European History: Origins and Unification

The European Idea: Origins and Unification Efforts

• The concept of "Europe" originated with the ancient Greeks, distinguishing it from Asia and Africa.
• Medieval Europe was often referred to as "Christendom," unified by Christianity.
• The Renaissance saw thinkers like Erasmus emphasizing shared European values.
• Charlemagne's Holy Roman Empire represented an early attempt at unifying Europe under one Christian ruler.
• Early modern Europe developed a collective identity laying a foundation for future cooperation.

European Unification Before the 20th Century

• Charlemagne's Empire (800 AD): A vast empire, encompassing much of Western Europe through military conquest and Christianity; however, fragmentation followed Charlemagne's death.
• Napoleon's Empire (1804-1815): Napoleon aimed to unite Europe under French ideals, emphasizing equality and secular governance. His empire expanded but ultimately collapsed due to resistance from other nations and cultural/national differences.

European Unity: Force vs. Diplomacy

• Unity through force: Charlemagne and Napoleon attempted unification through military conquest which proved unsustainable due to resistance and cultural/national differences.
• Unity through diplomacy: Figures like Metternich focused on diplomacy, demonstrated at the Congress of Vienna (1815), aiming for balance of power and lasting peace, although vulnerable to rising nationalism.

European Unity as an Idea of the Enlightenment

• Enlightenment philosophers like Kant and Voltaire championed reason, universal humanity, and peace (e.g., Kant's Perpetual Peace), influencing early concepts of European unity.
• This vision laid groundwork for cross-border cooperation, influencing later concepts like the League of Nations.

The Consequences of WWI on European Unity

• WWI led to immense loss of life, economic turmoil, and the collapse of several European empires.
• The Treaty of Versailles imposed harsh reparations on Germany, creating resentment.
• Despite the desire for peace, WWI demonstrated the challenges of preventing conflict in the future, which motivated the creation of the League of Nations in 1920.

The League of Nations: Successes and Failures

• Successes: Mediated smaller conflicts, promoted disarmament, and addressed humanitarian issues.
• Failures: Lacked enforcement power, failed to deter aggression (e.g., Japan and Italy), ultimately unable to stop WWII. The weaknesses highlighted the need for a stronger international organization, contributing to the formation of the UN.

The Pan-European Project

• Origins: Count Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi's 1923 manifesto proposed a European federation to prevent future wars.
• Goals: Establishing a federal structure for Europe, focusing on economic cooperation and shared governance.
• Challenges: Limited political support during the interwar period; rise of authoritarian regimes undermined the vision.

Key Moments in the Interwar Period

• 1919: Treaty of Versailles, imposing harsh conditions on Germany.
• 1920: Establishment of the League of Nations.
• 1929: Briand's Memorandum: proposed a European federation to prevent future wars.
• 1933: Hitler's rise to power in Germany promoted aggressive nationalism.

The Fascist and Nazi Views on European Unification

• Fascist vision: Mussolini aimed to create a Roman-style empire, unifying parts of Europe and North Africa through military conquest.
• Nazi vision: Hitler sought to create a racial hierarchy, with Germany at the apex through conquest and domination. Both emphasized totalitarianism and rejection of liberal values.

The Communist View on European Unification

• Marxist-Leninist perspective: Rejected European unification, advocating for a global proletarian revolution instead.
• Criticism of the Marshall Plan: Viewed it as a capitalist agenda.

The Marshall Plan

• A U.S. initiative to aid European recovery after World War II.
• Provided financial and logistical support to rebuild war-torn Europe.
• Key catalyst in the creation of NATO.

The Schuman Declaration (May 9, 1950)

• Proposed the creation of a supranational authority to manage coal and steel production.
• Aimed to promote peace and economic interdependence among European countries.
• Led to the establishment of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1951, marking the beginning of European institutional cooperation.

The Treaties of Rome (1957)

• Established the European Economic Community (EEC) and Euratom.
• Aim: Motivated by the success of ECSC, these treaties aimed for greater economic integration.
• Signed by the six founder members (France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands).

The Empty Chair Crisis (1965)

• French President Charles de Gaulle opposed reforms to the CAP, arguing they undermined national sovereignty.
• France boycotted EEC meetings in 1965, disrupting decision-making.

The Merger Treaty (1965)

• Combined the EEC, ECSC, and Euratom into a single framework (European Communities).
• Signed in 1965 by the Six nations.

The First Enlargement (1973)

• Expansion of the EC to include the UK, Denmark, and Ireland, driven by political and economic reasons and the need to expand common markets.

The Mediterranean Enlargements (1981 and 1986)

• Expansion to Greece in 1981; Spain and Portugal in 1986 from authoritarian regimes to democracies.

Norway's Relationship with the EU

• Norway has rejected membership in referenda, despite participating in international organizations like NATO and the EEA.

The Single European Act (1986)

• Signed in Luxembourg, aimed to create a unified European market by 1992.
• Spurred by economic stagnation, aimed to increase integration across the EC.

The Schengen Agreement (1985)

• Aimed to abolish internal borders in Europe, enhancing free movement.
• Gradually expanded membership to other European countries.

Fall of the Communist Bloc and its Consequences

• Factors of the fall: Collapse of the Berlin Wall, revolutions in Eastern Europe, and the dissolution of the Soviet Union between 1989 and 1991.
• The EU had to adapt its structure to absorb and integrate former communist states into the political and economic union. This required shifts in voting rights and decision-making processes

The Treaty of Maastricht (1992)

• Established the European Union (EU), replacing the EEC.
• Expanded the rights of EU citizens, allowing them to live, work, and vote in other member states.
• Introduced plans for a common currency (euro).

The Pillar Structure of the EU

• Introduced by the Maastricht Treaty:
  • First: Economic, environmental, social policies (under the European Communities).
  • Second: Common foreign and security policy (intergovernmental).
  • Third: Justice and home affairs (intergovernmental).

EU Accession Waves

• Several waves of enlargement, gradually incorporating more member states.
  • 1995: Austria, Finland, Sweden
  • 2004: 10 countries from Eastern Europe
  • 2007: 2 countries in Eastern Europe
  • 2013: Croatia

From the Constitutional Treaty to the Treaty of Lisbon (2007)

• The Constitutional Treaty faced setbacks in referendums; this led to the Treaty of Lisbon which is a compromise retaining elements of the rejected treaty.
• This treaty established the legal personality of the Union and introduced a majority voting system, and clarified the relationship between member states and the Union.

Ratification of the Treaty of Lisbon

• Faced challenges in both "old" and "new" Europe with concerns about balance of power and surrendering sovereignty.
• Concerns about the influence of larger states on smaller states.

Decision-Making in the EU After Lisbon

• The Treaty of Lisbon strengthened the European Parliament's role in decision-making and replaced unanimity with qualified majority voting in many areas.
• Established the positions of President of the European Council and a High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, strengthening the EU's influence on the global stage.

EU Institutions and Bodies in the Treaty of Lisbon

• The Treaty of Lisbon reformed decision-making to strengthen the European Parliament, particularly in environmental policy and trade issues.
• The changes formally recognised the EU Parliament, European Council, High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, and the Commission

The Eurozone

• Established by the Maastricht Treaty setting price stability and sound public finances for adoption of the Euro.
• The Eurozone comprises EU member states that have adopted the euro as their currency, with 11 members launching the currency in 1999.

Priorities of the Europe 2020 Agenda

• The European Union adopted a 2010 strategy to create a sustainable, inclusive, and competitive economy.
• Setting targets in employment, innovation, education, social inclusion, and climate/energy.

Candidate Countries for EU Membership

• Countries wishing to join the EU must meet specific criteria, including stable democratic institutions and a functioning market economy, via the Copenhagen Criteria.
• Accession follows several steps, from application to screening to negotiations on individual EU laws for accession.

Turkey's Accession Bid

• Turkey initially applied in 1987, granted candidate status in 1999 and initiated discussions in 2005.
• Factors stalling negotiations include concerns about human rights, the Cyprus conflict, and democratic freedom issues.

EU as a Global Actor

• The EU is a leading global trade actor, engaging in free trade agreements.
• It's a major provider of foreign aid, plays a crucial role in global finance, and participates in global forums like the WTO.

EU's Future Challenges

• Balancing soft and hard power: Diplomacy, cultural values, and human rights versus economic and military strength.
• The EU needs to address global challenges in defense, foreign policy, internal security, and climate change to address the increasingly complex and competing agendas.

Explore the historical journey of the European idea from its ancient roots to the unification efforts leading up to the 20th century. This quiz covers significant periods such as Charlemagne's Empire and Napoleon's endeavors. Test your knowledge on how shared values and identities shaped Europe.