-making, and impulse control. ​ Hemispheres: ○​ Left Hemisphere: Specialized for language (in most people). ○​ Right Hemisphere: Important for spatial relationships and emotional interpretation. ○​ Connected by the Corpus Callosum, which allows communication between hemispheres. 3. Measuring Brain Activity ​ Electroencephalograph (EEG): Measures electrical activity on the scalp. ​ Magnetoencephalograph (MEG): Records magnetic changes in the brain. ​ Positron-Emission Tomography (PET): Tracks radioactivity from injected chemicals. ​ Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI): Measures oxygen levels in blood to detect brain activity. 4. Subcortical Areas ​ Hypothalamus: Regulates hunger, thirst, temperature, and sexual behavior. ​ Pons: Controls head muscles and sensations. ​ Medulla: Controls vital functions like breathing and heart rate. ​ Cerebellum: Coordinates movement and balance. 5. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) ​ Controls involuntary bodily functions. ​ Sympathetic Nervous System: Activates "fight or flight" responses. ​ Parasympathetic Nervous System: Promotes "rest and digest" activities. 6. Brain Plasticity ​ Neuroplasticity: The brain’s ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections. ​ Prolonged experiences (e.g., musicians practicing) can lead to significant brain changes. ​ Allows recovery from brain injury and adaptation to new experiences. 7. Social Neuroscience ​ Studies the biological bases of social behavior. ​ Oxytocin: Hormone involved in social bonding, released during nursing and sexual activity. 8. The Binding Problem ​ The question of how separate brain areas combine to produce a unified perception of a single object. Module 3.4: Genetics and Evolutionary Psychology 1. Genetic Principles ​ Chromosomes: Strands of hereditary material. ​ Genes: Control chemical reactions that direct development. ​ Dominant vs. Recessive Genes: ○​ Dominant: Expressed even with one copy. ○​ Recessive: Expressed only if the dominant gene is absent. 2. Sex-Linked and Sex-Limited Genes ​ Sex-Linked Genes: Located on the X or Y chromosome. ○​ Example: Color blindness (more common in males). ​ Sex-Limited Genes: Affect one sex more than the other (e.g., genes for breast development). 3. Epigenetics ​ Study of how environmental factors influence gene expression without altering the DNA sequence. ​ Example: Stress or diet can affect gene expression. 4. Heritability ​ Heritability: The proportion of variation in a trait due to genetics. ​ Estimated by: ○​ Comparing monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal) twins. ○​ Studying adopted children and their biological parents. ○​ Identifying associations between genes and behaviors. 5. How Genes Influence Behavior ​ Direct Effects: Genes alter brain chemistry. ​ Indirect Effects: Genes influence other organs, which in turn affect behavior. ​ Multiplier Effect: Small genetic advantages can lead to experiences that amplify the advantage. 6. Evolutionary Psychology ​ Explains human behavior as a result of evolutionary adaptations.  ​ Example: Fear of snakes may be an evolutionary carryover from ancestors who needed to avoid predators. ​ Key Assumption: Behaviors that were advantageous for survival and reproduction were passed down. Chapter 4 - Sensation and Perception Module 4.1: Vision 1.​ Sensation vs. Perception: ○​ Sensation: Conversion of environmental energy into neural signals. ○​ Perception: Interpretation of sensory information. 2.​ Vision: ○​ Light strikes the retina, triggering photoreceptors (rods and cones). ○​ Rods: Detect faint light (night vision). ○​ Cones: Detect color and detail (daylight vision). ○​ Blind Spot: Area where the optic nerve exits the eye, lacking photoreceptors. 3.​ Color Vision: ○​ Trichromatic Theory: Three types of cones (red, green, blue) detect different wavelengths. ○​ Opponent-Process Theory: Color perception involves opposing pairs (red-green, blue-yellow). ○​ Retinex Theory: The brain compares light patterns from different parts of the retina to create color constancy. 4.​ Dark Adaptation: ○​ The process of adjusting to low light levels, primarily involving rods. Module 4.2: The Nonvisual Senses 1.​ Hearing: ○​ Sound waves vibrate the eardrum, which moves tiny bones in the cochlea, stimulating hair cells. ○​ Pitch Perception:  i.​ Frequency Principle: Hair cells vibrate in synchrony with sound waves. ii.​ Place Principle: Different frequencies activate hair cells at different locations in the cochlea. ○​ Localization: Detecting sound direction by differences in time and loudness between ears. 2.​ Vestibular Sense: ○​ Detects head tilt, acceleration, and orientation relative to gravity. ○​ Function: Important for balance and motion sickness. 3.​ Touch (Cutaneous Senses): ○​ Includes warmth, pain, itch, vibration, and tickle. ○​ Gate Theory of Pain: Pain signals can be blocked in the spinal cord. 4.​ Taste & Smell: ○​ Taste: Detects chemicals on the tongue (sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami). ○​ Smell: Detects airborne molecules, important for social behavior. Module 4.3: Interpreting Sensory Information 1.​ Sensory Thresholds: ○​ Absolute Threshold: Minimum stimulus intensity detected 50% of the time. ○​ Signal Detection Theory: Explains how we detect weak stimuli, considering hits, misses, false alarms, and correct rejections. 2.​ Subliminal Perception: ○​ Stimuli below the absolute threshold can influence behavior without conscious awareness. 3.​ Feature Detectors: ○​ Neurons in the visual cortex respond to specific features like lines and angles. 4.​ Gestalt Psychology: ○​ Emphasizes perception of overall patterns (e.g., proximity, similarity, closure). ○​ Principles: Proximity, similarity, continuation, closure, and good figure. 5.​ Depth Perception: ○​ Binocular Cues: Retinal disparity and convergence.  ○​ Monocular Cues: Depth cues that work with one eye (e.g., relative size, overlap). Chapter 6 - Learning Module 6.1: Classical Conditioning 1.​ Behaviorism: ○​ Behaviorists focus on observable behaviors, not internal states like intentions or expectations. ○​ Goal: They aim to explain behavior without using terms like "idea" or "understanding." 2.​ Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian Conditioning): ○​ Definition: Learning a new association between two stimuli—a neutral stimulus and one that already evokes a reflexive response. ○​ Key Terms: ​ Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Automatically elicits a response (e.g., food). ​ Unconditioned Response (UCR): The automatic response to the UCS (e.g., salivation). ​ Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Initially neutral, but after pairing with UCS, it elicits a response (e.g., bell). ​ Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the CS (e.g., salivation to the bell). 3.​ Extinction: ○​ Weakening of a conditioned response by presenting the CS without the UCS. ○​ Spontaneous Recovery: Temporary return of an extinguished response after a delay. 4.​ Stimulus Generalization & Discrimination: ○​ Generalization: Responding to similar stimuli as the CS. ○​ Discrimination: Responding differently to stimuli that predict different outcomes. 5.​ Drug Tolerance:  ○​ Drug tolerance can be explained by classical conditioning. The body develops defensive responses to drug administration, reducing its effect over time. 6.​ Pavlov’s Explanation: ○​ Pavlov believed conditioning occurred due to a temporal connection between stimuli. ○​ Later research showed that conditioning depends on the predictive relationship between stimuli, not just their timing. Module 6.2: Operant Conditioning 1.​ Operant Conditioning (Instrumental Conditioning): ○​ Definition: Changing behavior by providing a reinforcer after a response. ○​ Difference from Classical Conditioning: Operant conditioning involves voluntary behaviors (skeletal responses), while classical conditioning involves reflexive behaviors (visceral responses). 2.​ Reinforcement & Punishment: ○​ Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of a behavior. ​ Primary Reinforcers: Naturally reinforcing (e.g., food). ​ Secondary Reinforcers: Learned through association (e.g., money). ○​ Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behavior. ​ Effective Punishment: Quick and predictable. 3.​ Extinction in Operant Conditioning: ○​ Occurs when a behavior no longer produces reinforcement. 4.​ Shaping & Chaining: ○​ Shaping: Reinforcing successive approximations to a desired behavior. ○​ Chaining: Reinforcing a sequence of behaviors to form a complex behavior. 5.​ Schedules of Reinforcement: ○​ Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcing every correct response. ○​ Intermittent Reinforcement: Reinforcing some responses, not all. ​ Fixed-Ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses. ​ Variable-Ratio: Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses.  ​ Fixed-Interval: Reinforcement after a set time period. ​ Variable-Interval: Reinforcement after an unpredictable time period. 6.​ Applications: ○​ Applied Behavior Analysis: Using operant conditioning to modify behavior (e.g., reducing unwanted behaviors and reinforcing desired ones). Module 6.3: Variations of Learning 1.​ Preparedness: ○​ Evolution has prepared organisms to learn certain associations more easily than others (e.g., taste aversions). 2.​ Conditioned Taste Aversions: ○​ Animals (including humans) learn to avoid foods that make them ill, even after a single pairing. 3.​ Birdsong Learning: ○​ Birds learn songs during a sensitive period early in life, without immediate reinforcement. 4.​ Social Learning: ○​ Learning by observing others’ behaviors and their consequences. ○​ Vicarious Reinforcement/Punishment: Learning from others’ rewards or punishments. ○​ Self-Efficacy: Belief in one’s ability to perform a task, influencing imitation. Lecture 7: Personality 7.1 Personality Theories ​ Personality: Consistent patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion that differentiate individuals. ​ Sigmund Freud: ○​ Psychoanalysis: Method to bring unconscious thoughts to consciousness. ○​ Unconscious Mind: Contains repressed memories, emotions, and desires that influence behavior. ○​ Psychosexual Stages: ​ Oral Stage (0-1 year): Pleasure from sucking and biting. ​ Anal Stage (1-3 years): Pleasure from controlling bowel movements.  ​ Phallic Stage (3-6 years): Oedipus/Electra complex (sexual attraction to opposite-sex parent). ​ Latency Stage (6-puberty): Sexual desires repressed. ​ Genital Stage (puberty+): Mature sexual interests. ○​ Defense Mechanisms: ​ Repression: Pushing distressing thoughts into the unconscious. ​ Denial: Refusing to accept reality. ​ Rationalization: Justifying behaviors with logical reasons. ​ Displacement: Redirecting emotions to a less threatening target. ​ Regression: Reverting to childlike behavior. ​ Projection: Attributing one’s own undesirable traits to others. ​ Reaction Formation: Behaving opposite to one’s true feelings. ​ Sublimation: Channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable actions. ​ Neo-Freudians: ○​ Karen Horney: Emphasized cultural and social factors, especially in feminine psychology. ○​ Carl Jung: Introduced the collective unconscious (universal, inherited memories) and archetypes (universal symbols). ○​ Alfred Adler: Focused on striving for superiority and social interest (desire to contribute to society). ​ Learning Approach: ○​ Personality is shaped by conditioning (classical and operant) and observational learning. ○​ Behaviorism: Personality is a result of learned behaviors. ​ Humanistic Psychology: ○​ Carl Rogers: Unconditional Positive Regard (acceptance without judgment) and self-concept (how one perceives oneself). ○​ Abraham Maslow: Hierarchy of Needs (physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualization). ​ Self-Actualization: Achieving one’s full potential (e.g., creativity, spontaneity, problem-solving). 7.2 Personality Traits ​ Nomothetic Approach: Seeks universal traits (e.g., Big Five). ​ Idiographic Approach: Focuses on individual uniqueness. ​ Big Five Personality Traits: ○​ Openness to Experience: Imaginative, curious, creative. ○​ Conscientiousness: Organized, disciplined, reliable. ○​ Extraversion: Sociable, talkative, energetic.  ○​ Agreeableness: Compassionate, cooperative, trusting. ○​ Neuroticism: Anxious, moody, emotionally unstable. ​ Heredity and Environment: ○​ Twin Studies: Genetics account for ~40-60% of personality traits. ○​ Unshared Environment: Unique experiences shape personality more than shared family environment. ​ Cross-Cultural Differences: ○​ China: Emphasis on interpersonal relatedness (e.g., loyalty to family and tradition). ○​ Western Cultures: Emphasis on individualism and self-expression. 7.3 Personality Assessment ​ Barnum Effect: People accept vague personality descriptions as accurate (e.g., horoscopes). ​ Objective Tests: ○​ MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory): 567 true/false questions to assess mental health disorders. ​ Validity Scales: Detect lying or exaggeration. ○​ NEO PI-R: Measures the Big Five traits. ○​ Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI): Classifies people into 16 types based on preferences (e.g., extraversion vs. introversion). ​ Projective Tests: ○​ Rorschach Inkblots: Interpretations of ambiguous inkblots reveal unconscious thoughts. ○​ Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): Storytelling based on ambiguous pictures reveals motives and conflicts. ​ Implicit Personality Tests: ○​ Implicit Association Test (IAT): Measures unconscious biases (e.g., racial attitudes). ○​ Affective Priming: Measures automatic emotional reactions. Lecture 8: Consciousness 8.1 Conscious and Unconscious Processes ​ Consciousness: Awareness of external stimuli and internal thoughts. ​ Measuring Consciousness: ○​ Operational Definition: If a person reports awareness of a stimulus, they are conscious of it. ○​ Brain Imaging: EEG, fMRI, MEG measure brain activity.  ​ Controlling Consciousness: ○​ Masking: Presenting a stimulus with an interfering pattern to block awareness. ○​ Flash Suppression: Surrounding a stimulus with rapidly flashing items to suppress awareness. ○​ Binocular Rivalry: Alternating perception between left and right retinal images. ​ Unconscious Processing: ○​ The brain processes stimuli without conscious awareness (e.g., subliminal messages). ○​ Emotional reactions can occur without conscious perception. ​ Consciousness as Construction: ○​ Conscious experience is constructed slightly after the stimulus (e.g., delayed awareness of a decision). ​ Brain Activity and Consciousness: ○​ Vegetative State: Limited responsiveness (e.g., increased heart rate to pain). ○​ Minimally Conscious State: Brief periods of purposeful actions. ​ Consciousness and Action: ○​ Libet’s Experiments: Brain activity for movement begins ~300ms before the conscious decision to move. 8.2 Sleep and Dreams ​ Circadian Rhythms: 24-hour cycles regulating sleep, hunger, alertness, etc. ○​ Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN): Brain’s master clock, regulated by light. ○​ Melatonin: Hormone released by the pineal gland to induce sleep. ​ Sleep Functions: ○​ Energy Conservation: Reduces metabolic rate. ○​ Memory Consolidation: Strengthens learning and memory. ○​ Restoration: Repairs tissues and clears waste from the brain. ​ Stages of Sleep: ○​ NREM Sleep: Four stages with decreasing brain activity. ​ Stage 1: Light sleep, theta waves. ​ Stage 2: Sleep spindles and K-complexes. ​ Stage 3/4: Deep sleep, delta waves. ○​ REM Sleep: Rapid eye movements, high brain activity, muscle paralysis, and vivid dreams. ​ Sleep Disorders: ○​ Insomnia: Difficulty falling or staying asleep. ○​ Sleep Apnea: Breathing interruptions during sleep. ○​ Narcolepsy: Sudden attacks of sleepiness. ○​ REM Behavior Disorder: Acting out dreams due to lack of muscle paralysis. ​ Dream Theories:  ○​ Freud: Dreams represent unconscious desires (manifest vs. latent content). ○​ Activation-Synthesis Theory: Dreams result from random brain activity during REM sleep. ○​ Neurocognitive Theory: Dreams are a form of thinking during sleep. 8.3 Hypnosis ​ Hypnosis: A state of focused attention and increased suggestibility. ​ Uses of Hypnosis: ○​ Pain Inhibition: Reduces perception of pain. ○​ Posthypnotic Suggestions: Helps break habits (e.g., smoking). ​ Limitations: ○​ Does not improve memory accuracy. ○​ Does not give special strength or powers. ​ Altered State?: Hypnosis is not vastly different from normal wakefulness. Lecture 9: Motivation 9.1 Work Motivation ​ Motivation: Process that activates and directs behavior toward goals. ​ Theories of Motivation: ○​ Drive Theory: Motivation arises from biological needs (e.g., hunger, thirst). ○​ Incentive Theory: Motivation is driven by external rewards (e.g., money, praise). ○​ Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualization. ​ Goals and Deadlines: ○​ SMART Goals: Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time-bound. ○​ Deadlines: Increase motivation by creating urgency. ​ Job Satisfaction: ○​ Correlates with interest, performance, and fair pay. ○​ Job Burnout: Long-lasting exhaustion, common in helping professions (e.g., nurses, teachers). ​ Leadership: ○​ Transformational Leaders: Inspire and motivate with a vision. ○​ Transactional Leaders: Focus on efficiency and rewards. 9.2 Hunger Motivation ​ Short-Term Regulation: ○​ Stomach Distension: Signals fullness. ○​ Glucose: Primary energy source for the brain. ○​ Insulin: Regulates glucose levels.  ​ Long-Term Regulation: ○​ Leptin: Hormone released by fat cells to signal satiety. ○​ Set Point: Body’s natural weight range. ​ Social Influences: ○​ People eat more in groups and with larger portions. ​ Obesity: ○​ Causes: Genetics, low energy expenditure, emotional eating. ○​ Body Mass Index (BMI): Weight (kg) / Height (m²). ​ Over 25 = overweight, over 30 = obese. ​ Eating Disorders: ○​ Anorexia Nervosa: Intense fear of gaining weight, self-starvation. ○​ Bulimia Nervosa: Cycles of binge eating and purging. 9.3 Sexual Motivation ​ Sexual Arousal: ○​ Four Stages: Excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution. ​ Sexual Development: ○​ Testosterone: Male sex hormone. ○​ Estradiol: Female sex hormone. ○​ Intersex: Individuals with intermediate sexual anatomy. ​ Sexual Orientation: ○​ Ranges from exclusively heterosexual to exclusively homosexual. ○​ Kinsey Scale: Measures sexual orientation on a continuum. ​ AIDS: ○​ Transmission: Blood, needles, sexual contact. ○​ Prevention: Safe sex practices, needle exchange programs. Lecture 10: Emotion, Stress, and Health 10.1 The Nature of Emotion ​ Measuring Emotions: ○​ Self-Reports: Questionnaires about emotional states. ○​ Behavioral Observations: Facial expressions, body language. ○​ Physiological Measures: Heart rate, cortisol levels. ​ Theories of Emotion: ○​ James-Lange Theory: Emotions arise from bodily changes. ○​ Schachter-Singer Theory: Cognitive appraisal determines emotion type. ​ Basic Emotions: Happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust, surprise. ​ Emotional Intelligence: ○​ Ability to perceive, understand, and manage emotions.  ○​ Correlates with success in relationships and work. 10.2 A Survey of Emotions ​ Fear and Anxiety: ○​ Controlled by the amygdala. ○​ Polygraph Tests: Measure physiological arousal to detect lies (not always accurate). ​ Happiness: ○​ Correlates with wealth, health, relationships, and life satisfaction. ○​ Positive Psychology: Study of factors that enrich life (e.g., happiness, hope, creativity). ​ Sadness: ○​ Reaction to loss, communicated through crying. 10.3 Stress, Health, and Coping ​ Stress: 1.​ Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome: Alarm, resistance, exhaustion. 2.​ Measuring Stress: Checklists and interviews. ​ Health Effects: 1.​ Indirect: Changes in behavior (e.g., eating, sleeping). 2.​ Direct: Cortisol release (beneficial in short-term, harmful in long-term). ​ Coping Strategies: 1.​ Problem-Focused Coping: Addressing the stressor directly. 2.​ Reappraisal: Changing the interpretation of the stressor. 3.​ Emotion-Focused Coping: Managing emotional reactions. ​ Resilience: Ability to handle stress with minimal distress. Chapter 11: Social Psychology Module 11.1: Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior 1.​ Moral Reasoning (Kohlberg): ○​ Kohlberg's Approach: Evaluates moral reasoning based on the reasons people give for decisions, not the decisions themselves. ○​ Limitations: ​ People often make moral decisions intuitively and emotionally. ​ Kohlberg's theory focuses on justice and harm avoidance, but many cultures also consider group loyalty, respect for authority, and spiritual purity. 2.​ Altruistic Behavior: ○​ Definition: Helping others without personal benefit.  ○​ Explanations: ​ People want a reputation for being fair and helpful. ​ Cooperators punish those who don’t cooperate. 3.​ Prisoner’s Dilemma: ○​ Concept: A situation where individuals have an incentive to act in their own self-interest, but if both do, they suffer worse outcomes than if they had cooperated. 4.​ Bystander Apathy and Social Loafing: ○​ Bystander Apathy: People are less likely to help when others are present (diffusion of responsibility). ○​ Social Loafing: People work less hard in groups unless they believe their contribution is unique or being evaluated. 5.​ Aggression: ○​ Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis: Frustration or discomfort increases the likelihood of anger and aggression, especially if the frustration is perceived as intentional. ○​ Factors Linked to Aggression: ​ Violent neighborhood, parental antisocial behavior, prenatal exposure to toxins, head injuries, low guilt, high testosterone, and low cortisol. 6.​ Cognitive Influences on Violence: ○​ Deindividualization: Perceiving others as anonymous. ○​ Dehumanization: Perceiving others as less than human. ○​ Just-World Hypothesis: Believing that people get what they deserve. 7.​ Sexual Aggression: ○​ Rape: Sexual activity without consent. ○​ Characteristics of Rapists: Hostile, distrustful, history of violence, high use of violent pornography, extreme self-centeredness. Module 11.2: Social Perception and Cognition 1.​ First Impressions: ○​ Primacy Effect: The first information we learn about someone influences us more than later information. ○​ Self-Fulfilling Prophecies: Expectations that increase the likelihood of the predicted event. 2.​ Stereotypes and Prejudices: ○​ Stereotype: A belief or expectation about a group. ○​ Prejudice: An unfavorable attitude toward a group. ○​ Discrimination: Unequal treatment of different groups. 3.​ Implicit Association Test (IAT): ○​ Measures subtle prejudices by assessing reactions to combinations of categories (e.g., "flowers" and "pleasant").  4.​ Overcoming Prejudice: ○​ Multiculturalism: Accepting and enjoying differences among people and groups. ○​ Common Goals: Working together for a common goal can reduce prejudice. 5.​ Attributions: ○​ Internal Attributions: Explanations based on personality traits or abilities. ○​ External Attributions: Explanations based on the situation. ○​ Actor-Observer Effect: We attribute others' behavior to internal causes and our own behavior to external causes. ○​ Fundamental Attribution Error: Overemphasizing internal factors for others' behavior and underestimating situational influences. Module 11.3: Attitudes and Persuasion 1.​ Attitudes: ○​ Definition: A like or dislike that influences behavior. ○​ Cognitive Dissonance: Unpleasant tension when attitudes and behaviors contradict each other. 2.​ Persuasion: ○​ Peripheral Route: Superficial factors like repetition or speaker prestige. ○​ Central Route: Logical evaluation of evidence. ○​ Techniques of Persuasion: ​ Foot-in-the-Door: Start with a small request, then make a larger one. ​ Bait-and-Switch: Offer a favorable deal, then change the terms. ​ Fear Messages: Effective unless too extreme or hopeless. 3.​ Delayed Influence: ○​ Sleeper Effect: Initially rejected messages may be accepted later. ○​ Minority Influence: Persistent repetition of a message by a minority can eventually persuade the majority. Module 11.4: Interpersonal Attraction 1.​ Proximity and Familiarity: ○​ Mere Exposure Effect: We tend to like people or things we are frequently exposed to. 2.​ Physical Attractiveness: ○​ Evolutionary Perspective: Attractiveness signals health and good genes. ○​ Average Features: People with average features are often perceived as more attractive. 3.​ Similarity: ○​ Early Attraction: Physical appearance is key. ○​ Long-Term Relationships: Similarity of interests and goals becomes more important. 4.​ Love:  ○​ Passionate Love: Intense emotions, sexual desire, and romance. ○​ Companionate Love: Deep affection, care, and protection. Module 13.5: Interpersonal Influence 1.​ Conformity: ○​ Asch’s Experiment: People conform to a group’s incorrect judgment. ○​ Cultural Differences: Some cultures are more collectivist and conforming. 2.​ Obedience to Authority: ○​ Milgram’s Experiment: People obey authority figures even when it involves harming others. 3.​ Group Decision Making: ○​ Group Polarization: Group discussion leads to more extreme positions. ○​ Groupthink: Suppressing doubts to maintain group harmony. Chapter 13: Abnormal Psychology Module 13.1: Overview of Abnormal Behavior 1.​ Defining Abnormal Behavior: ○​ Mental Disorder: A clinically significant disturbance in cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior. ○​ Biopsychosocial Model: Biological, psychological, and social factors contribute to mental illness. 2.​ Cultural Influences: ○​ Culture shapes what is considered normal and abnormal behavior. 3.​ DSM-5: ○​ Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: Standard criteria for diagnosing mental disorders. ○​ Criticisms: Overlap between disorders, genetic and environmental causes, and over-labeling. Module 13.2: Anxiety Disorders and OCD 1.​ Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): ○​ Symptoms: Frequent and exaggerated worries. ○​ Panic Disorder: Frequent anxiety and panic attacks. 2.​ Phobias: ○​ Definition: A fear that interferes with normal living. ○​ Treatment: Exposure therapy (systematic desensitization). 3.​ Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD):  ○​ Obsessions: Repetitive, unwanted thoughts. ○​ Compulsions: Repetitive behaviors (e.g., cleaning, checking). ○​ Treatment: Exposure therapy and cognitive interventions. Module 13.3: Substance-Related Disorders 1.​ Substance Dependence (Addiction): ○​ Definition: Inability to quit a self-destructive habit. ○​ Causes: Dopamine release in the brain’s reward system. 2.​ Alcoholism: ○​ Genetic Factors: Predisposition to early-onset alcoholism. ○​ Treatment: Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), Antabuse, contingency management. 3.​ Opiate Dependence: ○​ Treatment: Methadone as a substitute for opiates. Module 13.4: Mood Disorders, Schizophrenia, and Autism 1.​ Major Depression: ○​ Symptoms: Lack of interest, pleasure, or motivation. ○​ Treatment: Antidepressants, cognitive therapy, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). 2.​ Bipolar Disorder: ○​ Symptoms: Alternating between depression and mania (extreme activity and irritability). 3.​ Schizophrenia: ○​ Symptoms: Hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech, and social withdrawal. ○​ Causes: Genetic predisposition and neurodevelopmental factors. ○​ Treatment: Antipsychotic drugs (typical and atypical). 4.​ Autism Spectrum Disorder: ○​ Symptoms: Impaired social relationships, communication, and repetitive behaviors. ○​ Causes: Genetic and prenatal environmental factors. Module 13.5: Treatment of Mental Illness 1.​ Types of Psychotherapy: ○​ Psychodynamic Therapy: Focuses on unconscious conflicts. ○​ Behavior Therapy: Targets specific behaviors. ○​ Cognitive Therapy: Changes thought patterns. ○​ Humanistic Therapy: Emphasizes self-growth and self-acceptance. 2.​ Effectiveness of Psychotherapy: ○​ Most therapies are equally effective, but cognitive-behavioral therapy is slightly better for anxiety. 3.​ Prevention:  ○​ Community Psychology: Focuses on preventing disorders by changing the environment. ○​ Examples: Prenatal care education, anti-smoking campaigns, job assistance. 4.​ Social Issues: ○​ Deinstitutionalization: Moving patients out of mental hospitals, often without adequate alternative care. ○​ Insanity Defense: Legal concept where defendants may be acquitted due to mental illness. Summary of Key Points: ​ Social Psychology: Focuses on how individuals are influenced by social contexts, including conformity, obedience, and group dynamics. ​ Abnormal Psychology: Examines mental disorders, their causes, and treatments, emphasizing the biopsychosocial model and the DSM-5 for diagnosis. PERSONALITY 1. Carl Rogers' Personality Theory (Humanistic Approach) Key Principles: ​ Humanistic Psychology: Focuses on conscious perception, emotions, and the present state. Rogers believed that humans are rational beings controlled by their conscious perceptions of themselves and the world. ○​ Unconscious Forces: Rogers did not emphasize the unconscious mind or childhood events as the primary drivers of personality. ○​ Present Emotions: Current feelings and emotions are more influential in shaping personality than past experiences. Human Natural Motivation: ​ Self-Perfection: Humans are naturally motivated to develop their potential and abilities to become fully functioning individuals. ○​ Fully Functioning Person: Open to experiences, lives authentically, trusts their feelings, and is creative and adaptable. Main Concepts: 1.​ Self-Interest:  ○​ Autonomous self-interest is crucial for self-development and personality formation. ○​ Rogers studied children's behavior to determine whether it was healthy/constructive or unhealthy/destructive. ○​ Influencing Factors: ​ External: Family environment, health, intellectual development, cultural influences. ​ Internal: Self-perception, self-acceptance, and responsibility for one's actions. 2.​ Towards Self-Perfection: ○​ Humans are motivated to maintain and strengthen themselves, both physiologically and psychologically. ○​ Actualization Tendency: The drive to maintain and defend life, promoting physical and psychological development. 3.​ Organismic Valuing Process: ○​ Humans evaluate life experiences based on how they contribute to self-perfection. ○​ Positive Experiences: Valued and repeated. ○​ Negative Experiences: Avoided. 4.​ Experiential World: ○​ Individuals perceive and react to experiences based on their subjective reality. ○​ Perception vs. Reality: Perception is not always aligned with objective reality. Different individuals may respond differently to the same experience. Self-Development in Childhood: ​ Positive Regard: Acceptance, love, and approval from others (e.g., parents) are essential for healthy development. ○​ Unconditional Positive Regard: Full acceptance of the child regardless of behavior (ideal for healthy development). ○​ Conditional Positive Regard: Acceptance is given only when the child behaves in a certain way, leading to conditional self-worth. ​ Positive Self-Regard: Self-esteem and self-worth develop from internalizing positive feedback from others. Incongruence: ​ Incongruence: Misalignment between the real self (who you are) and the ideal self (who you think you should be). ○​ Leads to anxiety, neurosis, and psychological distress. ○​ Example: If your self-concept includes loving all humanity, but you feel hatred toward someone, this incongruence can cause anxiety. Fully Functioning Persons:  ​ Characteristics: 1.​ Open to all experiences (positive and negative). 2.​ Live fully in each moment. 3.​ Trust their own feelings and behaviors. 4.​ Feel free to make choices without constraints. 5.​ Are creative, adaptive, and flexible. 6.​ Face difficulties with a growth mindset. 2. George Kelly's Personality Theory (Cognitive Approach) Key Concepts: ​ Personal Construct Theory: Individuals build cognitive constructs to interpret and predict events in their environment. ○​ Construct System: A unique set of constructs that each person uses to understand the world. ○​ Constructs: Bipolar (e.g., good vs. bad, honest vs. dishonest). Basic Postulates and Corollaries: 1.​ Construction Corollary: Repeated events allow for prediction of future experiences. 2.​ Individuality Corollary: Each person perceives events differently. 3.​ Organization Corollary: Constructs are organized hierarchically based on personal importance. 4.​ Dichotomy Corollary: Constructs are bipolar (e.g., good vs. bad). 5.​ Choice Corollary: Individuals choose constructs that best predict future events. 6.​ Range Corollary: Constructs apply to specific situations or people. 7.​ Experience Corollary: Constructs are continually tested and modified based on new experiences. 8.​ Modulation Corollary: Constructs can be revised to adapt to new experiences. 9.​ Fragmentation Corollary: Contradictory constructs can coexist. 10.​Commonality Corollary: People in similar cultures or groups may share constructs. 11.​Sociality Corollary: Individuals try to understand and predict others' behavior. Key Points: ​ Kelly's theory focuses on how individuals cognitively construct their reality. ​ Constructs are dynamic and can change based on new experiences. ​ The theory emphasizes the importance of understanding individual thought patterns to comprehend personality. 3. Raymond Cattell's Personality Theory (Trait Approach) Key Concepts: ​ Trait Approach: Personality is composed of traits that predict behavior. ○​ Traits: Stable and consistent patterns of behavior. Trait Classification: 1.​ General Traits: Shared by all individuals but vary in degree (e.g., intelligence). 2.​ Unique Traits: Specific to certain individuals (e.g., interest in politics). 3.​ Ability Traits: Describe skills and efficiency in achieving goals (e.g., intelligence). 4.​ Dynamic Traits: Drive behavior (e.g., motivation, interests). 5.​ Temperament Traits: Describe emotional and behavioral styles (e.g., patience). 6.​ Surface Traits: Correlated traits that are unstable and situation-dependent (e.g., anxiety). 7.​ Source Traits: Stable, fundamental traits that underlie behavior (e.g., 16 Personality Factors). 16 Personality Factors (16PF): ​ Cattell identified 16 source traits that describe personality (e.g., warmth, reasoning, emotional stability). ​ Example Traits: ○​ Warmth: Reserved vs. Outgoing. ○​ Emotional Stability: Affected by feelings vs. Emotionally stable. ○​ Dominance: Humble vs. Assertive. Personality Development: 1.​ Infancy (0-6 years): Formation of social attitudes and ego. 2.​ Childhood (6-14 years): Psychological problems and peer identification. 3.​ Adolescence (14-23 years): Physical and mental changes, emotional disorders. 4.​ Adulthood (23-50 years): Stability in career and family. 5.​ Elderly (50+ years): Adaptation to physical and social changes. Key Points: ​ Cattell's trait theory focuses on identifying and measuring stable personality traits. ​ The 16PF model is a comprehensive framework for understanding personality. ​ Personality development is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. 4. B.F. Skinner's Personality Theory (Behavioral Approach) Key Concepts: ​ Operant Conditioning: Behavior is shaped by its consequences (reinforcement or punishment).  ○​ Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of a behavior. ​ Positive Reinforcement: Adding a rewarding stimulus (e.g., food for a rat). ​ Negative Reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus (e.g., stopping an electric shock). ○​ Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behavior. ​ Positive Punishment: Adding an aversive stimulus (e.g., shock). ​ Negative Punishment: Removing a rewarding stimulus (e.g., taking away a toy). Skinner Box: ​ A controlled environment to study operant conditioning in animals. ​ Example: Rats learn to press a lever to receive food (positive reinforcement) or to stop an electric shock (negative reinforcement). Behavior Modification: ​ Applying reinforcement principles to change behavior. ○​ Token Economy: Tokens are awarded for desirable behaviors and can be exchanged for rewards. Key Points: ​ Skinner's theory emphasizes the role of environmental stimuli in shaping behavior. ​ Reinforcement and punishment are key mechanisms in operant conditioning. ​ Behavior modification techniques are widely used in therapy and education. 5. Albert Bandura's Personality Theory (Social Learning Approach) Key Concepts: ​ Observational Learning: Learning occurs through observing others' behavior and its consequences. 1.​ Modeling: Imitating behavior observed in others (e.g., Bobo doll experiment). ​ Factors Influencing Modeling: 1.​ Model Characteristics: Similarity, status, and expertise of the model. 2.​ Observer Characteristics: Self-confidence and self-esteem of the observer. 3.​ Rewards: Observing the model receiving rewards or punishments. Steps in Modeling Process: 1.​ Attention: Paying attention to the model. 2.​ Retention: Remembering the observed behavior. 3.​ Production: Replicating the behavior.  4.​ Motivation: Being motivated to perform the behavior. Self-Efficacy: ​ Belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations. ○​ Determinants of Self-Efficacy: 1.​ Past Achievements: Success in the past increases self-efficacy. 2.​ Vicarious Experiences: Observing others' successes or failures. 3.​ Verbal Persuasion: Encouragement from others. 4.​ Emotional Resilience: Ability to manage stress and emotions. Key Points: ​ Bandura's theory emphasizes the role of social observation in learning and personality development. ​ Self-efficacy plays a crucial role in how individuals approach challenges and tasks. ​ The modeling process involves attention, retention, production, and motivation. Summary of Key Theories: 1.​ Carl Rogers (Humanistic): Focuses on self-perfection, self-concept, and the importance of positive regard in childhood. 2.​ George Kelly (Cognitive): Emphasizes personal constructs and how individuals interpret and predict events. 3.​ Raymond Cattell (Trait): Identifies stable personality traits and their role in predicting behavior. 4.​ B.F. Skinner (Behavioral): Explains behavior through reinforcement and punishment in operant conditioning. 5.​ Albert Bandura (Social Learning): Highlights observational learning, modeling, and self-efficacy in personality development. 6. Erik Erikson's Personality Theory (Psychosocial Development) Background: ​ Born: Frankfurt, Germany. ​ Family: Biological parents were unmarried; father left before Erikson was born. Mother later married Dr. Theodore Homburger, who raised Erikson. ​ Identity Crisis: Erikson faced rejection in school due to his Jewish stepfather, leading to an early identity crisis. Stages of Psychosocial Development: Erikson proposed 8 stages of psychosocial development, each characterized by a specific conflict that must be resolved for healthy personality development. 1.​ Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1.5 years): ○​ Conflict: Babies learn to trust or mistrust their caregivers based on how their needs are met. ○​ Positive Outcome: Trust in the world and others. ○​ Negative Outcome: Mistrust, fear, and insecurity. 2.​ Autonomy vs. Doubt & Shame (1.5-3 years): ○​ Conflict: Toddlers develop a sense of independence (autonomy) or feel shame and doubt if overly controlled. ○​ Positive Outcome: Confidence and independence. ○​ Negative Outcome: Shame, self-doubt, and feelings of inadequacy. 3.​ Initiative vs. Guilt (3-5 years): ○​ Conflict: Children begin to take initiative in activities but may feel guilt if they overstep boundaries. ○​ Positive Outcome: Sense of purpose and initiative. ○​ Negative Outcome: Guilt and fear of punishment. 4.​ Industry vs. Inferiority (6-11 years): ○​ Conflict: Children develop competence in school and social settings or feel inferior if they fail. ○​ Positive Outcome: Competence and industriousness. ○​ Negative Outcome: Inferiority and lack of confidence. 5.​ Identity vs. Identity Confusion (12-18 years): ○​ Conflict: Adolescents explore their identity and roles in society. ○​ Positive Outcome: Clear sense of self and identity. ○​ Negative Outcome: Identity confusion and role uncertainty. 6.​ Intimacy vs. Isolation (20-40 years): ○​ Conflict: Young adults form intimate relationships or face isolation. ○​ Positive Outcome: Strong relationships and intimacy. ○​ Negative Outcome: Loneliness and isolation. 7.​ Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-60 years): ○​ Conflict: Adults focus on contributing to society (generativity) or feel stagnant. ○​ Positive Outcome: Sense of purpose and productivity. ○​ Negative Outcome: Stagnation and lack of growth. 8.​ Ego Integrity vs. Despair (60+ years): ○​ Conflict: Older adults reflect on their lives and either feel a sense of fulfillment or despair. ○​ Positive Outcome: Wisdom and acceptance of life. ○​ Negative Outcome: Regret, despair, and dissatisfaction. Key Points:  ​ Erikson's theory emphasizes the importance of social and cultural influences on personality development. ​ Each stage presents a crisis that must be resolved for healthy development. ​ Failure to resolve a crisis can lead to psychological issues in later stages. 7. Abraham Maslow's Personality Theory (Humanistic Approach) Background: ​ Born: 1908 in Brooklyn, New York. ​ Family: Eldest of 7 siblings; poor and unhappy childhood with a cold father and unloving mother. ​ Education: Earned bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees from the University of Wisconsin. ​ Death: Died in 1970 from a heart attack. Key Concepts: ​ Humanistic Theory: Focuses on the positive aspects of human nature, emphasizing self-actualization and personal growth. ​ Criticism of Behaviorism and Psychoanalysis: Maslow believed these approaches failed to study healthy, mature, and creative individuals. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Maslow proposed a 5-level hierarchy of needs that motivate human behavior. Lower-level needs must be satisfied before higher-level needs can be addressed. 1.​ Physiological Needs (Level 1): ○​ Basic survival needs: food, water, air, sleep, sex. ○​ Example: A starving person is driven only by the need for food. 2.​ Safety Needs (Level 2): ○​ Need for security, stability, and protection from harm. ○​ Example: Children need structure and routine to feel safe. 3.​ Love and Belonging Needs (Level 3): ○​ Need for relationships, love, and a sense of belonging. ○​ Example: Friendships, family, and intimate relationships. 4.​ Esteem Needs (Level 4): ○​ Need for self-esteem, confidence, and respect from others. ○​ Example: Achievement, status, and recognition. 5.​ Self-Actualization Needs (Level 5): ○​ Need to fulfill one's potential and achieve personal growth. ○​ Example: Creativity, problem-solving, and self-fulfillment. Additional Needs:  ​ Cognitive Needs: Need to know and understand (e.g., curiosity in children). ​ Aesthetic Needs: Appreciation of beauty and order. Characteristics of Self-Actualized Individuals: 1.​ Perceive Reality Accurately: See the world clearly and objectively. 2.​ Acceptance of Self and Others: Accept strengths and weaknesses without guilt. 3.​ Spontaneity and Simplicity: Behave naturally and without pretense. 4.​ Problem-Centered: Focus on solving problems and helping others. 5.​ Autonomy: Independent and self-directed. 6.​ Appreciation of Life: Value experiences and relationships. 7.​ Peak Experiences: Moments of intense joy and fulfillment. Key Points: ​ Maslow's theory emphasizes the importance of fulfilling basic needs before achieving self-actualization. ​ Self-actualization is the ultimate goal of human development, where individuals reach their full potential. ​ The hierarchy of needs is not rigid; priorities can shift based on life circumstances. Summary of Key Theories: 1.​ Erik Erikson (Psychosocial Development): Focuses on 8 stages of development, each with a specific conflict that must be resolved for healthy personality growth. 2.​ Abraham Maslow (Humanistic Approach): Emphasizes the hierarchy of needs, with self-actualization as the ultimate goal of human development.