intell test 1 study material.docx

**23/08/2024** Objective of today's class : understand pros and cons associated w/ diff methods of acquiring knowledge - Common sense : judgements based on our experience and not on empirical evidence - but not common to all of us, ppl have diff beliefs - sometimes common sense is not...

**23/08/2024** Objective of today's class : understand pros and cons associated w/ diff methods of acquiring knowledge - Common sense : judgements based on our experience and not on empirical evidence - but not common to all of us, ppl have diff beliefs - sometimes common sense is not sensical - smth feels true ≠ smth is true - **Confirmation bias** (a form of cognitive bias) : tendency to search for, interpret, favor + recall info in a way that confirms one's pre-existing beliefs - occurs when there is selective observation and premature closure - we look for info that confirms/supports our belief - we don't look for contradictory evidence (against our belief), we ignore it - common on the internet - what we search is important (ex. 'apples are bad for you', 'apples are good for you' (here, it's based on our opinion) - moral of the story: you can find evidence to support any belief on the internet - Critical thinking - info is readily available today - research is autonomous to us, anyone can do their own research - misinformation = false info that is spread, regardless of if there is intent to mislead - disinformation = deliberately and knowingly spreading misinformation (biased/manipulated info) - When studying/looking over notes, start with stuff idk/not like then stuff I like - After class, create 1 or 2 qs abt the material to test myself **27/08/2024** - 'I just know it' : wrong - its important to ask **how we learned smth** - not all sources of knowledge are equally good - its very easy to confirm existing beliefs - where does knowledge come from? **[Authority] :** 'an expert(s) says it's true' : knowledge from a respected source - Issues w/ this? even professionals can make mistakes - watch out for the **halo effect**: appearance doesn't equal personality - ask, does the person have the knowledge to be an authority in the field? - where does knowledge come from? [**tradition**] : 'it's always been the case' : knowledge from past consensus - Issues w/ this? society evolves **[media myth]** : 'I saw it on T.V. ,in the movies, etc.' : knowledge from popular media - issues w/ this? - issues w/ this? - Knowledge acquired using **the scientific method** is different... *What defines a science?* -Theory + research - **religion** ( refers to unseen forces and the knowledge of the world) is not falsifiable (so, it is able to be proven false), and its not a science **religion -\> knowledge is acquired by authority and tradition** - **philosophy** (study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality and existence. answers qs using **reason.** refer to unseen forces and knowledge of the world ) is not a science - **so, religion and philosophy are NOT sciences** - **science -\> knowledge is acquired by reason and empirical observation** \- 3 aspects of science : 1. reference to a body of knowledge 2. reference to a **systematic (orderly, organized) way of collecting knowledge** 3. based on **evidence** - where does scientific knowledge come from? **Rationalism** : 'it makes sense logically' : knowledge from **reasoning** - issues w/ this? \+ **Empiricism** : 'I observed it to be true' : knowledge based on **direct observation** (experience?) - Issues? - **Data : observable info acquired through empirical research** - goal of empirical research is to use data to answer qs and to develop and test ideas - 2 main approaches to data collection : quantitative data (numerical ) and qualitative data (non-numerical) - Approaches to data collection : Research approaches related to : \- (beyond the type of data collected) -ways of thinking abt the reality (social reality) being studied -research designs and methods use to collect data -the nature of data collected One approach is not superior to the other (qualitative or quantitative), but they both give diff results. **30/08/2024** - qualitative : qualities, ppl's perspective, what smth means to someone - what exactly is social science? an umbrella term referring to the 7 main social sci disciplines : sociology, anthropology, poli sci, economics, psychology, geography, and history - theory : A unified explanation for phenomenon based on numerous observations using the scientific method - **hypothesis:** testable prediction derived from observation and theories - there are several approaches to research that go beyond just testing hypothesis: (see ppt for schema) - **inductive reasoning** : for qualitative methods and exploratory research goals - **deductive reasoning** : for positivist framework, quantitative methods and explanatory research goals - The major paradigms in social science : - **a paradigm** : a set of assumptions dictating how a researcher interprets and interacts with the world - **3 types : positivist, interpretive, critical** - 1\) positivist : Social reality consist of **objective** facts that can be measured , social sciences should be studied in the same way as **natural sciences.** - 2\) interpretive : reality is **subjective and socially constructed** , **meanings are constructed based on experiences** within cultural and historical contexts - 3\) critical : Research is not value free, **scientific facts can only be interpreted in context,** there may be an objective reality, but it is **distorted by bias** (e.g.: sexism) **6/09/2024 (not on the quiz)** **UNIT 2 : Evaluating texts** *Objectives of today's class* : understand how academic texts differ from non-academic texts, to understand what bias is and how to spot it, understand the importance of peer-review *The final assignment :* - it involves writing a literature discussion and sharing your findings on a topic + and oral presentation on that topic - skills needed : -ability to read an understand articles (practice -\> article summary assignment) \- ability to find resources (practice -\> library assignment) -ability to consolidate info from multiple sources (practice -\> oral presentation) *What is an academic text :* - texts can be divided into 2 broad categories : -academic (scholarly, intended for scholarly and research communities, written in an objective, formal and factual manner) -\> theses, textbooks, literature reviews, journal articles, etc. -non-academic (non-scholarly, intended for the general public, written in an informal, subjective, emotional and personal manner, references are optional) -\> newspapers, magazines, autobiographies, blogs, etc. - most of the texts people come across in their day-to-day life are non-academic - there are many good quality non-academic texts : -news media (e.g. : Globe and Mail, CBC News) -special interest or trade publications (e.g : Psychology Today, National Geographic) -government websites - academic work is written by academics (scholars in a field) for academics (other scholars in the field) - more confidence in info (esp if peer-reviewed), however, academic sources can be : -hard to read an understand, hard to access However , there is considerable variability in the authoritativeness of non-academic sources *Bias :* - texts should be objective, fact-based and avoid bias - what is bias : a disproportionate weight in favor of or against an idea or thing (prejudiced, angled view) - we see it in media reporting (sometimes, discreetly) - Academic texts may not be completely free of bias, but experts do strive to eliminate bias *Example : Trudeau's Barbie post (2 articles)* - Are these academic/scholarly articles? No. News -\> not scholarly. cause lack of reference, etc. - Do the authors discuss the events differently? Yes.1^st^= very factual. 2^nd^ = opinion piece (clear that they don't like Trudeau, it's personal). - Do the authors seem to hold diff views of PM Trudeau? 1^st^= we don't know what the author thinks (objective). 2^nd^ = we know that author doesn't like Trudeau, targeted - Do these views seem fair? 1^st^= fair. 2^nd^= less fair - Do these seem biased? 1^st^= general statements BUT there is selection bias (author chose which external comments to include in the piece) , not biased. 2^nd^= very biased. *The importance of peer review* - Scholarly articles are generally **peer reviewed** ; magazine and other articles are not - peer review is a system used to assess the quality of a manuscript b4 it is published -independent researchers, in related areas, access the scientific merit of the manuscript - Manuscript: A text which has been submitted for publication and is not yet published