Interior Design Illustrated (PDF)

INTERIOR DESIGN ILLUSTRATED Third Edition Francis D.K. Ching Corky Binggeli John Wiley & Sons, Inc. This book is printed on acid-free paper. ∞ Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey...

INTERIOR DESIGN ILLUSTRATED Third Edition Francis D.K. Ching Corky Binggeli John Wiley & Sons, Inc. This book is printed on acid-free paper. ∞ Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey Published simultaneously in Canada No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, e-mail: permcoordinator@ wiley.com. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at 800-762-2974, outside the United States at (317) 572-3993 or fax (317) 572-4002. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ching, Frank, 1943- Interior design illustrated / Francis D.K. Ching, Corky Binggeli. -- 3rd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-118-09071-8 (pbk.); 978-1-118-17525-5 (ebk); 978-1-118-17526-2 (ebk); 978-1-118- 18173-7 (ebk); 978-1-118-18174-4 (ebk); 978-1-118-18175-1 (ebk) 1. Interior architecture. 2. Space (Architecture) 3. Interior decoration--History--21st century. I. Binggeli, Corky. II. Title. NA2850.C45 2012 729--dc23 2011028221 Printed in the United States of America. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 CONTENTS Preface................................. v 1 Interior Space........................... 1 2 Interior Design......................... 35 3 A Design Vocabulary................... 83 4 Interior Building Elements............. 147 5 Interior Environmental Systems........ 219 6 Lighting and Acoustics................. 247 7 Finish Materials....................... 287 8 Furnishings........................... 317 Appendix............................. 353 Glossary............................. 361 Bibliography.......................... 365 Index................................. 367 PREFACE We spend the majority of our lives indoors, in the interior spaces created by the structures and shells of buildings. These spaces provide the physical context for much of what we do, and give substance and life to the architecture that houses them. This introductory text is a visual study of the nature and design of these interior settings. The purpose of this primer is to introduce to students of interior design those fundamental elements that make up our interior environments. It outlines the characteristics of each element and presents the choices we have in selecting and arranging them into design patterns. In making these choices, emphasis is placed on basic design principles and how design relationships determine the functional, structural, and aesthetic qualities of interior spaces. This third edition retains the organizational scheme of the second edition, with text and illustrations updated and added to cover sustainable materials, water and energy usage, indoor air quality considerations, and recent developments in computer technology. The section on lighting reflects current design practice, lamp and fixture styles, and energy conservation. The coverage of furnishings responds to changes in the work environment and bariatric design. New residential topics include aging in place and visitability. Standards and codes incorporate current International Code Council (ICC) and Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) requirements. Finally, the Bibliography has been updated and a Glossary added. This exploration of the ways and means of developing interior spaces begins with space itself, for it is the prime material with which the interior designer must work. Chapter 1—Interior Space proceeds from a general discussion of architectural space to the particular characteristics of interior space in three dimensions and introduces the components of a building. Chapter 2—Interior Design outlines a method for translating programmatic needs and requirements into three-dimensional design decisions. Chapter 3—A Design Vocabulary explores the fundamental elements and principles of visual design and applies each of them to the unique field of interior design. Chapter 4—Interior Building Elements describes the major categories of interior elements and discusses how each affects the functional and aesthetic development of interior spaces. Chapter 5—Interior Environmental Systems outlines the environmental control systems that must be integrated with a building’s structure and the layout of the interior spaces. Chapter 6—Lighting and Acoustics addresses the lively and ever-present interaction of light and sound with the interior environment. v P R E FAC E Chapter 7—Finish Materials introduces the palette used by interior designers to modify the architectural elements of interior spaces. Chapter 8—Furnishings discusses basic types of movable and built-in components within the built environment. Since interior design is to a great extent a visual art, drawings are used extensively in this book to convey information, express ideas, and outline possibilities. Some of the illustrations are quite abstract; others are more specific and particular. All of them, however, should be viewed essentially as diagrams that serve to demonstrate design principles or to clarify the relationships existing among the elements of a design. The goal of interior design education is to prepare students to be responsible, well-informed, skilled professionals who make beautiful, safe, and comfortable spaces that respect the earth and its resources. The field of interior design encompasses both visual and functional design, as well as basic knowledge of building materials, construction, and technology. This introduction to interior design is therefore broad in scope. The intent, nevertheless, is to treat the subject with clarity, make it as accessible as possible, and stimulate further in-depth study and research. vi 1 Interior Space  Space is a prime ingredient in the designer’s palette and the quintessential element in interior design. Through the volume of space we not only move; we see forms, hear sounds, feel gentle breezes and the warmth of the sun, and smell the fragrances of flowers in bloom. Space inherits the sensual and aesthetic characteristics of the elements in its field. Space is not a material substance like stone and wood. It is inherently formless and diffuse. Universal space has no defining borders. Once an element is placed in its field, however, a visual relationship is established. As Space other elements are introduced into the field, multiple relationships are established between the space and the elements, as well as among the elements themselves. Space is formed by our perception of these relationships. 2  A R C HIT EC T URA L S PA C E The geometric elements—point, line, plane, and volume—can be arranged to articulate and define space. In architecture, these fundamental elements become linear columns and beams, planar walls, floors, and roofs. A column marks a point in space and makes it visible in three dimensions. Two columns define a spatial membrane through which we can pass. When supporting a beam, the columns delineate the edges of a transparent plane. A wall, an opaque plane, marks off a portion of amorphous space and separates here from there. A floor defines a field of space with territorial boundaries. A roof provides shelter for the volume of space beneath it. Column Two columns Columns and beam Defining Space Wall Floor Roof In architectural design, these elements are organized to give a building form, differentiate between inside and outside, and define the boundaries of interior space. 3 E X T E RI OR SPACE A building’s form, scale, and spatial organization are the designer’s response to a number of conditions— functional planning requirements, technical aspects of structure and construction, economic realities, and expressive qualities of image and style. In addition, the architecture of a building should address the physical context of its site and the exterior space. Buildings defining space A building can be related to its site in several ways. It can merge with its setting or dominate it. It can surround and capture a portion of exterior space. One of its faces can be made to address a feature of its site or define an edge of exterior space. In each case, due consideration should be given to the potential relationship between interior and exterior space, as A building in space defined by the nature of a building’s exterior walls. Buildings affect and are affected by conditions of their sites and the wider environment. Selecting and developing sites to reduce site disturbance, stormwater runoff, heat island effects, and light pollution contribute to sustainable design. Buildings …Dominating …Merging …Surrounding Exterior Walls …Fronting …Defining an edge 4  O U T S ID E T O I N S I DE A building’s exterior walls constitute the interface between our interior and exterior environments. In defining both interior and exterior space, they determine the character of each. They may be thick and heavy, expressing a clear distinction between a controlled interior environment and the exterior space from which it is isolated. They may be thin, or even transparent, and attempt to merge inside and outside. Thin walls Windows and doorways, the openings that penetrate a building’s exterior walls, are the spatial transitions between exterior and interior space. Their scale, character, and composition often tell Exterior Walls us something about the nature of the interior spaces that lie between them. Thick walls Special transitional spaces, belonging to both the outside world and the inside, can be used to mediate between the two environments. Familiar examples include a porch, a veranda, or an arcaded gallery. Many single-family residences have steps at all entrances that present barriers to people with physical disabilities. Visitability is a movement to construct new homes so that they can be readily lived in and visited by people with mobility impairments. Spatial Transitions 5 I N T E RIOR SPACE Upon entering a building, we sense shelter and enclosure. This perception is due to the bounding floor, wall, and ceiling planes of interior space. These are the architectural elements that define the physical limits of rooms. They enclose space, articulate its boundaries, and separate it from adjoining interior spaces and the outside. Floors, walls, and ceilings do more than mark off a simple quantity of space. Their form, configuration, and pattern of window and door openings also imbue the defined space with certain spatial or architectural qualities. We use terms such as grand hall, loft space, sun room, and alcove not simply to describe how large or small a space is, but also to characterize its scale and proportion, its quality of light, the nature of its enclosing surfaces, and the way it Entrances mark the transition from here to there. relates to adjacent spaces. Light Form Scale Outlook Spatial Qualities 6  IN T E RI OR S PA C E Interior design necessarily goes beyond the architectural definition of space. In planning the layout, furnishing, and enrichment of a space, the interior designer should be acutely aware of its architectural character as well as its potential for modification and enhancement. The design of interior spaces requires, therefore, an understanding of how they are formed by the building systems of structure and enclosure. With this understanding, the interior designer can effectively elect to work with, continue, or even offer a counterpoint to the essential qualities of an architectural space. Continuation Contrast Counterpoint The basic shell …modified architecturally …or through interior design Interior Space 7 STR U CTU RIN G SPACE Buildings typically consist of physical systems of structure, enclosure, and building services equipment. Structural Systems The superstructure is the vertical extension of the foundation system and consists of the columns, beams, and load-bearing walls that support the floor Roof structure and roof structures. The foundation system is the substructure that forms Beams the base of a building, anchors it firmly to the ground, and supports the building elements and spaces above. Bearing wall These systems must work together to support the following types of loads: Floor structure Dead Loads: How a building is constructed determines its dead load, which is a static vertical load comprising the weight of its structural and nonstructural components, including any equipment permanently attached to the structure. Columns Live Loads: How a building is used determines its live load, which is a movable or moving load comprising the weight of its occupants and any mobile equipment and furnishings. In cold climates, collected snow and water Superstructure impose an additional live load on a building. Dynamic Loads: Where a building is located determines Foundation piers its potential loading from the dynamic forces of wind Foundation wall and earthquake. Footing Foundation Snow Wind Live loads Dead loads Building Loads Earthquake 8  S T R U C T U RI N G S PA C E Enclosure System The building envelope consists of exterior walls, Roof windows, doors, and roof, which protect and shelter interior spaces from the exterior environment. Interior walls, partitions, and ceilings subdivide and define interior space. Many of these components are nonstructural in nature and carry no loads other than Exterior walls their own weight. Doors and windows Building Services Mechanical systems provide essential services to a building, such as the heating, ventilation, and air- conditioning of interior spaces. Plumbing systems supply water suitable for consumption and firefighting and dispose of sanitary waste. Electrical systems control and safely distribute power for lighting, equipment, security, communication, and vertical transportation. Building Envelope Power supply Vents Fuel Outside air Return air registers Branch circuits Water supply Lighting fixtures and Panelboard power receptacles Furnace Water heater Heating and air-conditioning registers Plumbing fixtures Waste disposal Building Services 9 STR U CTU RA L SY STEMS A building’s structural system is formed according to the geometry of its materials and the way they react to the forces applied to them. This structural form and geometry, in turn, influence the dimensions, proportion, and arrangement of the interior spaces within the Horizontal beams building volume. Vertical column Vertical column The two basic linear structural elements are the column and the beam. A column is a vertical support that transmits compressive forces downward along its shaft. The thicker a column is in relation to its height, the greater its load-bearing capacity and its ability to resist buckling resulting from off-center loading or lateral forces. A beam is a horizontal member that transmits forces perpendicular to itself along its length to its supports. A beam is subject to bending and deflection, which result in an internal combination of compressive and tensile stresses. These stresses are proportionally greater along the upper and lower region of a beam’s cross section. Increasing depth and placing material where stresses are greatest optimize a beam’s performance. A B C D A. Columns are subject to compression. B. Slender columns are susceptible to buckling. C. Thick columns may compress, or D. In the case of timber or concrete, they may split or fracture. Compression Tension Beams are subject to bending. Depth = D Span = L 2L 2D Increasing a beam’s depth enables it to span greater distances. 10  LIN EA R S T R U C T U R A L S Y S T E M S Columns mark points in space and provide a measure for its horizontal divisions. Beams make structural and visual connections across space between their supports. Together, columns and beams form a skeletal framework around interconnected volumes of space. A linear structural system may suggest a grid layout of repetitive spaces, but floor, wall, and ceiling planes are necessary for the support and enclosure of interior space. Floor and ceiling planes, which define the vertical limits of space, may consist of planar slabs or a hierarchical arrangement of girders (large primary beams) and beams and joists (a series of smaller, parallel beams). Walls and partitions need not be load-bearing and do not have to be aligned with the columns of a structural frame, except where serving as shear walls and providing for lateral stability. They are free to define the horizontal dimensions of space according to need, desire, or circumstance. Linear structural systems are cumulative by nature and Developing eminently flexible. They allow for growth, change, and the space by adaptation of individual spaces to their specific uses. addition Defining space by subtraction Non-load-bearing partitions Structural grid 11 P LA N AR STR U CTU RAL SYSTEMS The two principal types of planar structural elements Slab are the load-bearing wall and the horizontal slab. A bearing wall acts as a long, thin column in transmitting compressive forces to its support or foundation. Window and door openings within a bearing wall tend Bearing wall Bearing wall to weaken its structural integrity. Any opening must be spanned by an arch or a short beam called a lintel to support the wall load above and allow compressive stresses to flow around the opening to adjacent sections of the wall. A common pattern for bearing walls is a parallel layout spanned by floor joists and roof rafters, or by horizontal slabs. For lateral stability, pilasters and cross walls are often used to help brace bearing walls. While linear structural elements outline the edges of Small beams or lintels are required spatial volumes, planar elements such as bearing walls to span openings in bearing walls. define the physical limits of space. They provide a real sense of enclosure and privacy as well and serve as barriers against the elements. Varying degrees of spatial enclosure are possible with walls, depending on the size and location of openings within their planes. 12  PLA N A R S T R U C T U RA L S Y S T E M S A slab is a horizontal, rigid, usually monolithic plate. A common example is a reinforced concrete slab. A slab is able to support both concentrated and distributed loads because the resulting stresses can fan out across the plane of the slab and take various paths to the slab supports. When supported along two edges, a slab can be considered a wide, shallow beam extending in one direction. Supported along four sides, a slab becomes a two-way structural element. For greater efficiency and reduced weight, a slab can be modified in section to incorporate ribs. Slabs may be supported by a framework of beams and When integrally connected with reinforced concrete columns or by a masonry- or concrete-bearing wall. columns, flat slabs can be supported without beams. They form horizontal layers of space punctuated only by the shafts of the supporting columns. Sec ond ary bea m Two-way flat slabs thickened at their column supports define m bea horizontal layers of space. ary Prim One-way slab One-way joist slab Prim eam ary yb bea m Pri mar Two-way slab Two-way waffle slab Types of Slabs 13 VOL U M E TRIC STR UCTURAL SYSTEMS A volumetric structural system consists of a three- Three-dimensional space dimensional mass. The mass of the material occupies the void of space. Out of the mass is carved the volume of interior space. The efficiency of engineering methods and the strength of modern building materials have limited the use of pure volumetric structural systems, although three-dimensional computer design is changing this. At a small scale, stone and clay masonry units can be seen to be volumetric structural elements. At a larger scale, any building that encloses interior space can be viewed as a three-dimensional structure that must have strength in width, length, and depth. Three-dimensional form Three-dimensional material Walt Disney Concert Hall, Los Angeles, California, Frank Gehry, 2003 Composite systems combine linear, planar, and volumetric elements into three-dimensional compositions of form and space. 14  C O MP O S IT E S T R U C T U R A L S Y S T E M S Most structural systems are in fact composites of linear, planar, and volumetric elements. No one system is superior to all others in all situations. For the structural designer, each presents advantages and disadvantages, depending on the size, location, and intended use of a building. An interior designer should be aware of the character of the interior spaces each system defines. Plan e Volume Line Space 15 SHA P IN G IN TE RIOR SPACE Although a building’s structural system sets up the basic form and pattern of its interior spaces, these spaces are ultimately structured by the elements of interior design. The term “structure” is not used here in the sense of physical support. It refers to the selection Partitions and arrangement of interior elements such that their visual relationships define and organize the interior space of a room. Ceilings Non-load-bearing partitions and suspended ceilings are often used to define or modify space within the structural framework or shell of a building. The color, texture, and pattern of wall, floor, and ceiling surfaces affect our perception of their relative positions in space and our awareness of the room’s dimensions, scale, and proportion. Furniture Furniture groupings A dominant element Artificial lighting Daylighting Structuring Space with Interior Design Elements 16  S HA PIN G IN T E RI OR S PA C E Within a large space, the form and arrangement of furnishings can divide areas, provide a sense of enclosure, and define spatial patterns. Lighting, and the light and dark patterns it creates, can call our attention to one area of a room, deemphasize others, and thereby create divisions of space. Even the acoustic nature of a room’s surfaces can affect the apparent boundaries of a space. Soft, absorbent surfaces muffle sounds and can diminish our awareness of the physical dimensions of a room. Hard surfaces that reflect sounds within a room help to define its physical boundaries. Echoes can suggest a large volume. Finally, space is structured by the way we use it. The nature of our activities and the rituals we develop in Color, texture, and pattern performing them influence how we plan, arrange, and organize interior space. Communication Movement Individual and group activities 17 SPATI A L FORM Interior spaces are formed first by a building’s structural system, further defined by wall and ceiling planes, and related to other spaces by windows and doorways. Every building has a recognizable pattern of these elements and systems. Each pattern has an inherent geometry that molds or carves out a volume of space into its likeness. It is useful to be able to read this figure-ground relationship between the form of space-defining elements and that of the space defined. Either the structure or the space can dominate this relationship. Whichever appears to dominate, we should be able to perceive the other as an equal partner in the relationship. 18  S PAT I A L F ORM It is equally useful to see the alternating figure- ground dominance occurring as interior design elements, such as tables and chairs, are introduced and arranged within an interior space. When a chair is placed in a room, it not only occupies space, it also creates a spatial relationship between itself and the surrounding enclosure. We should see more than the form of the chair. We should also recognize the form of the space surrounding the chair after it has filled some of the void. As more elements are introduced into the pattern, the spatial relationships multiply. The elements begin to organize into sets or groups, each of which not only occupies space but also defines and articulates the spatial form. 19 SPATI A L D IME N SI ONS The dimensions of interior space, like spatial form, are directly related to the nature of a building’s structural system—the strength of its materials and the size and spacing of its members. The dimensions of a space, in turn, determine a room’s proportion and scale and influence the way it is used. One horizontal dimension of space, its width, has traditionally been limited by the materials and techniques used to span it. Today, given the necessary economic resources, almost any architectural structure is technically possible. Wood or steel beams and concrete slabs can span up to 30 feet (9 m). Wood or steel trusses can span even farther, up to 100 feet (30 m) or more. Longer roof spans are possible with space frames and a variety of curved structures, such as domes, suspension systems, and membranes supported by air pressure. Within the bounds of structural necessity, the width of an interior space should be established by the requirements of those who use the space and their need to set boundaries for themselves and their activities. Building designers have traditionally developed spatial relationships by sketching and model building. Computer- aided design (CAD) and building information management (BIM) software systems are changing the way that building designers work. These computer technologies allow designers to build interactive three-dimensional computer models of buildings, and to coordinate building systems as they design. 20  S Q UA RE S PA C E S The other horizontal dimension of space, its length, is limited by desire and circumstance. Together with width, the length of a space determines the proportion of a room’s plan shape. A square room, where the length of the space equals its width, is static in quality and often formal in character. The equality of the four sides focuses our attention in on the room’s center. This centrality can be enhanced or emphasized by covering the space with a pyramidal or dome structure. To deemphasize the centrality of a square room, the form of the ceiling can be made asymmetrical, or one or more of the wall planes can be treated differently from the others. Pyramids, domes, and similar roof forms can emphasize the centrality of square spaces. The placement of architectural elements, such as windows and stairways, can deemphasize the centrality of square spaces. 21 R E C TAN G U L A R SPACES Square rooms are rare and distinctive. More often, a room will have a length greater than its width. A rectangular space, normally spanned across its width, is eminently flexible. Its character and usefulness are determined not only by its proportion of width to length, but also by the 1:1 1:2 1:3 configuration of its ceiling, the pattern of its windows and doorways, and its relationship to adjacent spaces. When the length of a space is greater than twice its width, it tends to dominate and control the room’s layout and use. Given sufficient width, the space can be divided into a number of separate but related areas. A space whose length greatly exceeds its width encourages movement along its long dimension. This characteristic of linear spaces makes them suitable for use as gallery spaces or as connectors of other spaces. Horizontal dimensions alone do not determine the ultimate qualities and usefulness of a space. They only suggest opportunities for development. Co nne cto r Ga ller y Linear spaces may be subdivided with furnishings or by architectural elements. 22  R EC TA N G U L A R S PA C E S Both square and rectangular spaces can be altered by addition or subtraction, or by merging with adjacent spaces. These modifications can be used to create an alcove space or to reflect an adjoining element or site feature. Extension Addition Subtraction Merging Altering Space 23 C U RV IL IN E AR SPACES The nature of building materials and the techniques used to assemble them have established rectangular spaces as the norm. Curvilinear spaces are exceptional and usually reserved for special circumstances. The simplest curvilinear space is a circular one. It is compact and self-centering. Although it creates a focus on its center, a circular space also relates to the surrounding space equally in all directions. It has no front, back, or sides, unless these are defined by other elements. An elliptical space is more dynamic, having two centers and unequal axes. Other curvilinear spaces can be seen as transformations of circular or elliptical spaces that The radius of the curvature have been combined in an overlapping manner. The use of a wall depends on the of three-dimensional computer modeling is increasing scale and flexibility of the the ease of designing complex curves. material used to build it. Circle Ellipse Freeform 24  C U RV ILIN E A R S PA C E S Within a rectilinear context, a curvilinear space is Circular space serving highly visible. Its contrasting geometry can be used to as an organizing express the importance or uniqueness of its function. element It can define a freestanding volume within a larger space. It can serve as a central space about which other rooms are gathered. It can articulate the edge of a space and reflect an exterior condition of the building site. Circular space Curved walls are dynamic and visually active, leading situated as a our eyes along their curvature. The concave aspect of freestanding a curved wall encloses and focuses space inward, while object its convex aspect pushes space outward. An important consideration when we are dealing with Walls curving to respond to an exterior condition a curvilinear space is the integration of furniture and other interior elements into its volume. One way of resolving conflicting geometries is to arrange interior forms as freestanding objects within the curvilinear space. Another is to integrate the form of built-in furniture and fixtures with the curved boundaries of the space. Curved walls lead the eye. Furnishings may be placed as freestanding objects Extroversion within a curvilinear space or be integrated within the curved forms. Introversion 25 THE V E RTICA L D IMENSIO N O F SPACE The third dimension of interior space, its height, is established by the ceiling plane. This vertical dimension is as influential as the horizontal dimensions of a space in forming the spatial quality of a room. While our perception of a room’s horizontal dimensions is often distorted by the foreshortening of perspective, we can more accurately sense the relationship between the height of a space and our own body height. A measurable change in the height of a ceiling seems to have a greater effect on our impression of a space than a similar change in its width or length. Varying the ceiling height can have a powerful effect on the perceived scale of a space. 26  CEILINGS High ceilings are often associated with feelings of loftiness or grandeur. Low ceilings may connote cavelike coziness and intimacy. However, our perception of the scale of a space is affected not by the height of the ceiling alone, but by its relationship to the width and length of the space as well. A ceiling defined by the floor plane of the room above it is typically flat. A ceiling created by a roof structure can reflect its form and the manner in which it spans the space. Shed, gable, and vaulted ceiling forms give direction to space, while domed and pyramidal ceilings emphasize the center of a space. Lowering part of a ceiling can foster intimacy, modify The roof structure can sometimes be left exposed, acoustics, or add visual texture. Interior soffits, canopies, giving texture, pattern, and depth to the ceiling plane. and clouds can be used to partially lower a ceiling at its perimeter, or over areas of interest. Pyramids and domes emphasize the centrality of a space. 27 SPATI A L TR A N SITIO NS Although individual spaces may be designed and formed for a certain purpose or to house certain activities, they are gathered together within a building’s enclosure because they are functionally related to one another, are used by a common group of people, or share a common purpose. How interior spaces are related to one another is determined not only by their relative position in a building’s spatial pattern, but also by the nature of the spaces that connect them and the boundaries they have in common. Floor, wall, and ceiling planes serve to define and Openings within Wall Planes isolate a portion of space. Of these, the wall plane, being perpendicular to our normal line of sight, has the greatest effect as a spatial boundary. It limits our visual field and serves as a barrier to our movement. Openings created within the wall plane for windows and doorways reestablish contact with the surrounding spaces from which the room was originally cut. Communication Access Natural ventilation Daylighting and views 28  DOORWAY S Doorways provide physical access from one space to another. When closed, they shut a room off from adjacent spaces. When open, they establish visual, spatial, and acoustical links between spaces. Large open doorways erode the integrity of a room’s enclosure and strengthen its connection with adjacent spaces or the outdoors. The thickness of the wall separating two spaces is exposed at a doorway. This depth determines the degree of separation we sense as we pass through the doorway from one space to another. The scale and treatment of the doorway itself can also provide visual clues to the nature of the space being entered. The number and location of doorways along a room’s perimeter affect our pattern of movement within the space, and the ways we may arrange its furnishings and organize our activities. The widths of door openings affect the ease of movement for people and furnishings. A 36-inch (914-mm) wide doorway is reduced to about 32 inches (813 mm) when the thickness of the open door and that of its hardware are taken into consideration. Clear openings of less than 32 inches (813 mm) become barriers to standard wheelchairs, affecting accessibility, visitability, and aging- in-place. Doorway locations affect our patterns of movement and activities within a room. 29 W I ND OWS Windows let light and air into the interior spaces of buildings and provide views of the outdoors, or from one space to another. Their size and placement, relative to the wall plane in which they occur, also affect the degree of separation between an interior space and the exterior environment. Views to the outside and natural ventilation are important elements in sustainable design. Daylighting Framing views Windows framed within a wall plane attract our attention with their brightness and outlook but maintain the enclosure provided by the wall. Large windows and glass walls attempt, at least visually, to merge indoor and outdoor space. The visual treatment of the window frames in each case can either emphasize or minimize the perceived limits of interior space. Degree of enclosure …or transparency Interior windows can, in a similar manner, visually expand a room beyond its physical boundaries and allow it to become an integral part of the surrounding interior space. Thin frame Thick frame Interior windows …Connecting spaces 30  S TA I RWAY S Stairways are also important forms of spatial transitions between rooms. An exterior set of steps leading to a building’s entrance can serve to separate private domain from public passage and enhance the act of entry into a transitional space such as a porch or terrace. Entrances without steps support visitability and aging-in-place. Interior stairways connect the various levels of a building. Visitable entrance Exterior entrance The manner in which they perform this function shapes our movement in space—how we approach a stairway, the pace and style of our ascent and descent, and what we have an opportunity to do along the way. Wide, shallow steps can serve as an invitation, while a narrow, steep stairway may lead to more private places. Landings that interrupt a flight of steps can allow a stairway to change direction and give us room for pause, rest, and outlook. Public approach Private access The space a stairway occupies can be considerable, but its form can be fit into an interior in several ways. It can fill and provide a focus for a space, run along one of its edges, or wrap around a room. It can be woven into the boundaries of a space or be extended into a series of terraces. Inviting landings Overlooks Ascent Descent …Defining an edge …Filling space Stairways …As sculpture 31 M OD I F Y IN G SPACE The architectural planning and design for a new building take into account the nature of the activities to be Expanding upward housed; the spatial requirements for form, scale, and light; and the desired relationships among the various New opening for access interior spaces. When an existing building is to be used for activities other than those for which it was originally intended, however, activity requirements must be matched with the existing conditions. Where a misfit occurs, a modification of the existing spaces may be required. Two major types of alteration can be considered. The first involves structural changes in the boundaries of interior Horizontal extension Addition space and is more permanent in nature than the second. The second type of alteration involves nonstructural modifications and enhancement accomplished through interior design. A structural change may involve removing or adding walls to alter the shape and rearrange the pattern of existing spaces, or to add on new space. When making such alterations, it is extremely important to understand Rearranging Space the distinction between load-bearing walls and non-load- Reconfiguring an existing bearing partitions. It is, therefore, always advisable to space requires removing consult a professional engineer or architect when making walls and constructing structural changes to a space. new ones. Existing framing extended Adding New Space New supporting framework of columns and beams or a bearing wall 32  MO D IF Y I N G S PA C E Within the boundaries of a space, the existing pattern of openings can also be altered. Windows may be enlarged or added for better daylighting or to take advantage of a view. A doorway may be moved or added for better access to a room space or to improve the movement paths within the space. A large doorway may be created to merge two adjacent spaces. Any new or enlarged opening in a load- Extending space outward bearing wall requires a lintel or header sized to carry the wall load above the opening. To add a stairway, daylight a space with skylights, or create a vertical relationship between two levels of space, structural changes in the floor or ceiling plane may be required. Alterations in these horizontal structures of a building may require that the edges of any new openings Enlarging an existing opening be reinforced and supported by a system of beams, columns, posts, or bearing walls. New Wall Openings Structural support is required along edges of new floor and roof openings. Skylights Vertical relationships Stairways Vertical Expansion 33 I N T E RIOR D E SIG N Even as we deal with specific design issues and with different aspects of a building’s interior spaces, we should be mindful of the overall structure and patterns of the architecture. In particular, any changes in the physical boundaries of a space must be carefully planned so that the structural integrity of a building is not disturbed. Major structural changes in a space, therefore, require the assistance of a professional engineer or architect. Interior spaces can be modified and enhanced with nonstructural alterations, however. While structural changes alter the physical boundaries of space, nonstructural alterations are based on how we perceive, use, and inhabit space. These are the types of changes commonly planned and executed by interior designers. Interior Design 34 2 Interior Design  Interior design is the planning, layout, and design of the interior spaces within buildings. These physical settings satisfy our basic need for shelter and protection, set the stage for and influence the shape of our activities, nurture our aspirations, express the ideas that accompany our actions, and affect our outlook, mood, and personality. The purpose of interior design, The therefore, is the functional improvement, aesthetic enrichment, and psychological enhancement of the quality of life in interior spaces. Planning, Layout, and Design of the Parts The Architectural Context Interior Elements 36  IN T ER I OR DE S I G N The purpose of any design is to organize its parts into a coherent whole in order to achieve certain goals. In interior design, selected elements are arranged into three-dimensional patterns according to functional, aesthetic, and behavioral guidelines. The relationships among the elements established by these patterns ultimately determine the visual qualities and functional fitness of an interior space and influence how we perceive and use it. Intentions into a Whole Perception Use The Interior Environment 37 THE DE SIG N A N D CO NSTRUCTIO N TEAM Owner/Client The development of architectural forms and environmental systems for any building has implications for the interior designer, just as the information the interior designer collects about the client, the space, and the intended activities has implications for the work of Interior Designer Engineers the other members of the design team. The interior designer may be working as a sole Consultants practitioner; collaborating with other designers, architects, and design specialists in a larger design firm; or serving as a consultant to an architectural firm. In any case, the interior designer is likely to have contact with architects, engineers, and other consultants in Contractor Subcontractors other firms. In addition, the interior designer will work with client representatives, including facilities managers, administrators, and end users. The interior designer Subcontractors is often the liaison between the client and the sources for finishes or furnishings. During construction, the interior designer is also in contact with contractors Subcontractors and suppliers. All of these members of the design and construction team should strive to maintain an atmosphere of communication, cooperation, and mutual respect. Construction Manager Owner/Client Architect Engineers Interior Designer Consultants Contractor Contractor Subcontractors Contractor Subcontractors Subcontractors 38  T HE D ES I G N P ROC E S S We determine which elements to use and how to arrange them into patterns through the process of design. Although presented as a linear series of steps, the design lyze process is more often a cyclical, iterative one in which a Ana sequence of careful analysis, synthesis, and evaluation of available information, insights, and possible solutions is repeated until a successful fit between what exists and what is desired is achieved. ize Eva hes te lua Steps in the Design Process Sy nt Define Problem Formulate Program Develop Concept Assess Alternatives Make Design Decisions Develop and Refine Design Implement Design Reevaluate Completed Design The design problem is first defined. The ability to define Define Problem and understand the nature of the design problem is an essential part of the solution. This definition should [ ] Identify client needs. specify how the design solution should perform and what Who, what, when, where, how, why? goals and objectives will be met. [ ] Set preliminary goals. Functional requirements Aesthetic image and style Psychological stimulus and meaning 39 A N A LYSIS An analysis of the problem requires that it be broken Collect Information down into parts, that issues be clarified, and that values be assigned to the various aspects of the problem. Analysis also involves gathering relevant information that Organize Data would help us to understand the nature of the problem and develop appropriate responses. From the outset, it is worthwhile to know the limitations that will help shape Interpret Data the design solution. Any givens—what can change and what cannot be altered—should be determined. Any financial, legal, or technical constraints that will impinge Summarize Data on the design solution should be noted. Through the design process, a clearer understanding of the problem should emerge. New information may develop that could alter our perception of the problem and its solution. The analysis of a problem, therefore, often Formulate Program continues throughout the design process. [ ] What exists? Collect and analyze relevant information. Observations Document physical/cultural context. Describe existing elements. [ ] What is desired? Identify user needs and preferences. Clarify goals. Develop matrices, charts, and adjacency diagrams. [ ] What is possible? What can be altered…what cannot? Hypothesis What can be controlled…what cannot? What is allowed…what is prohibited? Define limits: time, economic, legal, and technical. Predictions If not consistent, modify hypothesis If consistent, formulate theory 40  SYNTHESIS From the analysis of the problem and its parts, we can begin to formulate possible solutions. This requires synthesizing—bringing together and integrating— responses to the various issues and aspects of the problem into coherent solutions. Design requires rational thought based on knowledge and arrived at through experience and research. Evidence-based design seeks to create better design outcomes by basing decisions on credible research. Also playing important roles in the design process are intuition and imagination, which add the creative dimension to the otherwise rational design process. There are several approaches one can take to generate ideas and synthesize possible design solutions, including: Isolate one or more key issues of value or importance, and develop solutions around them. Develop Concept Study analogous situations that could serve as models for developing possible solutions. [ ] Brainstorm ideas. Develop ideal solutions for parts of the problem, which Diagram major functional and spatial could be integrated into whole solutions and tempered relationships. by the reality of what exists. Assign values to key issues or elements. Search for ways to combine several good ideas into a single better one. Manipulate the parts to see how a change might affect the whole. Look at the situation from different points of view. [ ] Draft a concept statement. Verbalize the principal design ideas in a concise manner. [ ] Develop schematic designs. Establish major functional and spatial relationships. Show relative sizes and shapes of important features. Develop several alternatives for comparative study. 41 E VA L U ATION Design requires a critical view of alternatives and careful weighing of the strengths and weaknesses of each proposal until the best possible fit between problem and solution is achieved. Within a range of possible solutions, each must be evaluated according to the criteria set forth in the problem statement and further clarified in the problem analysis. Successive explorations of the problem and the evaluation of alternative solutions should help narrow the choices for design development. While the initial stages of the design process encourage divergent thinking about the problem, the design development phase requires a convergent focus on a specific design solution. Assess Alternatives [ ] Compare each alternative with design goals. [ ] Weigh the benefits and strengths of each alternative against the costs and liabilities. [ ] Rank alternatives in terms of suitability and effectiveness. Make Design Decisions [ ] Combine the best design elements into the final design. Draw preliminary plans. Construct scale drawings. Show important interior architectural details Test and Refine Ideas (e.g., walls, windows, built-in elements). Show furniture if appropriate. Computer design software may combine these steps. [ ] Make preliminary material selections. Develop alternative color and finish schemes. Collect material samples. [ ] Make preliminary furniture and lighting selections. [ ] Prepare a presentation to the client for feedback and preliminary approval. 42  IMP L E M E N TAT I ON Once a final decision has been made, the design proposal is developed, refined, and prepared for implementation. This includes the production of construction drawings and specifications and other services related to purchasing, construction, and supervision. Develop and Refine Design [ ] Develop plans, elevations, sections, and details. [ ] Develop specifications for interior finish materials, furnishings, and lighting. Implement Design [ ] Prepare construction drawings. [ ] Finalize specifications for interior finish materials, furnishings, and lighting. Reevaluate Completed Design [ ] Perform design reviews. [ ] Coordinate with architect, engineers, and consultants. [ ] Solicit client feedback. No design process is complete until a design solution [ ] Perform post-occupancy evaluation. that has been implemented is evaluated for its effectiveness in solving a given problem. This critical appraisal of a completed design can build up our knowledge base, sharpen our intuition, and provide valuable lessons that may be applied in future work. 43 G O OD A N D BA D D ESIGN One of the idiosyncrasies of the design process is that it does not always lead simply and inevitably to a single, obvious, correct answer. In fact, there is often more than one solution to a design problem. How then can we judge whether a design is good or bad? A design may be good in the judgment of the designer, the client, or the people who experience and use the design for any of several reasons: Because it functions well—it works. Because it is affordable—it is economical, efficient, and durable. Because it looks good—it is aesthetically pleasing. Because it recreates a feeling remembered from another time and place—it carries meaning. At times, we may judge a design to be good because we feel it follows current design trends or because of the impression it will make on others—it is in fashion, or it enhances our status. As these reasons suggest, there are several meanings that can be conveyed by a design. Some operate at a level generally understood and accepted by the general public. Others are more readily discerned by specific groups of people. Successful designs usually operate at more than one level of meaning and thus appeal to a wide range of people. A good design, therefore, should be understandable to its audience. Knowing why something was done helps to make a design comprehensible. If a design does not express an idea, communicate a meaning, or elicit a response, either it will be ignored or it will appear to be a bad design. 44  D ES IG N C RI T E RI A In defining and analyzing a design problem, one also develops goals and criteria by which the effectiveness of a solution can be measured. Regardless of the nature of the interior design problem being addressed, there are several criteria with which we should be concerned. Function and Purpose First, the design must satisfy its intended function and fulfill its purpose. Utility, Economy, and Sustainability Second, a design should exhibit utility, honesty, economy, and sustainability in its selection and use of materials. Form and Style Third, the design should be aesthetically pleasing to the eye and our other senses. Image and Meaning Fourth, the design should project an image and promote associations that carry meaning for the people who use and experience it. 45 SU STAIN ABL E D E SIGN Buildings use large amounts of materials and energy for their construction and operation. Sustainable design seeks to produce buildings that use energy and natural resources efficiently throughout their lives. Sustainable architecture strives to find architectural solutions that Reu se protect both the natural environment and the myriad Red forms of life on earth. Simply put, sustainable design uce strategies for building interiors include the following: Reduce, reuse, and recycle materials. Evaluate environmental and health impacts, from acquisition of raw materials through end-of-use recovery. Design for energy efficiency. Recycle Raw materials acquisition Resource recovery Manufacturing process Durability and performance Packaging and shipping Indoor air quality Installation 46  S U S TA INA B L E DE S I G N Interior designers can support sustainable design in the following ways: Reduce energy use by specifying efficient lighting and equipment. Design to facilitate daylight, views, and fresh air. Design for disassembly, so that materials can be taken apart and recycled. Limit the use of potable (drinkable) water in toilets and sinks. Select interior finishes and materials made from rapidly renewable, salvaged, refurbished, or recycled materials from local sources. Choose low volatile organic compound (VOC)-emitting products and installation materials. Specify products from manufacturers who minimize energy, water, and raw material consumption. Avoid waste in manufacturing, packaging, and installation. 47 HU M AN FACTORS The interior spaces of buildings are designed as places for human movement, activity, and repose. There should be, therefore, a fit between the form and dimensions of interior space and our own body dimensions. This fit can be a static one, as when we sit in a chair, lean against a railing, or nestle within an alcove. There can also be a dynamic fit, as when we enter a building’s foyer, walk up a stairway, or move through the rooms and halls of a building. A third type of fit is the way space accommodates our Static fit need to maintain appropriate social distances and to control our personal space. In addition to these physical and psychological dimensions, space also has tactile, auditory, olfactory, and thermal characteristics that influence how we feel and what we do within it. Dynamic fit Touch Hearing Smell Heat 48  HU MA N DI M E N S I ON S Our body dimensions, and the way we move through and perceive space, are prime determinants of architectural and interior design. In the following section, basic human dimensions are illustrated for standing, sitting, and reaching. Dimensional guidelines are also given for group activities, such as dining or conversing. There is a difference between the structural dimensions of our bodies and those dimensional requirements that result from the way we reach for something on a shelf, sit down at a table, walk down a set of stairs, or interact with other people. These are functional dimensions that vary according to the nature of the activity engaged in and the social situation. Always exercise caution when you use any set of dimensional tables or illustrations such as those on the Structural dimensions Functional dimensions following pages. These are based on typical or average measurements that may have to be modified to satisfy specific user needs. Variations from the norm will always exist as a result of the differences between men and women, among various age and genetic groups, and from one individual to the next. Most people will experience different physical ranges and abilities as they grow and age, and with changes in weight, height, and physical fitness. These changes over time affect how an interior environment will fit or accommodate the user. Bariatric design and design for aging-in-place are two ways that interiors can accommodate these conditions. Individual variati