International Organizations (IGOs) & NGOs PDF

**1^st^ lecture -- IGOs & NGOs** **International system** [consists of states, while international organisations and institutions have special roles] - international organisations have a complementary role compared to states -- international organisations and institutions have a seconda...

**1^st^ lecture -- IGOs & NGOs** **International system** [consists of states, while international organisations and institutions have special roles] - international organisations have a complementary role compared to states -- international organisations and institutions have a secondary role [approx. 200 states, TNC, IGOs, INGOs] - those entities which are full members of the UN [are considered as states] by the majority of the states (194 currently) - transnational companies show the highest number, intergovernmental organisations and international non-governmental organisations follow - *[intergovernmental organisations]*: permanent institutions are an obvious sign of existence, international criminal tribunals (rather has an impact on individuals, but can also influence state behaviour) - the number of IGOs is approximately around 10 000, the number of NGOs is way higher, their number is still on the rise (which is the phenomenon of the global south, basically developed countries have created all of the NGOs) - these were established by states, which means that the cooperation among them is on the rise - there is a growing tendency from the 1970s **Evolution of IGOs** - ancient times - Middle Ages (Saint Augustine, Saint Thomas Aquinas) - modern era (Erasmus, Immanuel Kant) - primarily scholars, philosophers, founders of religions (in the Middle Ages as well), they were of permanent institutions to prevent wars - 19^th^ century (Congress of Vienna) - the basic idea emerged all around the world, but in practice the first IGOs were established in Europe with the Congress of Vienna, which occurred between 1814 and 1815 - International Telegraph Union (today International Telecommunication Union, 1865, Geneva); Universal Postal Union (1874, Bern); International Meteorological Organisation (1873, Vienna); International Statistical Institute (1885, The Hague), etc. (need to learn only 1-2 examples for the exam) -- these had things similar in them, which are for example that all of them are scientific and all of them help the society [International Organisations in the 20^th^ and 21^st^ centuries] - role of WWI and WWII - huge losses for humanity - the need for peace - the development of weapons of mass destruction and the need to control them - the UN emerged and also many regional organisations - Cold War: securitisation of international organisations (NATO, Warsaw Treaty) - essential developments: security organisations (several of them), membership was divided following the West-East bloc in the Cold War - on the one hand the war resulted in security organisations, meanwhile it also resulted in certain limitations, because these organisations were closed between the bloc - after the Cold War - the power shift in the world results in new institutions led by rising actors [Definition] - International organisations are entities established by formal political agreements between their members that have the status of international treaties; their existence is recognised by law in their member countries; they are not treated as resident institutional units of countries in which they are located - IGOs are organisations that include at least three states among their membership, that have activities in several states, and that are created through a formal inter-governmental agreement such as a treaty, charter or statute [Most important elements] these are the most essential but there are few exceptions - established by states - entities can also become members (e.g., European Union) - various IGOs are represented in other IOs (e.g., Visegrád Group in the EU) - established by at least 3 countries - constitutive treaty - it is a must - founding documents e.g., UN Charter, NATO's Washington Treaty, ILO's constitution - institutional structure - requires at least 1 permanent body, there are exceptions, meanwhile most IOs have more than 1 permanent body - bodies with limited membership, e.g., executive bodies, most typically there is a rotation of members - international legal personality (derivative and limited) - this empowers IOs to act on their own - what makes an IO an actor - obvious in the case of UN and universal organisations, in case of regional organisations it depends on the actors [Founding document] - purposes/aims of organisations - principles of functioning of member states and particular organs (main bodies) - system of membership - responsibilities and duties of members, is exclusion possible? - structure of IO - functions and responsibilities of organs - headquarters - system of financing - purpose of the organisation (not always there) - way of change or making amendments to the founding document (how to amend this document) [Structure] - assembly - council/committee - secretary - other main organs - subsidiary organs [Functions of IGOs] - forum - articulating interests - set up norms and rules - apply/supervise rules - socialising -- underdeveloped and developing countries, broader circle of countries - information and communication - typically set up standards of communication and responsibilities, duties (seem to be universal at the UN level, is for the deeper understanding of states) - kind of an invisible function - operational - basically fieldwork -- e.g., unitary aid, support in case of natural disasters, coping to tackle organised crime - visible and contributes to well-being in most cases [Classification of international organisations] - Inter-Governmental and Non-Governmental - IGO - INGO - Membership - open - closed (regional, particular and special) - Functions and supranationality - Program-and operative organisations - Inter-governmental and supranational (?) - particular organisations: (NATO) - regional organisations: NAFTA etc. - special organisations: OPEC (members: Venezuela, Russia, Middle East) - there are no supranational organisations, some scholars think that the EU is supranational because it is above the members, but only one of the bodies can be thought of as supranational really [Classification] IGO NGO ----------------- -------- ----------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- Global Regional Global Regional General Purpose UN OAS (Organisation of American States) UIA (Union of International Associations) ERA (European Radical Alliance) Specialised WHO PAHO (Pan American Health Organisation) WWF (World Wildlife Fund) ASF (Atlantic Salmon Federation) General Purpose General Purpose Specialised Specialised ----------- ----------------- ------------------------- ------------------------------------------------ ---------------------------------- IGO NGO IGO NGO Universal UN Catholic Church IMF Red Cross, Amnesty International Regional OAS European People's Party ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) African Football Association [Headquarters] - universal organisations -- the UN and its specialised agencies are mostly in Western counties (New York, Geneva, Vienna, Rome, London, Paris etc.) - regional and particular political and economic IO is usually headquartered on the territory of the most important MS (NATO -- Washington, Arab League -- Cairo), or on the territory of the MS with the most suitable location (EU -- Brussels, CoE -- Strasbourg) **Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs)** [Basic concepts] - civil society (third sector) - collective action - social movement - NGO is any non-profit, voluntary citizens' group which is organised on a local, national or international level. Task-oriented and driven by people with a common interest, NGOs perform a variety of services and humanitarian functions, bring citizens' concerns to Governments, monitor policies and encourage political participation at the community level. They provide analysis and expertise, serve as early warning mechanisms and help monitor and implement international agreements. Some are organised around specific issues, such as human rights, the environment and health. (UN, 2003) - NGOs are private, not-for-profit organisations that aim to serve particular societal interests by focusing advocacy and/or operational efforts on social, political and economic goals, including equity, education, health, environmental protection and human rights. [Functions of NGOs] - advocacy -- typically call attention to the disadvantaged position of society, on a voluntary basis they make steps to represent these people -- tends to represent minorities or small groups within society - operational -- tends to represent e.g., victims of natural disasters, etc. - integrated and hybrid - the general objective is to support the people who suffer [Distribution of INGOs in the world regions in 2007 (in %)] - Europe, 37 - North America, 29 - Asia, 16 - Africa, 11 - Latin America, 6 - Oceania, 1 [Activity location] - Africa 32% - Asia 20% - Europe 18% - Latin America and the Caribbean 5% - Middle East and North Africa 3% [Types of NGOs] - [community based organisations] -- organisations that arise out of people's own initiatives, i.e., sports club, women's organisations, religious or educational organisations -- Coalition of Women living with HIV / AIDS (Malawi), Parents and Youth Association (Uganda) - [city-wide organisations] -- organisations that either exist for other purposes and become involved in helping the poor as one of their many activities or are created specifically for helping the poor -- Rotary or Lion's Club, chambers of commerce and industry, ethnic or educational groups - [national NGOs] -- national level organisations formed with a purpose of advocating on behalf of a specific part of the population -- Coalition on Violence against Women -- Kenya, Hungarian Civil Liberties Union -- Hungary - [international NGOs] -- organisations that provide technical assistance, advocacy support or funding local NGOs, institutions and projects -- Save the Children, OXFAM, CARE, World Relief, Amnesty International, etc. **2^nd^ lecture - League of Nations** **Before the League of Nations** - philosophical background - classical realist and liberal ideas about IR - the need for a rule based international order -- Grotius, Kant - institutional background - Concert of Europe -- Congresses - Universal Postal Union -- 1874 - legal background - Geneva Convention 1864 - Hague Conventions 1899 and 1907 **League of Nations -- Founding** - motivation s during and after WWI - initiatives - Léon Bourgeois -- *Pour la Société des Nations* (1910) - Herbert Asquith, Edward Grey -- *League of Nations Society* (1915) - William Taft, Woodrow Wilson -- *League to Enforce Peace* (1915) - Benedict XV (1917) - never again, this war will end all wars [Founding of the League of Nations] - founding treaty: 28/04/1919 Covenant -- 26 articles, 2 annexes - original members: - 27 signatories of the Treaty of Versailles - dominions of the British Empire (Australia, New Zealand, South Africa) + India - neutral states (13) - sum: 42 states - maximum number of members: 58 (1934-1935) - universal membership (?) - USA is not a member - USSR: 1934-1939 - withdrawals: Germany and Japan (1933), Italy in 1937, Spain and Hungary in 1939 - 1 expulsion: USSR -- 1939 **League of Nations -- The Institution** - headquarters: Geneva (Switzerland) - structure - assembly - council - secretariat (Eric Drummond 1920-1933, Joseph Avenol 1933-1940, Seán Lester 1940-1946) - \+ two independent organs: ILO and Permanent Court of International Justice **League of Nations -- Mandates** mandate system -- essential features - well-being of the peoples of these territories: "a sacred trust of civilisation" - "tutelage of such peoples should be entrusted to advanced nations" - mandatory states: UK, France, South Africa, Belgium, Japan, Australia, New Zealand - mandates in three categories: - "A": France -- Syria (1), Lebanon (2), UK -- Palestine (3), Transjordan (4), Iraq (5) - "B": France -- UK: Cameroon (8, 9), Togo (6, 7), UK: Tanganyika (11), Belgium: Rwanda-Burundi (10) - "C": South Africa: Southwest Africa (12), New Zealand and Australia: New Guinea, Samoa, Nauru, Japan: South Pacific - annual reports - mandates commission **Minorities** essential features - protection of minorities? X - After the war, the new Eastern European States of Austria, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Greece, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and Yugoslavia were forced to sign agreements granting religious, social and political equality to their minorities, whether or not they had been defeated. In order to supervise these agreements, the League of Nations set up the Minority Section, its responsibilities included screening the incoming petitions, requesting responses from the accused States, forwarding cases to the ad hoc "Committee of Three", and/or investigating matters on its own. If the case appeared before the Committee, a decision had to be made as to whether or not the Council's involvement was warranted. - Between 1920 and 1939, 883 petitions were submitted to the Minorities section. Only 16 of the 395 petitions deemed "receivable" ever reached the attention of the Council, and of these 16, the Council very reluctantly condemned the accused State of improper treatment in only four cases. **Disputes** essential features: dispute settlements [successes (examples)] - 1920: Åland Islands - 1921: Upper Silesia - 1923: Memel - The Saar: 1935 [biggest failures (examples)] - 1931: Manchuria - 1934: Ethiopia **Successes** - specific economic and social problems - just treatment of non-self-governing peoples - supervision of traffic in women and children - supervision of traffic of dangerous drugs - supervision of arms trade - freedom of communication and transit - equitable treatment of international trade for all states - prevention and control of disease - abolition of secret treaties - Publication of Treaty Series -- Journal **Failures** - promoting peace and preventing wars - war was not outlawed but limited (moratorium -- 3 months) - sanctions (economic, military, legal + moral) - Abyssinian War - disarmament - disarmament "to the lowest point consistent with national safety" - annual Armament Yearbook - international economic and social cooperation - no special machinery - ILO -- not part of the League of Nations **Conclusion** - first universal International Organisation - pioneering role in IR - legacy is still tangible -- UN 0.5 - failure -- could not stop WWII - role model for future organisations (how to / how not to...) **3^rd^ lecture -- United Nations Organisations** **History and principal organs** **Theoretical background** the UN as a - tool of Great Powers - facilitator of Interstate Cooperation - governor of Society of States - structure of Legitimation emphasises the UN's role as a representative of all the countries of the world, whatever problems those countries have, there is a global support because all the countries are there and represented **Birth of the United Nations Organisation** [1941 Atlantic Charter served as the core concept of the UN] - the expression "United Nations" was born here in 1945, F. D. Roosevelt mentioned it first as the "United Nations" - firstly signed by UK and US, later on they involved all members of WWII alliance, e.g., SU - did not directly include to set up an organisation after the war - later on signed by 23 countries, including China [1942 Declaration by United Nations] [1943 Moscow (foreign ministers of the Big Four)] - important milestone, because in Moscow it was the first event where setting up permanent organisations after WWII was mentioned - based on the agreement, everyone was involved - France (among the permanent members) was left behind, not invited for these meetings due to historical reasons [1944 Dumbarton Oaks (purposes, nature, membership, organs, competence)] - quietly targeted the text of the UN Charter - contradiction with the birth of the UN -- basically it rested on the negotiation of 4 countries, while it was supposed to be universal - the founding fathers did not agree to letting the other countries to participate in the process, the negotiations primarily the involvement of these 4 countries, meanwhile it was about the post-war world order and was meant to be universal - setting up an organisation which would influence the behaviour of all of the countries - SU insisted on the veto power on any issue -- security council does not have veto power in the majority of the issues - they could not agree about the colonies and colonial system/administration, the Brits rejected these ideas, so US and SU agreed on the colonial administration and the road towards independence [1945 Yalta] - resulted in agreement on how the voting works in the security council - decided on the inclusion of France as a permanent member [1945 San Francisco (UN Conference on International Organisation) and debated questions] - debates on membership obvious that there would be members and they would have 1 vote each - SU wanted to have each member of SU recognised as independent state with 1 vote each, later on only 2 were recognised as states beyond the SU -- these were Ukraine and Belarus, to reinforce the group of countries on the side of SU - by this time the conflict between SU and US became more obvious, so the Soviets wanted to have their interests represented to a greater extent - final conference convened, with the participation of all the victorious countries [24^th^ October -- United Nations Day (Charter entered into force this day)] - UN charter was first signed by China and was first ratified by US to set an example, to show commitment, prevent the situation of the league of nations - in the Western media it was highly publicised **UN Charter** **Headquarters** - New York - Vienna **In the UN...** - Membership is... "is open to all peace-loving States that accept the obligations contained in the United Nations Charter and, in the judgement of the Organisation, are able to carry out these obligations". - States are admitted to membership in the United Nations by decision of the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council **4^th^ lecture -- United Nations II** **History of the United Nations** - 1941-1945 Foundation - 1945-1954 Stagnation - 1955-1974 Decolonisation - 1975-1984 North-South conflict - 1985-nowadays Renaissance and reform **Main bodies** - Security Council (SC) - General Assembly (GA) - Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) - International Court of Justice (ICJ) - Trusteeship Council - Secretariat **General Assembly** - place of debate - global parliament? - most representative and democratic (?) organ - recommendations, no mechanism for execution [Functions] - codification of international law - examination - supervisor - budget - conflict resolution - elective function [Budget ] [Regular sessions] - agenda - starts in September - General Debate - main committees - 1\. international security - 2\. economic and financial issues - 3\. social, humanitarian and cultural issues - 4\. special political questions and decolonisation - 5\. budget and administration - 6\. legal issues - special (15 days) and emergency special (24 hours) sessions - voting system [Resolutions] - 1950 Uniting for Peace - 1960 Decolonisation - 1962 Sanctions against South Africa - 1974 Aggression - 1975 Zionism - 1993 Ethnic cleansing in Bosnia - 2007 Rights of indigenous people - 2007 Holocaust **Security Council** - decision making body - resolutions are usually binding - 15 members (5 permanent, 10 non-permanent) - non-permanent members: 1 CEE, 2 Western Europe, 2 Latin America, 3 Africa and 2 Asia - voting - president - Chapter VI and VII - history: 1945-1987; 1987- - institutional changes (Arria formula; Group of Friends; NGO Working Group) - criticism [Number of vetoes ] [Resolutions] - No. 82 and 83 (1950) Korea - No. 242 (1967) Middle East - No. 660 and 678 (1990) Kuwait - No. 1244 (1999) Kosovo - No. 1441 (2002) Iraq - No. 1973 (2011) Libya **Secretariat** - day-to-day work of the UN - tens of thousands of UN staff members - organised along departmental lines - role of the Secretary General [Secretary Generals] - Trygve Lie (1946-1953) - Dag Hammarskjold (1953-1961) - U Thant (1961-1971) - Kurt Waldheim (1971-1981) - Javier Pérez de Cuéllar (1981-1991) - Boutros Boutros Ghali (1991-1996) - Kofi Annan (1996-2006) - Ban Ki-Moon (2007-2017) - António Guterres (2017-) [Role of the Security General] - internationalisation - Security Council's work - agenda setting - institutional reforms - Secretary General as an actor **5^th^ lecture -- Peacekeeping** **Peacekeeping** (12 missions currently, altogether 71 so far) **Peacekeeping -- definition** - "... the prevention, containment, moderation, and termination of hostilities between or within states, through the medium of a peaceful third party intervention organised and directed internally, using multinational forces of soldiers, police and civilians to restore and maintain peace" - "...is a deployment of a UN presence in the field, with the consent of all the parties concerned, normally involving UN military and/or police personnel and frequently civilians as well.... is a technique that expands the possibilities for both the prevention of a conflict and the making of peace" **Peacekeeping -- introduction** - originally not part of the UN system - peacekeeping is rather a custom  "Chapter Six and a Half" - double legitimacy  consent, authorisation of the UN SC - mandate, control - principles: - neutrality - consent - non-use of force using force as a last resort; a precise, proportional and appropriate manner - "Making of peace" (Boutros Boutros-Ghali: An Agenda for Peace) **Global peacekeeping data** - budget: in 2022-2023 fiscal year: \$6,45 billion - fatalities - total fatalities in all peace operations since 1948: 4,314 - total fatalities in current operations: 1,638 - total number of personnel serving in 12 peacekeeping operations: 86,903 (from 121 countries) - in details: 63,921 troops; 7,813 police; 11,996 civilian (+ staff officers, volunteers) **Peacekeeping -- first generation** [history] - 1940s (UNTSO -- Middle East, UNMOGIP -- India, Pakistan) - 1956: Suez, milestone UNEF I, II - 1950.11.03.: Uniting for Peace (Acheson Plan) - Congo (1960-1964) -- ONUC - Cyprus (1964) -- UNFICYP, South Lebanon (1978) -- UNIFIL - 1960s: decrease - 1980s: increase [characteristics of the first generation] - interstate crisis - unarmed or lightly armed forces - narrow mandate - key principals: consent, neutrality, non-use of force - 1946-1988: 15 missions - low cost - limited number of peacekeepers - host countries are not hostile **Peacekeeping -- second generation** [characteristics] - changing conflicts - intrastate wars - fast escalation speed - involvement of large number of civilians - ethnic motives - involvement of parliamentary forces, militias - changing environment cooperation in international politics [features of the second generation] - number of peacekeeping operations tripled between 1987-1994 - missions are deployed in ongoing conflicts the aim is not maintaining the status quo but to restore peace - mandate is wider including civilian, political, economic, humanitarian aspects - costs are higher (larger contingents, more weapons) - missions are more dangerous, environment is often hostile [1992: An Agenda for Peace] - *preventive diplomacy:* designed to head off conflicts before violence - *peace enforcement:* authorised to act with or without the consent of the parties in order to ensure compliance with a ceasefire mandated by the Security Council acting under the authority of Chapter VII of the Charter, these military forces are composed of heavily armed, national forces operating under the direction of the Secretary General - *peacemaking:* designed 'to bring hostile parties to agreement' through peaceful means such as those found in Chapter VI. Drawing upon judicial settlement, mediation and other forms of negotiation, UN peacemaking initiatives would seek to persuade parties to arrive at a peaceful settlement of their differences - *peacekeeping:...* is a deployment of a UN presence in the field, with the consent of all the parties concerned, involving the UN military and/or police personnel and frequently civilians as well.... is a technique that expands the possibilities for both the prevention of conflict and the making of peace - *post-conflict reconstruction:* organised to foster economic and social cooperation with the purpose of building confidence among previously warring parties, developing the social, political and economic infrastructure to prevent future violence, and laying the foundations for a durable peace **Peacekeeping -- third generation** failures (Somalia, Rwanda, Srebrenica) third generation [characteristics] - UN operations became multifunctional - more emphasis on peace enforcement - new multidimensional approach that included civilians and police, as well as military participants - wider variety of demanding tasks, for example helping to maintain security, monitoring human rights, coordinating elections etc. - peacekeeping became more multinational and multi-cultural (member states contributing: over 100) - international administrations (East Timor, Kosovo) **Peacekeeping -- reforms** [2000: Brahimi report] - in March 2000, the Secretary-General appointed the Panel on UN Peace Operations to assess the shortcomings of the then existing system and to make specific and realistic recommendations for change - the panel was composed of individuals experienced in conflict prevention, peacekeeping and peacebuilding "Brahimi Report" (after Lakhdar Brahimi, the Chair of the Panel) - it called for: - properly resourced and equipped peacekeeping operations with clear, credible and achievable mandates - renewed political commitment on the part of the Member States - significant institutional change - increased financial support - rapid deployment - strengthening the relationship with other UN bodies, with Member States and legislative bodies **Emerging issues, debates** - participation - regionalism - use of force **Conclusion** - not part of the original UN system under the SG, need authorisation - changing nature of the international system -- new challenges - peacekeeping had to react to newly emerging challenges 1^st^, 2^nd^, 3^rd^ generations **6^th^ lecture -- Money Manager -- The IMF** **John Maynard Keynes' proposals** - International Clearing Union - debate concerning world currency - bancor - role of Central Banks - Organisation of International Clearing Union - balance of payments imbalances **Harry Dexter White's proposals** - points in common - disputed areas - gold reserves - stability of cross exchange rates - size of capital of the stabilisation fund - structure of the organisation **Bretton Woods** - July 1944, 44 countries - \$: new international currency - need for institutionalised monetary cooperation [starting points] - compensate the lack of gold - additional financial facility - stability of exchange rates - monetary role of gold - role of the United States [basic principles] - 1 ounce of gold = 35 \$ - exchange rate stability, convertibility **International Monetary Fund** - statute entered into force on 27 December 1945 - UN specialised agency (1947) - number of member states: 190 - headquarter: Washington DC [objectives] - promote international monetary cooperation - facilitate the expansion, balanced growth of international trade - promote exchange stability - assist in the establishment of a multilateral system of payments - make resources available to members - shorten the duration of disequilibrium in the international balances of payments of members [policies (BW years)] - international monetary policy - policy of liberalisation - exchange rate policy [role of quotas] - subscriptions - determined in SDR - voting power - access to financing [monetary activities of the IMF] - technical assistance - surveillance, lending [purposes of IMF] - adjustment to various shocks - acts as a catalyst for other lenders - help prevent crisis **International monetary policy** [the 1950s] - undisturbed functioning - \$ demand declined - considerable outflow of \$ - \$ oversupply by end of decade [the 1960s] - liquidity, correction, trust - signs of crisis - \$ oversupply of its consequences - IMF's reaction - declining trust in \$ - rise of price of gold - 1961-68: gold pool (USA, GB, FR, B, N, IT, SWI, FRG) - 1968-71: two tier gold market - 1969: SDR -- Special Drawing Rights **Policy of liberalisation** - convertibility -- the currency is convertible if - exchange is possible without limitations - to any other currencies - concerning current accounts - on an officially declared exchange rate - by 1958: convertibility of currencies of leading states **Exchange rate policy** [bases of the Bretton Woods financial systems] - currency's official dollar exchange rate should be declared; 1 ounce of gold = 35 \$ - balance of payments approach - +/-1% fluctuation rate - intervention of Central Banks - modification of fixed parity - system of fixed exchange rates - 1960s: chronic deficit / surplus **End of Bretton Woods** - budgetary deficit - new competitors: Japan, Western Europe - capital export - deteriorating economic performance Nixon, 15^th^ of August 1971 - 1973 -- oil shock - 1974, IMF -- ending the monetary role of gold - immediate elimination of gold parity, reduction of gold reserves **Organisation of IMF** - Board of Governors (decision making) - 190 members, annual meeting - admits new members - determines quotas, approves quota increases - amendment of the Articles of Agreement (85%) - approve SDR allocation - Executive Board (24 members) - 24 members (all elected now) + Managing director - daily decisions - implements policy decisions - election of Managing director - Managing director: Kristalina Georgieva (2019-, Bulgarian) - elected for 5 years, head of the staff - Chairs the Executive Board meetings **Principles of lending** - balance of payments problems - normal credit facilities determined by quota - loans provided from own financial assets - borrowing -- special form of swap - growing indebtedness, more severe conditions **Conditionality** **Washington Consensus** **post-Washington Consensus (Original WC plus)** ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------- secure property rights anti-corruption deregulation corporate governance fiscal discipline independent central bank and IT tax reform financial codes and standards privatisation flexible codes and standards reorientation of public expenditures flexible labour markets financial liberalisation WTO arrangements trade liberalisation "prudent" capital account opening openness to FDI non-intermediate exchange rate regimes unified and competitive exchange rates targeted poverty reduction *[typical structural adjustment policies]* economic reforms - limit money and credit growth - devalue the currency - reform the financial sector - introduce revenue-generating measures - introduce user fees - introduce tax code reforms - eliminate subsidies, especially for food - introduce compensatory employment programs - create affordable services for the poor trade liberalisation reforms - remove high tariffs and import quotas - rehabilitate export infrastructure - increase producers' prices government reforms - cut bloated government payroll - eliminate redundant and inefficient agencies - privatise public enterprises - reform public administration and institutions private sector policies - liberalise price controls - end government monopolies **7^th^ lecture -- World Bank, GATT/WTO, OECD** **Conditionality** - aim to have focused and adequately tailored conditions - IMF discusses with the country the economic policies (letter of intent) - measures introduced to safeguard IMF's resources (be able to pay back the loans) **World Bank** **World Bank Group** - International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) - International Development Association (IDA) - International Finance Corporation (IFC) - Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) - International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) **World Bank** - 27 December 1945: IBRD founded - 15 November 1947: UN Specialised Agency - Headquarter: Washington - Members: 189 **Board of Governors** - admit and suspend members; - increase or decrease the authorised capital shock; - determine the distribution of the net income of the bank; - make formal comprehensive arrangements to cooperate with other international organisations; - suspend permanently the operations of the bank; - increase the number of elected Executive Directors; and - approve the amendments to the Articles of Agreement **Board of Directors, President** [Board of Executive Directors] - 25 members (Executive Directors) - operative management - oversee the business activities, including loans' approval, etc. [President] - elected by the Executive Directors (majority) for 5 years (renewable) - David Malpass (2019-) - Ajay banga 2023- **Votes, loans and development (IBRD)** - lending to poorer countries - role of USA - promotion of international capital flow - two types of loans (IBRD, IDA) - financing projects **International Finance Corporation (IFC)** - 1956 - investments in for-profit and commercial projects - focus: private sector - purpose: further economic growth - mobilise funding; technical assistance - insurance of bonds (triple-A) **International Development Association (IDA)** - 1960 - Members: 174 shareholders nations - lending on concessional term - grant element: - no repayment obligation - IDA: grant element often 80-90% **IDA borrowers, target sectors** Top 10 -- Nigeria, Bangladesh, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya **Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA)** - 1988 - Provides guarantee for lending **General Agreement of Tariffs and Trade (1947/48-1994)** **World Trade Organisation (1994-)** **GATT** - signed in 1947, entered into force on January 1, 1948 - end of operations: December 31, 1994 - goals: - most favoured nation status, non-discrimination - tariffs, consultation - negotiations to eliminate tariffs and quotas **GATT organisational structure** - General representative organ (Assembly) - GATT Council, 1960 - Secretariat **World Trade Organisation (WTO)** - January 1, 1995 - Headquarter: Geneva - Number of member states: 164 - Director-General: Dr Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala (2021-2025) **WTO activities** - negotiating multilateral agreements to reduce or eliminate the obstacle to trade - administers and monitors the rules of trade - monitors, reviews the trade policies of members - dispute settlement - economic research and dissemination of trade data, etc. **Organisational structure** [Ministerial Council] - meets at least every second year - most important decision making organ - consensus [General Council] - daily work of the organisation **Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development** **OEEC** - 15 April 1948: OEEC established in Paris - organs: - Council of Ministers - Committees - role: managing the reconstruction in Europe **OECD** - 1961 - Headquarter in Paris - Members: 38 - Secretary General: Mathias Cormann (2021-) **Structure** [Council] - Ambassadors from members, and the European Commission; Ministerial Council once a year - Decision making; consensus - Chair: Secretary-General [Secretariat] - Led by the Secretary-General - Daily operation of OECD - 3300 employees [Committees] - 300 committees, working groups, expert groups **OECD membership criteria** - market economy - democracy - human rights **Functions** - research, analysis, regulatory work - strives for the highest possible level of employment, economic growth, and standard of living - Development Assistance Committee (DAC) to administer development aid - OECD-DAC: official development assistance if grant element is minimum 25% - objective to standardise government loans - groups of countries - standardised lending conditions for the groups of countries - DAC categories of ODA recipients: - last developed countries (LDC) - low-income countries (LIC). GNI/ capita 1045\$, or less - lower middle-income countries: GNI/ capita between \$1,046-\$4,095 in 2020 - upper middle-income countries GNI / capita between \$4,096-\$12,695 in 2020 - aid: type of loan with conditions that are much favourable than those on the capital market - most of the bilateral loans - the role of international organisations is significant as well - critics - the grant element is still not significant enough, creditors harden conditions - market position of international organisations - aims of development assistance - increase welfare - political, social, cultural - environmental systems - motivation of donors - former colonisers - reduce poverty - favouring own economy? **8^th^ lecture -- Regionalism and regional organisations** **Theory and Practice - Americas** **Regional and universal organisations** - regionalism vs. universalism - opportunities and challenges **First wave of regionalism (1940s-1980s)** - homogenous membership - "deep" institutions - protectionist trade policy - state's regulation ability - specific objectives - **Europe and the Eastern bloc**: NATO (1949-), WEU (1954-), Warsaw Pact (1955-1991), Council of Europe (1949-), European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM, 1957-), European Economic Community (1957-), Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon, 1949-1991) - **Western- and East Asia:** CENTO (Central Treaty Organisation, 1955-1979), South-East Asian Treaty Organisation (SEATO, 1954-1977), Association of Southern East Asian Nations (ASEAN, 1967-) - **American continent:** Organisation of American States (1948-), Rio Pact (1947), Central American Common Market (1961-), Andean Group (1969-), Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM, 1973-), Latin American Free Trade Association (LAFTA, 1962-1980) -- Latin American Integration Association (ALADI, 1980-) - **Middle East:** League of Arab Nations (1945-) - **Africa:** Organisation of African Unity (1963-2002) -- African Union (2002-) **Second wave of regionalism** [reasons] - New ways of international cooperation at the end of the Cold War - Economic changes - End of the "third world" - Democratisation [forms] - Closer Cooperation - Enlargement - New institutions [second wave] - heterogeneity - integration into world economy - multidimensional form of integration - spontaneous cooperation - participation of non-state actors - "loose" institutions - close North-South relations - Europe: Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC) / Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE, 1975-), EU (1992-), Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) (1991-) - Asia and Pacific region: Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC, 1989-), ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF, 1994-) - Middle East: Gulf Cooperation Council, GCC, 1981 - Latin America: Southern Common Market (Mercosur, 1991-), Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA, 1994-), North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA, 1994-) - Africa: Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS, 1975-), Southern African Development Community (SADC, 1992-), Common Market for Eastern and Southern African (COMESA, 1993-) **The Western Hemisphere** - imbalanced relations - US dominance - Pan-Americanism vs. Subregional integration/ cooperation/ institutions **Organisation of American States (1948)** **History** - [1890 The First International Conference of American States], held in Washington, D.C., established the International Union of American Republics and its secretariat, the Commercial Bureau of the American Republics. - -- The International Union of American Republics became the [Pan American Union]. - [April 30, 1948] -- 21 American nations met in Bogotá, Colombia, to adopt the [Charter of the Organisation of American States], as well as the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man. Alberto Lleras Camarho became the first Secretary General of the OAS. - -- The [Inter-American Commission on Human Rights] was created - -- The Charter of Punta del Este was signed, launching the Alliance for Progress - -- [The American Convention on Human Rights] was signed - -- [The General Assembly] was established as the highest decision-making body of the OAS - -- [The Inter-American Court of Human Rights] was established - -- [The Inter-American Drug Abuse Control Commission (CICAD)] was created - -- Resolution 1080, which set up procedures to react to threats to democracy in the hemisphere, was adopted - -- The First Summit of the Americas, which reaffirmed the OAS role strengthening democracy and established new priorities for the Organisation, was held - -- [The Inter-American Council for Integral Development] was established - -- The Protocol for Washington, giving the OAS the right to suspend a member state whose democratically elected government is overthrown by force, was ratified - -- The Second Summit of the Americas was created what is now called the OAS Summits of the Americas Department - [September 11, 2001] -- [An Inter-American Democratic Charter] was adopted in Lima, Peru - -- [The Inter-American Convention against Terrorism] opened for signature at OAS General Assembly in Barbados - -- The Special Summit of the Americas focused on growth with equity, social development and governance - -- The Fourth Summit of the Americas was held **Structure** - The General Assembly - the Meeting of Consultation of Ministers of Foreign Affairs - the Councils (the Permanent Council and the Inter-American Council for Integral Development) - the Inter-American Juridical Committee - the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights - the General Secretariat - the specialised conferences - the specialised organisations - other entities established by the General Assembly **Second wave** - [Summit of the Americas] (1994, Miami) -- regular meetings at the highest political level - Ninth Summit of the Americas in 2022 in Los Angeles, California (Mexico, Bolivia, and Honduras stayed home, Venezuela, Cuba, and Nicaragua not invited) - [Free Trade of the Americas] -- a failed project **After the Cold War** - [defending democracy] (Inter-American Democratic Charter, 2001; Unit for the Promotion of Democracy) - [protecting human rights] (American Declaration on the Rights and Duties of Man, Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Inter-American Court of Human Rights) - [strengthening security] (Inter-American Committee against Terrorism) - [combating illegal drugs] (Inter-American Drugs Abuse Control Commission) - [fighting corruption] (Inter-American Convention Against Corruption) - [development] **Subregional integration -- first wave** - LAFTA -- Latin American Free Trade Association, 1960 - Andean Pact, 1969 - Central American Common Market, 1960 - CARICOM, Caribbean Community, 1973 **Second wave -- open regionalism in Latin America** - Mercosur, Common Market of the South, 1991 - North American Free Trade Agreement, NAFTA, 1994 - Andean Community, 1996 - Central American Integration System, SICA, 1991 - Caribbean Community **Mercosur (Common Market of the South)** 1991 -- Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay Venezuela: suspension bc of ven. crisis **Mercosur history** - 1980s -- reproachment between Brazil and Argentina - 1991-1997 golden era - 1997-2002 years of crisis - 2002-2015 pink tide success, political mediation, relations with external actors - 2015 -- where to go? **A third wave?** - post-hegemon regionalism? - ALBA (Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America, *Alianza Bolivariana para los Pueblos de Nuestra América,* 2004) - UNASUR (Union of South American Nations, *Unión de Naciones Suramericanas*, 2010) - CELAC (Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, *Comunidad de Estados Latinoamericanos y Caribenos*, 2011) **Recent Developments** - Donald Trump (US), Jair Bolsonaro (Brazil) **9^th^ lecture -- Regional International Organisations** **Africa and Asia** **Regionalism in Africa** **Origins** - Pan-Africanism - President of Ghana, President of Tanzania, President of Republic of the Congo - Casablanca group (Algeria, Morocco, Egypt, Libya) vs. Monrovia bloc (Senegal, Nigeria, Ethiopia, and French colonies) - Haile Selassie (emperor of Ethiopia) invited the representatives of both groups to Addis Ababa **Organisation of African Unity** - 1964 - Addis-Ababa - sovereign equality of states; non-intervention; territorial integrity - 53 member states **African Union** - 1999 -- Sirte Declaration - 2000 -- AU constitution (Lomé) - 2002 -- African Union - Assembly of the African Union - Executive Council - Commission (Secretariat) - Pan-African Parliament - Economic, Social and Cultural Council - Court of Justice of the African Union - Peace and Security Council **Regionalism in Asia** **Cold War** - SEATO, 1955-1977: Australia, France, New-Zealand, US, UK, The Philippines, Thailand - CENTO, 1955-1979: UK, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan, Turkey **Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)** - ASEAN, 1967 - previously Association of Southeast Asia (ASA) - founding members: Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand and the Philippines - headquarters: Jakarta, Indonesia - ASEAN way - institutions - membership: Brunei (1984); Vietnam (1995); Laos and Myanmar (Burma -- 1997); Cambodia (1999) **Economic Cooperation** - AFTA (ASEAN Free Trade Area) - ASEAN+3 (China, Japan and ROK) - Chiang Mai Initiative - East Asia Summit - ASEAN university network **Types of International Criminal Courts** **Types of Institutions of ICL** - international ad hoc tribunals - Nuremberg IMT - ICTY - ICTR - domestic courts - permanent international court - ICC - hybrid ad hoc tribunals - SCSL - ECCC - BWCC **History of the Development of International Criminal Courts** **International ad hoc -- International Military Tribunal (1945 London Agreement)** **Sovereignty vs international criminal justice** Protection of the individual OR the group? - Hersch Lauterpacht - Nürnberg: crimes against humanity - Universal Declaration of HRs, 1948. - Raphael Lemkin - Nürnberg: genocide - Genocide Convention, 1948. **How were the ICTY and ICTR established? What was the legal basis of their creation?** **International (UN) ad hoc -- ICTY, ICTR** - 827 (1993) SC resolution - International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) - 955 (1994 SC resolution - International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) **Legality of the establishment** Pros vs Dusko Tadic (IT-94-1) AC Dec. (Oct 2, 1995) +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | arguments of defence | conclusions of the AC | +===================================+===================================+ | Art. 41, UN Charter: no reference | Art. 41: non-exh. list; | | to international criminal courts | | | | Art. 39: wide discretion of SC | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Art. 29, UN Charter: subsidiary | correct understanding of the | | organ for the performance of its | Charter: ICTY established not | | function | like a subsidiary organ | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | international peace was not | legality cannot be evaluated ex | | promoted | post facto | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **What are the basic facts about the International Criminal Court?** **International permanent court: ICC** - 1998: Adoption of the Rome Statute - July 1, 2002: Rome Statute entered into force International Criminal Court - crimes under its jurisdiction: genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, aggression - 123 State Parties today... Assembly of State Parties - 31 cases, with some having more than one suspect - 40 arrest warrants, 21 people detained, 15 people at large - 10 convictions and 4 acquittals **Complementary -- ICC** - version A: domestic authorities conduct investigations and criminal proceedings - version B: domestic authorities are UNABLE or UNWILLING to proceed ICC steps in **Triggering mechanisms (ICC)** - State Party referral (situation) e.g., Uganda, CAR, DRC) - Office of the Prosecutor (ex officio) (e.g., Kenya) - Current Chief Prosecutor: Karim Khan - UN Security Council referral (situation) (Sudan, Libya) **11^th^ lecture -- Humanitarian Intervention** **Humanitarian intervention -- what is it?** [Will D. Verwey] - Humanitarian intervention is the threat or use of force by a state or states abroad, for the sole purpose of preventing or putting a halt to a serious violation of fundamental human rights, in particular the right of life of persons, regardless of their nationality, such protection taking place neither upon authorisation by relevant organs of the UN nor with permission by the legitimate government of the target state [Fernando A. Tesón] - proportionate international use or threat of military force, undertaken in principle by a liberal government or alliance, aimed at ending tyranny or anarchy, welcomed by the victims, and consistent with the doctrine of double effect [Danish Institute of International Affairs] - coercive action by States involving the use of armed force in another State without the consent of its Government, with or without authorisation from the UN SC, for the purpose of preventing or putting a halt gross and massive violations of human rights or international humanitarian law **Humanitarian intervention definition** - is a principle in international customary law, referred to the armed interference in a sovereign state without its consent by another state / a group of states or an international organisation for the purpose of protecting the population of the target state from widespread and systematic violations of fundamental human rights **Humanitarian intervention -- features, debates** [features] 1. subject: state / group of states / international organisation(s) 2. object: a state target state 3. beneficiaries: nationals of the target state 4. ground for intervention: violations of international humanitarian law 5. responsibility of the target state 6. use of force (last resort = *ultima ratio*) 7. proportionality 8. self-determination has to be respected **Humanitarian intervention -- Tesón** [Tesón's 8 principles of HI:] 1. Governments are mere agents of the people. Currently, their international rights derive from the rights and interests of the individuals who inhabit and constitute the state 2. Tyrannical governments forfeit the protection afforded them by international law 3. The fact that all persons have rights entails the following consequences for foreign policy. Governments have: (1) the obligation to respect human rights at home and abroad; (2) the obligation to promote respect for human rights globally; (3) the *prima facie* obligation to rescue victims of tyranny or anarchy, if they can do so at a reasonable cost to themselves. This obligation analytically entails the permission to rescue those victims / the right of humanitarian intervention. 4. A justifiable intervention must be intended to end tyranny or anarchy 5. Humanitarian interventions are governed, like all wars, by the doctrine of double effect 6. In general, only severe cases of anarchy or tyranny qualify for humanitarian intervention 7. The victims of tyranny or anarchy must welcome the intervention 8. Humanitarian intervention should preferably receive the approval or support of the community of democratic states **Responsibility to protect (R2P)** *Kofi Annan:* (I)f humanitarian intervention is, indeed an unacceptable assault on sovereignty, how should we respond to a Rwanda, to a Srebrenica, to gross and systematic violation of human rights that offend every precept of our common humanity? [based on 3 pillars of equal standing:] 1. the responsibility of each State to protect its populations 2. the responsibility of the international community to assist States in protecting their populations 3. the responsibility of the international community to protect when a State is manifestly failing to protect its populations [responsibility to protect] - 2001: ICISS (International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty) - 2004: '*A more secure world: Our shared responsibility'* - 2005: Kofi Annan -- *'In larger freedom: towards development, security and human rights for all"* - 2005: UN General Assembly -- *'World summit outcome document'* - 2006: UNSC R 1674 (2007: UNSC R 1706) - 2009: *'Implementing the Responsibility to Protect'* *'State sovereignty implies responsibility, and the primary responsibility for the protection of its people lies within the state itself. Where a population is suffering serious harm, as a result of internal war, insurgency, repression or state failure, and the state in question is unwilling or unable to halt or avert it, the principle of non-intervention gives way to the international responsibility to protect."* [ICISS conception] - 3 pillars (prevention, reaction, rebuilding) - principles of military intervention - just cause - right intention - last resort - legitimate authority - proportional means - reasonable prospect **Conclusion** [Humanitarian intervention] - imperfect solution for a controversial issue - conflict between sovereignty and human rights [R2P] - trying to solve this conflict - changing idea of state sovereignty **International Organisations** - Generally, an IO is a formal organisation with members from 3 or more states that pursue specific goals. - It can be an Inter-governmental organisation (IGO), established by an intergovernmental agreement, and its members are states, represented by their governments. E.g., World Bank, UN, regional organisations like NATO - They can also be international non-governmental organisations (NGOs), but their members don't officially represent governments. - Hybrid organisations have members both inside and outside of governments. - International institutions are synonymous with international organisations. The word institution has a broader meaning than organisation. In political science, international institutions can be understood as a set of rules and practices that prescribe behavioural roles, constrain activity, and shape expectations. These rules are used in world politics, such as international law and international norms. - The term 'institution' can also be seen as synonymous with 'regime'. International regimes are defined as principles, norms, rules, and decision-making procedures in a given area of IR. The distinction between institution/regime and organisations can be understood when we think of organisations as institutions with "walls and bureaucrats". E.g., the Bretton Woods system was created in 1944 as a regime to govern international monetary relations, but it was fundamental to have an international organisation such as the IMF. - Global governance is when states, IOs, NGOs, corporations, and other actors interact to help address global problems that other actors cannot solve by themselves. It can be understood as a set of laws, norms, policies, and institutions that define, constitute, and mediate relations among citizens, society, markets, and the state internationally. **NGOS** Non-governmental organisations operate independently of governments. They are funded by citizens to work together for a common interest, e.g., protecting children, the environment, or human rights. There is no single definition for NGOs, but they share characteristics. They are publicly registered, self-governing and transparent in their work. They are accountable for how funding is spent and how projects are managed. NGOs are a necessary part of any strong democracy. They act as a bridge between the public and politicians for dialogue and information sharing, and they hold policymakers to account and mobilise the public for common causes, which makes them targets for authoritarian governments even in the EU. **The League of Nations** After the horror of WWI, the concept of a LoN was first envisioned in President Woodrow Wilson's 14-point speech, regarding the post-war peace and reconstruction of Europe. And while 3 of the big 4 leaders at the Paris Peace Conference rejected the proposals, as they thought it was too "idealistic" and naïve. Upon his return to the US, after signing the treaty of Versailles, congress rejected the notion of an international body to adjudicate disputes between nations, due to an overwhelming post-war isolationist sentiment. The LoN formed anyway by the leadership of British parliamentarian, Lord Cecil, and by 1920, 48 nations had joined, with HQ first in London, before later moving to Geneva. At first, the organisation picked its dispute arbitrations with an air of caution, refusing to involve itself when Russia attacked a Port in Persia in 1920. But as the leagues of authority strengthened over time, from 1919 to 1935, the League intervened in disputes between 14 member and non-member nations. Early in its existence, the LoN devised the Geneva Protocol, which placed limits on the use of chemical and biological weapons in warfare. League members also created the World Disarmament Conference in the 1930s, which pushed for voluntary disarmament in Member States, including Germany, as mandated by the Treaty of Versailles. The World Disarmament Conference came to an early end after Adolf Hitler quit the conference and the League, when he rose to power in 1933. After Germany invaded Poland in 1939, igniting WWII, most League nations claimed neutrality, while other League nations quickly felt Hitler's invading forces. Switzerland grew nervous about hosting an organisation widely perceived as siding with allied nations, forcing the LoN to abruptly shut its doors on a permanent basis. A little more than a month after VE day, the victorious allied nations conceived a broader international dispute and arbitration organisation, formally chartering the UN on June 26 1945. **Bretton Woods explained** After WWII, the world needed a new financial system. The gold standard was too rigid, but at the same time, economists were worried that countries would devalue their currencies to boost export. An important concern was that if a country goes through economic crisis, how to get out of it without devaluing its currency? To address this issue, two institutions were established: - IMF -- supposed to lend money to countries that are in trouble and cannot attract financing from other sources - IBRD -- now called the World Bank, supposed to help less developed countries grow During the Bretton Woods system, world currencies could not simply be exchanged one for another: first, each of them had to be converted into USD. The USD was the main reference point for all exchange rates for the countries that participated in the system. Its value remained fixed at \$35 per 1 ounce of gold. The SU participated in the conference, but did not ratify the Bretton Woods system, so it made payments for international purchases using gold. Over time, the US faced a big problem. To ensure the global circulation of money, the US had to constantly print new banknotes, due to this the real value of the USD fell and the value of the gold that backed the \$ became undervalued. Furthermore, the US kept running deficits to fund various projects, and thus the amount of USD in existence kept increasing, while the gold reserves of the US kept shrinking, as more countries demanded gold in exchange for dollars. On the 15^th^ of August 1971, Nixon officially announced that USD will no longer be convertible to gold, thereby ending the Bretton Woods system. **IMF** The IMF was created alongside the World Bank in 1945, as overlapping finance arms of the UN. The World Bank focuses on financing and investing in developing countries, as well as eliminating poverty, the IMF and the World Bank were designed to complement each other. The IMF primarily monitors exchange rates, stabilises international monetary systems, and fosters global financial cooperation. The IMF is one of several global banks that provides loans to troubled economies to promote a stable world economy. The IMF and its sister organisation, the World Bank, tend to serve more Western interests, like the US and the EU, while other global banks, such as the New Development Bank and the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank serve Chinese and Russian interests more. In total, the IMF has 188 Member States. The IMF has been widely criticised for allowing disparate levels of influence, this is because member nations which invest more money in the IMF get more voting rights. Since the IMF is a sort of last resort, countries in trouble have no choice but to agree to significant austerity measures that may not necessarily be in their best interests, or agree with their ideologies. While the IMF is a powerful fore within the world economic balance, it also openly serves the interests of its member countries, with so much influence in the political policies of struggling countries, it is dangerous to try and treat domestic problems with simple cash infusions and austerity measures. Criticisms include the fact that both the IMF and the World Bank have lent money to dictators and corrupt governments.