European Union Past Paper PDF

[INTEGRACIOS EXAM PT1] **1. The European Idea from ancient to early modern times: the origins of the concept of Europe, shared heritage, and unification efforts.** - The idea of \"Europe\" began with the ancient Greeks, who recognized it as a distinct landmass separate from Asia and Africa....

[INTEGRACIOS EXAM PT1] **1. The European Idea from ancient to early modern times: the origins of the concept of Europe, shared heritage, and unification efforts.** - The idea of \"Europe\" began with the ancient Greeks, who recognized it as a distinct landmass separate from Asia and Africa. In medieval times, Europe was referred to as \"Christendom,\" unified under Christianity as a common cultural and religious identity. During the Renaissance, thinkers like Erasmus emphasized shared European values, extending beyond the concept of geography. Charlemagne\'s Holy Roman Empire represented an early attempt to unite Europe under one Christian ruler, symbolizing both cultural and political unity. By the early modern era, Europe had developed a collective identity that laid the foundation for future cooperation and unification. **2. Projects of European unification before the 20th century: two selected case studies.** - **Charlemagne\'s Empire (800 AD):**\ Charlemagne established a vast empire, often referred to as the Holy Roman Empire, which unified much of Western Europe through military conquests and Christianity. This early attempt at unity fostered a sense of shared heritage. However, after Charlemagne\'s death, the empire fragmented, demonstrating the challenges of maintaining unity through force alone. - **Napoleon\'s Empire (1804--1815):**\ Napoleon sought to bring Europe together under French ideals such as equality and secular governance inspired by the French Revolution. Although his empire expanded rapidly through military strength, resistance from other nations ultimately led to its collapse. Napoleon\'s experience highlights the limitations of forced unity, as cultural and national differences often resulted in conflict and eventual disintegration. **3. European unity through force versus through diplomacy: analysis and examples.** - **Unity Through Force:**\ Both Charlemagne and Napoleon attempted to unify Europe through military conquest. While these efforts achieved short-term success, they often faced strong resistance and ended in failure. Unity imposed by force typically proved unsustainable due to national and cultural differences. - **Unity Through Diplomacy:**\ Figures like Metternich, on the other hand, focused on achieving European stability through diplomacy, as demonstrated at the Congress of Vienna in 1815. This diplomatic strategy aimed to balance power among European nations and establish lasting peace. While diplomacy often resulted in more enduring unity, it was vulnerable to challenges like rising nationalism. Comparing the two methods reveals that unity achieved through force was temporary, whereas diplomatic efforts, though fragile, aimed to create longer-lasting peace. **4. European unity as an idea of the Age of the Enlightenment** - Enlightenment philosophers like Immanuel Kant and Voltaire championed the ideals of reason, universal humanity, and peace, which inspired early notions of European unity. In his well-known essay *Perpetual Peace*, Kant envisioned a world where nations cooperated in a federation to maintain lasting peace. This Enlightenment vision laid the groundwork for cross-border cooperation concepts, such as the League of Nations, and influenced the intellectual foundations of modern European integration, emphasizing peace through shared values rather than force. **5. The consequences of the First World War on European unity** - World War I had catastrophic effects on Europe, resulting in immense loss of life and widespread economic turmoil. It also led to the collapse of several empires, including the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian Empires, and left Germany burdened with heavy reparations under the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. These terms fostered resentment, particularly in Germany, setting the stage for future conflicts. However, the war also sparked efforts to prevent such devastation from recurring. The desire for peace led to the creation of the League of Nations in 1920, marking a key milestone in the pursuit of European cooperation. **6. The League of Nations: successes and failures** - **Successes:** The League aimed to prevent wars and foster international cooperation. It succeeded in mediating smaller conflicts, promoting disarmament, and addressing humanitarian issues. These efforts helped inspire later international organizations and agreements. - **Failures:** Despite its noble ideals, the League lacked the enforcement power to ensure compliance. For instance, the U.S. never joined, undermining its authority. The League failed to deter aggression by Japan and Italy in the 1930s, ultimately proving unable to prevent World War II. Its weaknesses demonstrated the need for a stronger organization, influencing the establishment of the United Nations after World War II. **7. The Pan-European Project** - **Origins:** Count Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi proposed the idea in his 1923 manifesto *Pan-Europa*. He advocated for a European federation to prevent wars and counter the rise of nationalism. His vision faced criticism from Soviet Russia, economic challenges, and the need for political unity before full economic integration. - **Goals:** The project sought to establish a federal structure for Europe, focusing on economic cooperation and shared governance. - **Challenges:** Political support for the idea was limited during the interwar period. The rise of authoritarian regimes further undermined the broader vision of European unity. - **Legacy:** The Pan-European idea influenced post-World War II integration efforts, including the European Union's formation. It laid the intellectual foundation for the European Coal and Steel Community, with support from leaders like Briand and Einstein. It also emphasized national independence as a step toward global unity. **8. Aristide Briand\'s Memorandum** - In 1929, French Foreign Minister Aristide Briand proposed the concept of a \"European Federal Link,\" advocating for a formal federation of European states to foster peace and prevent future conflicts. His memorandum gained the support of 26 nations and represented one of the earliest formal calls for European unity. Although it did not lead to immediate action, Briand\'s proposal marked a significant milestone in European integration history, reflecting a desire to address Europe\'s challenges through diplomatic solutions. **9. Key moments in the Interwar Period in Europe** - **1919:** Treaty of Versailles -- Germany is burdened with heavy reparations and loses significant territory. - **1920:** The League of Nations is established, becoming the first global organization dedicated to peace. - **1929:** Briand\'s Memorandum introduces the idea of a European federation, representing an early unification effort. - **1933:** Hitler rises to power in Germany, promoting aggressive nationalism. - **1938--39:** Germany annexes Austria, invades Poland, and starts World War II. The League of Nations fails to prevent these actions, signaling the breakdown of diplomatic unity before WWII. **10. The Fascist and Nazi views on European unification** - **Fascist Vision:** Mussolini envisioned a Roman-style empire dominated by Italy, aiming to unify parts of Europe and North Africa through military conquest. - **Nazi Vision:** Hitler sought to create a racial hierarchy with Germany at its apex, using racial ideology and military conquest to dominate Europe. Nazi ideologies emphasized totalitarianism, anti-democratic values, and rejection of liberalism and the political models endorsed by other European nations. **11. The Communist view of European unification** - **Marxist-Leninist Perspective:** This perspective supported a global proletarian revolution rather than European unification. It rejected unification ideals associated with individual freedoms, advocating state control over the economy, collective ownership, and censorship of mass media. - Rejected the Marshall Plan, viewing it as a capitalist agenda. - Emphasized Lenin's principle of self-determination for peoples, opposing integration through Western models. **12. The Marshall Plan** - Also referred to as the \"European Recovery Plan,\" the Marshall Plan was introduced after WWII, when Europe faced severe devastation: millions of citizens had died, cities were destroyed, and regions were on the brink of famine. Transportation and infrastructure were heavily damaged. - On April 3, 1948, U.S. President Harry Truman signed the Marshall Plan, providing American aid to help Europe\'s economic recovery. - U.S. Secretary of State George Marshall played a key role in its formulation. - The aid was distributed to 16 countries (including European nations). - The plan became a major catalyst for the creation of NATO in 1949. **13. The Schuman Declaration** - **Date**: May 9, 1950 - French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman, with the help of Jean Monnet, introduced the plan. - Post-World War II, Europe faced economic and political turmoil. - France and Germany had a history of disputes over industrial resources like coal and steel. - To promote peace and rebuild Europe, the US supported initiatives like the Marshall Plan. - The proposal suggested a supranational authority to manage production and provide equal access, allowing other nations to join. - **Outcome**: - This led to the establishment of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1951, marking the start of European institutional cooperation. - May 9 became known as **Europe Day**, symbolizing unity. **14. The European Coal and Steel Community (Treaty of Paris, 1952--2002)** - Established after World War II. - Created a shared market for coal and steel to eliminate competition over industrial resources among European nations. - Founding members: France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands (referred to as \"The Six\"). - The treaty, proposed by Robert Schuman and Jean Monnet, was signed in 1952. - **Goal**: - Promote peace and collaboration by regulating coal and steel production. - Strengthen economic interdependence among member states. - Open membership to all European countries committed to freedom of choice. **15. The Treaties of Rome: context, provisions, institutional setting** - The success of the ECSC motivated greater economic integration. - Post-war recovery required enhanced collaboration. - Signed by \"The Six\" on March 25, 1957; it remains in effect today. - **Official names**: - Treaty establishing the European Economic Community (EEC). - Treaty establishing Euratom (European Atomic Energy Community). - A separate entity, Euratom, was created under Jean Monnet to oversee nuclear energy. - The treaties took effect on January 1, 1958. - Significance: A major step forward in creating a common market. **16. The Empty Chair Crisis** - In July 1965, the EU Commission proposed changes to finance the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), enhance the budgetary role of the Parliament, and strengthen the Commission's powers. - French President Charles de Gaulle opposed these reforms, arguing they undermined national sovereignty. - As a result, France boycotted EEC meetings in 1965, disrupting decision-making. - **Luxembourg Compromise (1966)**: - Allowed member states to veto decisions affecting vital national interests. - Following the failure of the Fouchet Plan and the UK's membership bid, the compromise aimed to maintain unity while preserving state sovereignty. - De Gaulle backed the CAP but disagreed with enhancing the Parliament\'s role, thus limiting the Commission\'s power. **17. The Merger Treaty** - Objective: To combine the EEC, ECSC, and Euratom into a single framework. - Signed in April 1965 in Brussels by \"The Six.\" - Resulted in the establishment of the \"European Communities.\" - Transformed the EEC Commission into the \"Commission of the European Communities.\" - Took effect on July 1, 1967. - Played a foundational role in the European Union. - The Treaty of Lisbon eventually dissolved the \"European Communities.\" **18. The First Enlargement of the Communities (1973)** - Driven by both political and economic reasons for expanding the EC. - The UK previously attempted to join but was vetoed by de Gaulle. - New members: Denmark, Ireland, and the UK. - Marked the initial progress toward the Euro, as the EC began preparing for a unified currency starting in 1970. **19. The Mediterranean Enlargements (1981 and 1986)** - Greece joined in 1981; Spain and Portugal followed in 1986. - All transitioned from authoritarian regimes to democracies. - This expansion brought Greece (1981), Spain, and Portugal (1986) as new members. - The EC increased financial aid to less developed regions. **20. Norway\'s Relationship with the European Community** - Norway rejected membership in referenda held in 1972 and 1994 due to political concerns. - Despite this, Norway is a founding member of international organizations like the UN, NATO, the Council of Europe, and the EFTA. - Norway participates in the European Economic Area (EEA) but has no current plans to reapply for EU membership. **21. The Single European Act** - Economic stagnation during the 1970s hindered progress among EC members. - Signed in Luxembourg in 1986. - Italy and Greece sought more influence for the European Parliament. - Aimed to create a unified European market by 1992. - Introduced stronger cooperation mechanisms for the single market. - Empowered the European Parliament with veto rights. - Facilitated stronger integration and the accession of new member states. **22. The Schengen Agreement** - Aimed to eliminate internal borders in Europe to boost free movement and economic integration. - Border checks had previously hindered trade, tourism, and mobility. - By the 1980s, not all EC members were ready to remove border controls due to national security and immigration concerns. - Signed on June 14, 1985, in Schengen, Luxembourg, by five countries: Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. - Today, the Schengen Area includes 29 countries, comprising most EU members (except Ireland) and non-EU countries like Switzerland, Iceland, Norway, and Liechtenstein. - Promotes the free movement of people within the EU. **23. Fall of the Communist Bloc: Consequences on European Unity** - The Cold War context: For decades, the EU was divided between Western democracies and Eastern communist states. - Between 1989 and 1991, significant changes took place: the fall of the Berlin Wall, revolutions in Eastern Europe, and the dissolution of the Soviet Union. These events marked the end of the bipolar world order. - The reunification of Germany after the collapse of East Germany transformed Germany into a larger and more influential member of the European Union. - The EU had to adapt its structure to integrate Eastern European members, which involved reforms in voting systems and decision-making processes. - These changes presented opportunities such as gaining access to new markets and resources. - Additionally, NATO expanded its role in Eastern Europe by focusing on security cooperation, emphasizing the transition from military to regional stability efforts. **24. The Treaty of Maastricht** - The success of the Single European Act and the conclusion of the Cold War created momentum for deeper European integration. - Signed in Maastricht in 1992, the treaty replaced the European Economic Community (EEC) with the European Union (EU). - It introduced the concept of EU citizenship, granting rights to all citizens to move, live, work, and vote in elections across member states. - The treaty also introduced plans for a common currency, establishing the economic and monetary union that included the creation of the European Central Bank in 1998. **25. The Pillar Structure of the European Union** - The Maastricht Treaty of 1992 introduced the pillar structure of the European Union, outlining three primary areas of cooperation: - **First Pillar**: Economic, environmental, and social policies under the European Communities. - **Second Pillar**: Common foreign and security policy, promoting intergovernmental cooperation in diplomacy and defense. - **Third Pillar**: Justice and home affairs, covering cooperation on law enforcement, asylum, and immigration. **26. EU Accession Wave of 1995** - The fourth enlargement of the EU came into effect on January 1, 1995. - On March 30, 1994, accession negotiations were concluded with Austria, Sweden, and Finland. - This enlargement increased EU membership to 15 states and expanded EU influence in Northern and Central Europe. - The new members gained access to the single market, enhancing their economic integration with the rest of the EU. **27. The Treaty of Amsterdam** - EU membership grew significantly, and the eastern enlargement required new voting and decision-making rules. - The treaty was signed in 1997 and entered into force in 1999. - Member states agreed to transfer certain powers from national governments to the EU, focusing on adapting civil and criminal laws and enacting a common foreign and security policy. - This treaty strengthened the EU\'s ability to address regional and global challenges. **28. The Treaty of Nice** - The Treaty of Nice was signed in 2001 and came into effect in 2003. - It aimed to prepare the EU for its largest enlargement to date, which included ten new member states joining in 2004 (Czech Republic, Hungary, Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia), followed by two more in 2007. (Romania and Bulgaria) - The treaty reduced the size of the European Commission to 27 members. - It reformed EU institutions to make them more efficient in handling an enlarged EU of 27 member states. **29. The East-Central European Enlargement Waves** - Former communist countries, including Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic, sought EU membership after the collapse of the Iron Curtain. - The EU established the Copenhagen Criteria in 1993, requiring candidate states to have a stable democracy, a functioning market economy, and the ability to adopt EU laws. - **2004 Enlargement**: This wave added Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Cyprus, and Malta. - **2007 Enlargement**: Bulgaria and Romania joined the EU. - **2013 Enlargement**: Croatia became the 28th member of the EU. **30. From the Constitutional Treaty to the Treaty of Lisbon** - The Constitutional Treaty was signed in 2004 but faced setbacks when referenda in France and the Netherlands rejected it in 2005. - The Treaty of Lisbon was signed in 2007 and came into force in 2009 as a more practical way to achieve similar reforms. - The Treaty of Lisbon clarified the relationship between member states and the Union and simplified decision-making processes in the EU. - This treaty was a compromise that preserved many provisions of the Constitutional Treaty. **31. The Treaty of Lisbon: General Provisions** - The Treaty of Lisbon was signed in 2007 and entered into force in 2009. - It played a key role in unifying both the Treaty of Rome and the Treaty of Maastricht under a single framework. - The three-pillar structure introduced earlier was abandoned, and the EU was granted full legal personality. - The treaty allowed the EU to sign international treaties in areas where it held distributed powers and to join international organizations. Member states could only sign international agreements compatible with EU laws. - The Treaty of Lisbon reinforced the EU\'s principles of democracy, emphasizing **representative democracy** and **participatory democracy**. - Key institutional changes: - The **Commission** was renamed the \"European Commission,\" officially separating it from the Council of Ministers and recognizing it as an EU institution. - The **co-decision procedure** became the standard legislative process in the EU. **32. Ratification of the Treaty of Lisbon: Challenges in Old and New Europe** - **Challenges in Old Europe**: - Established EU countries like France and the Netherlands faced strong backlash against deeper integration, especially after rejecting the Constitutional Treaty in 2005. - Concerns about growing EU powers and the potential loss of national sovereignty played a major role in these debates. - In Ireland, a 2008 referendum initially rejected the Lisbon Treaty. However, a second referendum in 2009 led to its approval. - **Challenges in New Europe**: - Eastern European states were more supportive of the Lisbon Treaty, seeking greater integration to secure economic development and continued EU investments. - However, concerns over the balance of power between larger and smaller states in decision-making remained an issue. **33. Decision-Making in the EU After Lisbon** - The Treaty of Lisbon reformed decision-making processes within the EU: - It increased the powers of the European Parliament, particularly in areas such as environmental policy and trade. - Introduced two new positions: - **The President of the European Council**: Represents the EU at the highest level. - **The High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy**: Coordinates the EU\'s foreign and security policies. - The treaty replaced unanimity with **qualified majority voting** in many areas, expediting decision-making processes. - The Lisbon Treaty abolished the old pillar structure, redistributing competencies between the EU and its member states. It reinforced the EU\'s role in areas like health, education, and consumer protection, although these remained primarily the responsibility of individual member states. **34. EU Institutions and Bodies in the Treaty of Lisbon** - **The European Parliament**: - Gained legislative powers and now oversees meetings of the heads of state. - It represents EU citizens and is led by an elected president. - **The European Council**: - Formally recognized as an EU institution, it sets the political direction for the Union and addresses key priorities. - **High Representative**: - Appointed by a qualified majority of the EU Council and authorized to propose initiatives. - **The Council of Ministers**: - Adopted a double-majority voting system, giving weight to both citizens and member states. - **The Commission**: - The legitimacy of the Commission increased, and the president assumed greater responsibility for internal organization. - **The Court of Justice of the EU**: - Its jurisdiction was extended to cover all areas of EU activity, with the exception of the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). **35. The Road to the Eurozone** - The Eurozone comprises EU member states that have adopted the euro as their official currency. - The **Maastricht Treaty** established the economic and monetary union and set criteria for adopting the euro, including: - **Price stability**: Inflation rates must be no more than 1.5 percentage points above the average of the three best-performing member states. - **Sound public finances**: Budget deficits must not exceed 3% of GDP. - The euro was launched on January 1, 1999, with 11 member states. Today, 20 countries use the euro. - Goals of the euro: - To unify economic policies among member states. - To promote growth, stability, and economic integration. - To increase welfare through lower prices and easier cross-border trade. **36. Priorities of the Europe 2020 Agenda: The European Semester** - The Europe 2020 Strategy, adopted in 2010, aimed to create a sustainable, inclusive, and competitive EU economy. - It established five key objectives: 1. **Employment**: Raise employment rates to 75% of people aged 20--64. 2. **Innovation**: Increase investment in research and development to 3% of GDP. 3. **Education**: Reduce school dropout rates below 10%. 4. **Social inclusion**: Lift at least 20 million people out of poverty. 5. **Climate and energy**: Reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 20%. - During the **European Semester**, member states align their budgetary and economic policies with goals set at the EU level. **37. Candidate Countries for EU Membership** - Countries wishing to join the EU must meet the **Copenhagen Criteria**: stable democratic institutions, a functioning market economy, and the adoption of EU laws. - Accession follows several steps: 1. **Application**: A formal request is submitted to the European Council. 2. **Screening**: The EU evaluates whether the country meets the criteria. 3. **Negotiation**: Discussions focus on individual chapters of EU law. 4. **Accession Treaty**: Formal agreement between the EU and the candidate, detailing membership terms. - Only after all conditions are met can the candidate state join the EU. **38. Turkey's Accession Bid** - Turkey applied for EU membership in 1987 and was granted candidate status in 1999. - Negotiations began in 2005 but stalled due to several issues, including: - Concerns about human rights and the Cyprus conflict. - Issues such as democratic backsliding, press freedom, and judicial independence. - Accession talks have largely frozen, with minimal progress in recent years. - Many EU member states are skeptical about Turkey's membership prospects due to its human rights record and the unresolved Cyprus dispute. **39. EU as a Global Actor: Trade and Foreign Aid** - **Trade**: - The EU is a global trade leader, signing free trade agreements with countries like Canada, Japan, and South Korea. - The European Central Bank and the European Investment Bank play major roles in global finance. - **Aid**: - The EU is the world's largest foreign aid donor, supporting developing countries with humanitarian assistance, disaster relief, and economic development. - **Global Forums**: - The EU participates in forums like the WTO and is active in climate change negotiations. - **Strategic Partnerships**: - Collaborates with global players like the US, China, and India, focusing on trade, security, and environmental policies. **40. The Future of EU Integration: Balancing Soft and Hard Power** - The EU faces global challenges, including navigating a potential bipolar order (US-China) versus a multipolar world. - **Soft Power**: - The EU uses diplomacy, cultural ties, and its commitment to democracy and human rights to shape global governance. - **Hard Power**: - Efforts to strengthen defense cooperation and trade policies are ongoing, with steps toward an integrated European Defense Union. - Future integration will require deeper cooperation in defense, foreign policy, and internal security, especially regarding migration, terrorism, and climate change. - The EU must balance the sovereignty of member states with the need for greater unity to address global challenges.