Instructional Leadership PDF

Ministry of Education Instructional Leadership November, 2013 Addis Ababa i  Ministry of Education Module Title: Instructional Leadership Prepared by: Mekelle University Module Writer:...

Ministry of Education Instructional Leadership November, 2013 Addis Ababa i  Ministry of Education Module Title: Instructional Leadership Prepared by: Mekelle University Module Writer: Mengistu Hailu (PhD) Internal Editor: Desta Abera Technical Advisor: PRIN International Consultancy & Research Services PLC Module Development Expert: Tilaye Kassahun (PhD) ii Instructional Leadership Course code: PGDSL -602 Credit hour: 4 iii  ICONS USED Dear student! Please note that the following icons or symbols are used in this module for making quick reference easier for you. The meanings of the icons are given. This tells you there is an introduction to the module, unit and section.   This tells you there is a question to answer or think about in the text. This tells you there is an activity to do.  This tells you that there is an important to note and remember  This tells you there is a checklist of the main points.  This tells you there is a self-test for you to do  This tells you there is written assignment.  This tells you that there are learning outcomes to the Module or Unit  iv Contents ICONS USED............................................................................................................................................ iv ACRONYMS...........................................................................................................................................viii RATIONALE FOR STUDYING THE MODULE................................................................................................ 1 MODULE DESCRIPTION............................................................................................................................ 1 MODULE LEARNING OUTCOMES............................................................................................................. 2 LEARNING STRATEGIES............................................................................................................................ 2 ASSESSMENT........................................................................................................................................... 2 UNIT 1 UNDERSTANDING INSTRUCTIONAL LEADERSHIP.......................................................................... 3 Unit Introduction................................................................................................................................. 3 Unit learning Outcomes....................................................................................................................... 3 1.1 The Concept and Nature of Leadership.......................................................................................... 3 1.2 Overview of Leadership Theories................................................................................................... 5 1.3. Concept and Evolution of Instructional Leadership........................................................................ 9 1.4 Characteristics of Instructional Leaders (40 minutes).................................................................. 12 1.6 Summary (20 minutes)................................................................................................................. 15 Readings............................................................................................................................................ 17 UNIT 2 VISION CRAFTING....................................................................................................................... 18 Unit Introduction............................................................................................................................... 18 Unit Learning Outcomes.................................................................................................................... 18 2.1 Defining Mission, Vision, Goals, and Core Values........................................................................ 18 2.2 The Purpose and Power of Vision, Mission and Goals (30 minutes).............................................. 29 2.3 The Visioning Process (90 minutes).............................................................................................. 30 2.4 Sharing Vision: Effective Communication................................................................................... 35 2.5 Platform management: Various stakeholders’ interests and their impact on school vision........... 36 2.6 Summary..................................................................................................................................... 39 Readings............................................................................................................................................ 40 UNIT 3 ACADEMIC STANDARDS AND QUALITY ASSURANCE MECHANISMS............................................. 41 Unit Introduction............................................................................................................................... 41 Unit learning outcomes..................................................................................................................... 41 3. 1 Meaning and Nature of Academic Standards............................................................................... 41 3.2 Established Norms Regarding Promotion, Attendance, Grading, Class Size, and Others................ 48 v  3.3. Compliance: Monitoring and Evaluation...................................................................................... 49 3.4 Quality Assurance Procedures...................................................................................................... 50 3.6 Providing Feedback...................................................................................................................... 51 3.7 Summary..................................................................................................................................... 54 Readings............................................................................................................................................ 55 UNIT 4 MANAGING CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION........................................................................... 56 Unit Introduction............................................................................................................................... 56 Unit learning outcomes..................................................................................................................... 56 4. 1. The Curriculum.......................................................................................................................... 56 4.2 Features of Effective Teaching and Learning................................................................................ 64 4.3. Supervision: Nature and Types.................................................................................................... 65 4.4. Co-curricular Activities................................................................................................................ 75 4.5 Inclusive Education: Concept and Methods.................................................................................. 76 4.6 Managing diversity....................................................................................................................... 79 4.7 Summary..................................................................................................................................... 84 Readings............................................................................................................................................ 85 UNIT 5 DATA MANAGEMENT................................................................................................................. 86 Unit Introduction............................................................................................................................... 86 Unit Learning Outcomes.................................................................................................................... 86 5.1. Educational Indicators: Overview................................................................................................ 86 5.2 EMIS (data collection, organization, analysis, dissemination)....................................................... 91 5.3. Other Data-based Practices in Schools........................................................................................ 95 5.4. Minimum learning outcomes...................................................................................................... 96 5.5 Monitoring Learning and Teaching, and Student Performance..................................................... 98 5.6 Summary................................................................................................................................... 100 Readings:......................................................................................................................................... 100 UNIT 6 SHAPING SCHOOL CLIMATE...................................................................................................... 101 Unit Introduction............................................................................................................................. 101 Unit Learning Outcomes.................................................................................................................. 101 6. 1 Overview of School Climate....................................................................................................... 101 6. 2. Effect of school climate on the teaching - learning process....................................................... 106 6. 3. Learning communities: creating, leading and nurturing............................................................ 108 vi  6. 4. Communication practices......................................................................................................... 113 6.5 Summary................................................................................................................................... 113 Readings:......................................................................................................................................... 114 UNIT 7 PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT........................................................................................................ 115 Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 115 Learning Outcomes.......................................................................................................................... 115 7. 1. Roles of parents in the school.................................................................................................. 115 7. 2. The culture, values, beliefs of the community.......................................................................... 119 7. 3 Types of parental involvement.................................................................................................. 121 7.4. Socio-economic status (SES) of parents..................................................................................... 123 7.6 Summary................................................................................................................................... 125 Readings.......................................................................................................................................... 126 vii  ACRONYMS AIR: Apparent Intake Rate EMIS: Educational Management of Information System GER: Gross Enrolment Rate GPI: Gender Policy Index MOE: Ministry of Education NER: Net Enrolment Rate viii  RATIONALE FOR STUDYING THE MODULE This course is designed for aspiring school leaders. In today’s schools, leadership plays a significant role in bringing about quality of education in general and student achievement in particular. Principals are not only managers of finance and property but also, and primarily, leaders of learning. Principals need to spearhead the management of the curriculum and instruction by facilitating the setting of the school’s vision and goals, maintaining academic standards, monitoring student progress, enhancing parental involvement and creating learning structures that sustain learning. Principals are required to be close to the classroom and lead learning by providing instructional and curricular feedback to the teacher through clinical supervision and mentoring. Good school leaders will create learning communities that sustain uninterrupted learning and nurture learning by prioritizing instruction over any other school activity. Hence this course is intended to equip participants to have the requisite knowledge, skills, instincts and attitudes to be fit instructional leaders who lead their schools into holistic success. MODULE DESCRIPTION This module is designed for aspiring school leaders and it approaches leadership in the lens of instruction. In today’s schools, leadership plays a significant role in bringing about quality of education in general and student achievement in particular. Principals are required to be not only managers of finance and property but also, and primarily, leaders of learning. Principals need specific competencies to spearhead the management of the curriculum and lead instruction. Hence this module will deal with concepts, processes, skills and attitudes that help the aspiring leaders develop the mentioned competencies that enable them achieve the required goals. Hence the module will begin by introducing the concept of leadership in general, provide an over view of leadership approaches and will make distinction with Instructional leadership. By delving more into the core business of instructional leadership the module will address the following knowledge, skill and attitude based topics: facilitating the setting of the school’s vision and mission, managing curriculum and instruction, maintaining academic standards, monitoring student progress, shaping school climate and enhancing parental involvement Principals are required to be close to the classroom and lead learning by providing instructional and curricular feedback to the teacher through clinical supervision and mentoring. Good school leaders will create learning communities that sustain uninterrupted learning by prioritizing instruction over any other school activity. Hence this module is intended to equip participants to have the requisite knowledge, skills, instincts and attitudes to be fit instructional leaders who lead their schools into holistic success. 1  MODULE LEARNING OUTCOMES Participants who successfully complete this course will be able to: 1. Practice Instructional Leadership consciously by prioritising instruction over other routines 2. Lead in setting the school vision, mission and goals with the full involvement of stakeholders; 3. Ensure that teachers are applying academic standards in their work with students; 4. Manage the school curriculum and instruction effectively and inclusively; 5. Monitor students’ progress in accordance with curriculum objectives / academic standards and school goals using multiple sources of data; 6. Shape and maintain an academically oriented school climate; 7. Facilitate the involvement of parents in the learning of students; 8. Establish and maintain systems and structures that strengthen quality of teaching and learning, including for students with special educational needs and students at risk. LEARNING STRATEGIES Participants will learn through an interactive, practice based approach consisting of a wide variety of learning interventions including: Brainstorming, group discussions, task based learning, case studies, scenarios and portfolio development. ASSESSMENT Students will be assessed in a continuous fashion. Forty percent of the assessment will be done during the face to face phase, while 60% of the assessment will be done based on the portfolio. Students will document the assignments that they will be engaged in during the school based learning period, submitting these products in a portfolio during the second summer. This will constitute the majority (60%) of the assessment. 2  UNIT 1 UNDERSTANDING INSTRUCTIONAL LEADERSHIP Time allotted (9 hrs)  Unit Introduction Dear aspiring leaders, this unit will introduce you with the concept of leadership, the backdrop of instructional leadership, typical characteristics of instructional leadership, theories of instructional leadership, knowledge and skills of instructional leaders. You will be engaged with various activities that help you understand the concepts. Make sure that you give it your best. Your understanding of this unit will have impact on the rest of the units that will follow. Hence, your level best involvement in the activities will be of paramount importance.  Unit learning Outcomes At the end of this unit, students will be able to:  make a clear distinction of instructional leadership with other leadership approaches.  recognize the basic characteristics of instructional leadership.  possess the required knowledge and skills of effective instructional leadership.  practice instructional leadership consciously by giving priority to instruction over other leadership routines. 1.1 The Concept and Nature of Leadership Activity I: Brainstorming (50 minutes) 1. In your groups of five brainstorm what leadership means to you. Try to write concepts that you think are related to what leaders actually do in your school and concepts/words that explain what leaders in your school should do. 2. Discuss the concepts you brainstormed and categorize them in some form. Bring those actions, concepts and things that you think are similar, and finally write one definition of leadership that represents your group's ideas. Understanding Leadership: Students, there is no consensus on the definition of leadership. Various scholars described it differently. I believe the definition you formulated above is adequate enough to describe the concept as well. We will see some definitions. 3  The Dictionary.Com defines leadership as a position or function of a leader, a person who guides or directs a group and puts it as synonym to the concepts administration, management, directorship, control, governorship, stewardship, and hegemony." As you can see, this definition focuses on the function of the concept leadership, from the perspective of what the leader does. The Leadership Institute at Harvard College describes leadership from peoples' perspective “… the skill of motivating, guiding, and empowering a team towards a socially responsible vision.” In a slightly different tone, Eric Michel defines leadership by linking people with goals “the art of empowering and mobilizing others who want to accomplish a mutually agreed-upon goal while advancing the group’s integrity and morale.” Eric expands his definition further as follows: (1) Leadership is an art: Some people naturally start off better leaders than others, but everyone can learn to become better with training and practice. Everyone has his own style of leadership, much like every painter has his own style brushstrokes. However, there are some common themes of leadership no matter the style. (2) Empowering and mobilizing others: Effective leaders must be able to enable others to do things, as well as get them to do it. A leader is most effective if followers are both able and willing. Hence, “want to” is also a critical part of this definition. In addition to being willing and able, mobilizing implies getting the group to follow through the will action. (3) Mutually agreed-upon goal: The leader and the group must all be working towards the same ends–likely on the path towards a shared vision. Leadership is not shown by dictators who force others to work towards a goal they do not support. (4) Integrity: Effective leaders are able to keep the group honourable and adhering to moral and ethical principles. (5) Morale: It is important to remember that an effective leader is not just responsible for the group completing a task, but also responsible for the team and its enjoyment and feelings towards others on the team and the work. It is often too easy for a leader to focus too much on either the task or team members’ feelings. (6) Lack of position: The important thing about this definition is that it doesn’t denote position or de jure power. Anyone can be a leader by fulfilling this definition, both an elected head and a member without any official position. This is something aspiring leaders should remember. Hint to Activity I  Students: As mentioned above there is no single agreed upon definition of leadership, but that does not mean it can’t be defined. Rather this lack of definitive definition would allow you to make your own definition of the concept. As you may have done in activity one above, your definitions will reflect your values, assumptions, beliefs and dearly held philosophies. Most likely your leadership definition will say something about decision making, processes, and communication; because leadership has a lot to do with decisions, the processes we go through to make those decisions and how we communicate them to followers and/or our leaders. Your definition should reflect on goals since goal attainment is another important dimension that defines leadership. Leadership is the process of directing a group to pursue objectives defined, 4 albeit collaboratively, by a leader. Leadership does not exist in a vacuum: it always is goal- oriented. Your definition could entail description of the followers as well. Leadership is a human enterprise. As Hilgart stated it, leadership is about followers: Leadership resides in the leader’s ability to engage the willingness of the followers to follow, a willingness based on commonly shared goals and mutual effort to achieve them. In this respect, we can safely generalize that the essence of leadership is followership. This is to mean that leadership occurs in the presence of followers only. Activity II: (20 minutes) Please revisit your definition of leadership in light of the above and share it with your classmates and make one working definition of leadership for your class. 1.2 Overview of Leadership Theories Activity III: Read and share (90 minutes) Read the text given below regarding four leadership theories and share the main points to your group mates. In your discussion make sure you discuss the following issues: 1. What are the main concepts and the main differences among the leadership theories? 2. Which of the four theories impressed you and why? 3. What is the relevance and implication of each theory to Educational leadership? Table 1: Theories of leadership Leadership based on the Theories Illustrative texts following questions Trait What is leadership? Stogdill (1974) Do I have the right qualities to be a leader? Do I know my preferred style? Do I know how to obtain a balance between a concern for Behavioral/Style tasks and for people? Blake and Mouton (1964) Have I had the correct in- service training on the behaviors required to achieve the right style? Contingency Have I reflected on the context Fiedler et al., (1977) that affects which leadership style is appropriate? 5  Hersey and Blanchard(1982) Do I know how my subordinates will respond to particular styles? Do I have a vision and a mission? Transformational Can I empower my followers Burns (1978) to live the vision? How can I ensure my leadership has positive effects on production outcomes? Source: Helen M Gunter (2001, p. 67) Interest in leadership increased during the early part of the twentieth century. Early leadership theories focused on what qualities distinguished between leaders and followers, while subsequent theories looked at other variables such as situational factors and skill levels. While many different leadership theories have emerged, most can be classified as one of the following major types:. 1.2.1 Trait Theories Trait theories assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent – that leaders are born not made. The theories often identify particular personality or behavioural characteristics that are shared by leaders. According to these theories leaders are portrayed as heroic, mythic and destined to rise to leadership when needed. People who possess those inherent qualities and traits are better suited to leadership. Stogdill (1974) identified the following traits and skills as critical to leaders. Traits Skills  Adaptable to situations  Clever (intelligent)  Alert to social environment  Conceptually skilled  Ambitious and achievement-  Creative orientated  Diplomatic and tactful  Assertive  Fluent in speaking  Cooperative  Knowledgeable about group task  Decisive  Organised (administrative ability)  Dependable  Persuasive  Dominant (desire to influence  Socially skilled others)  Energetic (high activity level)  Persistent  Self-confident  Tolerant of stress 6   Willing to assume responsibility Though this theory has still persisted in the leadership literature it has been challenged. If particular traits are key features of leadership, then how do we explain people who possess those qualities but are not leaders? This question is one of the difficulties in using trait theories to explain leadership. 1.2.2 Behavioural Theories Behavioural theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are made, not born. Rooted in behaviourism, this leadership theory focuses on the actions of leaders not on mental qualities or internal states. According to this theory, people can learn to become leaders through teaching and observation. Reading Assignment: Dear aspiring principals, please visit a library and find a book on leadership or management. Read the topic on the Behavioural or Style Leadership theory and summarize your understanding of the theory and share it with your colleagues. In doing so, you need to grasp the underlying assumptions of the theory, explain the variants of the theory, and discuss the strengths and weaknesses of various types of behavioural theories. 1.2.3 Contingency Theories Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment that might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. According to this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations. Success depends upon a number of variables, including the leadership style, qualities of the followers and aspects of the situation. Leaders choose the best course of action based upon situational variables. Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for certain types of decision-making. For example, in a situation where the leader is the most knowledgeable and experienced member of a group, an authoritarian style might be most appropriate. In other instances where group members are skilled experts, a democratic style would be more effective. 1.2.4 Transformational Leadership The idea of transformational leadership was first developed by James McGregor Burns in 1978 and later extended by Bernard Bass as well as others. Burns first introduced the concept of transforming leadership in his descriptive research on political leaders (Bass & Riggio, 2006). According to Burns, transforming leadership is a process in which "leaders and followers help each other to advance to a higher level of morale and motivation". Burns established two concepts: "transforming leadership" and "transactional leadership". According to Burns, the transforming approach creates significant change in the life of people and organizations. It redesigns perceptions and values, and changes expectations and aspirations of employees. Unlike in the transactional approach, it is not based on a "give and take" relationship, but on the leader's personality, traits and ability to make a change through example, articulation of an energizing 7 vision and challenging goals. Transforming leaders are idealized in the sense that they are a moral exemplar of working towards the benefit of the team, organization and/or community. Burns theorized that transforming and transactional leadership were mutually exclusive styles. Burns underscores that leaders induce followers to act for certain goals that represent the values and the motivations – the wants and needs, the aspirations and expectations – of both leaders and followers”. Bernard Bass (1985), extended the work of Burns (1978) by explaining the psychological mechanisms that underlie transforming and transactional leadership. Bass introduced the term "transformational" in place of "transforming." Bass added to the initial concepts of Burns (1978) to help explain how transformational leadership could be measured, as well as how it impacts follower motivation and performance. The extent, to which a leader is transformational, is measured first, in terms of his influence on the followers. The followers of such a leader feel trust, admiration, loyalty and respect for the leader and because of the qualities of the transformational leader they are willing to work harder than originally expected. These outcomes occur because the transformational leader offers followers something more than just working for self gain; they provide followers with an inspiring mission and vision and give them an identity. The leader transforms and motivates followers through his or her idealized influence (often referred to as charisma), intellectual stimulation and individual consideration. In addition, this leader encourages followers to come up with new and unique ways to challenge the status quo and to alter the environment to support being successful. Finally, in contrast to Burns, Bass suggested that leadership can simultaneously display both transformational and transactional leadership. Bass believes that leaders behave in certain ways in order to raise the level of commitment from followers. Transformational leadership is classified as the Full Range of Leadership (FRL) and this permits further exploration into the effects of its application to specific conditions (Bass, 1998). The full range of leadership introduces four elements of transformational leadership, which are commonly called as the 4Is: Individualized Consideration – the degree to which the leader attends to each follower's needs, acts as a mentor, coach to the follower and listens to the follower's concerns and needs. The leader gives empathy and support, keeps communication open and places challenges before the followers. This also encompasses the need for respect and celebrates the individual contribution that each follower can make to the team. The followers have a will and aspirations for self development and have intrinsic motivation for their tasks. Intellectual Stimulation – the degree, to which the leader challenges assumptions, takes risks and solicits followers' ideas. Leaders with this style stimulate and encourage creativity in their followers. They nurture and develop people who think independently. For such a leader, learning is a value and unexpected situations are seen as opportunities to learn. The followers ask questions, think deeply about things and figure out better ways to execute their tasks. 8  Inspirational Motivation – the degree to which the leader articulates a vision that is appealing and inspiring to followers. Leaders with inspirational motivation challenge followers with high standards, communicate optimism about future goals, and provide meaning for the task at hand. Followers need to have a strong sense of purpose if they are to be motivated to act. Purpose and meaning provide the energy that drives a group forward. The visionary aspects of leadership are supported by communication skills that make the vision understandable, precise, powerful and engaging. The followers are willing to invest more effort in their tasks; they are encouraged and optimistic about the future and believe in their abilities. Idealized Influence – Provides a role model for high ethical behaviour, instils pride, gains respect and trust.  Hint for activity III: The major difference of the theories is the perspective they define leadership. Great man and behavioural theories discuss leadership from the perspective of who the leader should be: a great man born with some specific qualities or a person who has been exposed to and trained for a leadership. The other theories approached leadership from the perspective of what leaders do and what influences their actions: situation or relationship? All the above mentioned theories have a bearing with educational leadership. They affect training of leaders, reactions of leaders to their teachers, and in general knowledge of these theories affects the practice of educational leaders. 1.3. Concept and Evolution of Instructional Leadership Dear Student, I believe that you have made adequate discussion on the relevance of the above leadership theories to education. There has been much discussion regarding the relative effectiveness of different leadership theories in bringing about improved student performance. Many have undermined school leader's role on student achievement as only marginally related. Educators have laboured to find out the relationship between school leadership and student achievement and have dispelled the perception that there is no significant relationship between school leadership and student learning. Waters, T. Marzano, R. McNulty, B (2003), in their meta analysis of 70 studies found out a substantial relationship between leadership and student achievement. They stated that the average effect size (expressed as a correlation) between leadership and student achievement is.25. These researchers also found out that 21 leadership responsibilities were significantly correlated with student achievement. Out of these, more than half of them have something to do with what we call instructional leadership. In a similar manner, Leithwood and Riehl (2003) stated that leadership explains actually nearly one- quarter of the total effect of all school factors. Now a days the role of leadership to student achievement can be considered as well established. The question rather is what type of leadership is more effective and impactful to student learning 9 in general and student achievement in particular? Instructional leadership is a product of such concern by educators and the public. The concept instructional leader' is a relatively new concept that emerged in the early 1980's that called for a shift of emphasis from principals being managers or administrators to instructional or academic leaders. This shift was influenced largely by research which found that effective schools usually had principals who stressed the importance of instruction (Brookover and Lezotte, 1982). Instructional leadership also made inroads to the discourse of educational leadership with the increasing importance placed on academic standards and the need for schools to be accountable. Traditionally, principals were expected to be managers of school buildings and focus on handling routines like teacher evaluation, budgeting, scheduling, and facilities maintenance. During the eighties, there was a shift in attention to educational roles with both teachers and principals receiving emphasis. A prevailing assumption of this era was that the principal should become directly involved with the teaching and learning processes. Principals were required to “intervene” to ensure that teachers focused on the central mission of the school (Beck & Murphy). Activity IV: Scenario: Confessions of an instructional leader (70 minutes) Students, read the following confession of an instructional leader and discuss with your group what actually you think an instructional leader is and is not. Elect a group secretary who would prepare the result of your group discussion to the class. Confessions of an Instructional Leader When I entered the principalship a quarter century ago, the research on effective schools warned that without strong administrative leadership, the disparate elements of good schooling could be neither brought together nor kept together (Lezotte, 1997). I heeded the message and embraced my role as a strong leader with gusto. I was determined to rise above the mundane managerial tasks of the job and focus instead on instruction—I hoped to be an instructional leader. I asked teachers to submit their course syllabi and curriculum guides so that I could monitor what they were teaching. I collected weekly lesson plans to ensure that teachers were teaching the prescribed curriculum. I read voraciously about instructional strategies in different content areas and shared pertinent articles with staff members. But my devotion to the clinical supervision process at the school was the single greatest illustration of my commitment to function as an instructional leader. I developed a three-part process that required me to be a student of good teaching and to help teachers become more reflective and insightful about their instruction. During the pre-observation conference, I met with teachers individually and asked them to talk me through the lesson I would be observing in their classroom. I asked a series of questions, 10 including, What will you teach? How will you teach it? What instructional strategies will you use? What instructional materials will you use? During the classroom observation, I worked furiously to script as accurately as possible what the teacher said and did. During the post-observation conference, the teacher and I reconstructed the lesson from my notes and his or her recollections. We looked for patterns or trends in what the teacher had said and done, and we discussed the relationship between those patterns and the lesson's objectives. Finally, I asked the teacher what he or she might change in the lesson before teaching it again. I then wrote a summary of the classroom observation and our post-observation discussion, offered recommendations for effective teaching strategies, and suggested ways in which the teacher might become more effective. The observation process was time-consuming, but I was convinced that my focus on individual teachers and their instructional strategies was an effective use of my time. And the process was not without benefits. As a new pair of eyes in the classroom, I was able to help teachers become aware of unintended instructional or classroom management patterns. I could express my appreciation for the wonderful work that teachers were doing because I had witnessed it firsthand. I observed powerful instructional strategies and was able to share those strategies with other teachers. I learned a lot about what effective teaching looks like. Defining Instructional leadership: (lecture) (30 minutes) Leithwood and Duke (1998) described instructional leadership as focusing on the behaviors of teachers as they engage in activities directly affecting the growth of students. In a similar fashion Flath (1989) described instructional leadership as those actions that a principal takes, or delegates to others, to promote growth in student learning. In actual practice, the principal encourages students' educational achievement by making instructional quality as the top priority of the school and brings that vision into real actions. In a slightly different conceptualization, Hallinger and Murphy (1985) described instructional leadership in a model that consists of many specific functions within three broad categories: defining the school mission, managing the instructional program, and promoting school climate. This model expanded the concept out of the classroom unlike the above definitions. It required the principal to mobilize teachers and other stakeholders under the school mission and create and promote sound school climate. In a similar way, Jones and Weigel (2009) described instructional leadership through its focus on a culture of high expectations for all students in which instruction comes first. Decisions are made based on what is best for the learning environment for students. Ongoing professional development is aligned to school goals and mission and focused on student achievement. The strengths of each staff member are used to optimize student achievement and create an effective learning environment. School administrators assure that staff focuses on delivering high-priority academic skills and knowledge. 11  Jenkins (2009) talks about learning communities in association to instructional leadership. According to Jenkins, instructional leaders lead learning communities, in which staff members meet on a regular basis to discuss their work, collaborate to solve problems, reflect on their jobs, and take responsibility for what students learn. In a learning community, instructional leaders make adult learning a priority, set high expectations for performance, create a culture of continuous learning for adults, and get the community’s support for school success. Hint for activity IV  Students, I hope you gathered enough understanding as to what instructional leader is and is not from the scenario and the explanations that came after. Current definitions of instructional leadership are richer and more expansive than those of the 1980s. Originally, the role of an instructional leader involved traditional tasks such as setting clear goals, allocating resources to instruction, managing the curriculum, monitoring lesson plans, and evaluating teachers. Today, it includes carrying out professional development, and emphasizes the use of data to make decisions (Deborah King 2002). 1.4 Characteristics of Instructional Leaders (40 minutes) Dear Student, instructional leaders do have characteristics that are shared by many other leaders of other styles. But they also have some unique ones. Sergiovanni (1991) suggested that research on instructional leadership attributes and functions needed to be situation specific. Many researchers, however, seem to determine characteristics that suggest strong instructional leadership. Smith and Andrews (1989) compiled a list of characteristics from existing literature that suggest strong instructional leadership:  high energy,  assertiveness,  ability to assume initiatives  openness to new ideas  tolerance for ambiguity  a sense of humor  analytic ability  a practical stance toward life  referent power  strong motivation, and high self-esteem Going through a review of related literature, Andrews, Basom and Basom (2001) found three inherent attributes common in strong instructional leaders: vision, the ability to communicate that vision, and the ability to create trust in the workplace. 12 We can also conceptualize the characteristics of instructional leadership by contrasting it with other leadership styles. According to Jenkins (2009) instructional leadership differs from a school administrator or manager in a number of ways: principals who pride themselves as administrators usually are too preoccupied in dealing with strictly managerial duties, while principals who are instructional leaders involve themselves in setting clear goals, monitoring lesson plans, and evaluating and supporting teachers. The instructional leader makes instructional quality the top priority of the school and attempts to bring that vision to realization. A conventional principal spends the majority of his or her time dealing with strictly administrative duties, meanwhile an instructional leader focus more on redefining his or her role to become the primary learner in a community striving for excellence in education. Scholars assert that instructional leadership be viewed in the context of learning communities. Learning communities “often operate on networks of shared and complementary expertise rather than working in hierarchies or in isolation. People who involved in a learning community usually own the problem and become the agents of its solution. Instructional leaders also make adult learning a priority by setting high expectations for performance so that it will keep them motivated and keep strive for the best. Instructional leaders create a culture of continuous learning for adults and get the community’s support for the school to success, in contrast to other leaders. Stewart (2006) makes a distinction between instructional and transformational leadership models: Instructional leaders focus on school goals, the curriculum, instruction, and the school environment. Transformational leaders focus on restructuring the school by improving school conditions. 1.5 Knowledge and Skills of Instructional Leaders (40 minutes) Despite the fact that the concept instructional leader is well known currently there is paucity of literature on what particular behaviours an instructional leader needs to display or what clear set of skills s/he needs to possess. The knowledge base on instructional leadership seems to keep evolving. Whitaker (1997) identified four skills essential for instructional leadership: Below are those skills as presented by Jenkins (2009) by adding her personal experience on the concepts.  Effective instructional leaders need to be resource providers. It is not enough for principals to know the strengths and weaknesses of their faculties; they must also recognize teachers’ desires to be acknowledged and appreciated for a job well done. From my experience, teachers seek only tiny morsels of praise and the assurance that I am there to support them as a resource provider.  Effective instructional leaders need to be instructional resources. Teachers count on their principals as resources of information on current trends and effective instructional practices. Instructional leaders are tuned in to issues relating to curriculum, effective pedagogical strategies, and assessment. For example, teachers come by my office daily to seek suggestions on the best way to teach a child who is not grasping concepts.  Effective instructional leaders need to be good communicators. They need to communicate essential beliefs regarding learning, such as the conviction that all children can learn. 13   Effective instructional leaders need to create a visible presence. This includes focusing on learning objectives, modelling behaviours of learning, and designing programs and activities on instruction. As an administrator, more than half of my day is spent focusing on these objectives. For example, I recently implemented a move to small-group instruction in reading and math by providing the resources, explaining how it works, and serving as a model for those teachers who struggled with the concept. The instructional leader also needs to have up-to-date knowledge on three areas of education: curriculum, instruction, and assessment (DuFour, 2002). o Curriculum. Principals need to know about the changing conceptions of curriculum, educational philosophies and beliefs, curricular sources and conflict, and curriculum evaluation and improvement. o Instruction. Principals need to know about different models of teaching, the theoretical reasons for adopting a particular teaching model, and the theories underlying the technology-based learning environment. o Assessment. Principals need to know about the principles of student assessment, assessment procedures with emphasis on alternative assessment methods, and assessment that aims to improve student learning Blase and Blase (2000) cite specific skills of instructional leadership: making suggestions, giving feedback, modelling effective instruction, soliciting opinions, supporting collaboration, providing professional development opportunities, and giving praise for effective teaching. Lashway (2002) recommends certain skills for instructional leaders to master: interpersonal skills; planning skills; instructional observation skills; and research and evaluation skills.  Interpersonal skills maintain trust, spur motivation, give empowerment, and enhance collegiality. Relationships are built on trust, and tasks are accomplished through motivation and empowerment wherein teachers are involved in planning, designing, and evaluating instructional programs. Empowerment leads to ownership and commitment as teachers identify problems and design strategies themselves. Collegiality promotes sharing, cooperation, and collaboration, in which both the principal and teachers talk about teaching and learning.  Planning skills. Planning begins with clear identification of goals or a vision to work toward, as well as to induce commitment and enthusiasm. The next step is to assess what changes need to occur and which may be accomplished by asking the people involved, reading documents, and observing what is going on within a school.  Instructional observation skills. The aim of instructional observation (supervision) is to provide teachers with feedback to consider and reflect upon. Not only can effective instructional leaders help guide classroom instruction through supervision, they can also play a primary role in bettering it.  Research and evaluation skills are needed to critically question the success of instructional programs, and one of the most useful of these skills is action research. Through research and program evaluation, effective instructional leaders can be armed with a plethora of information to make informed decisions about increasing learning at their schools. 14  Hailesslassie W. and Abraha A. (2012) state the following as requisite skills that instructional leaders need to possess:  Building effective relationship in schools: The role of the instructional leader in team building and developing team cohesion is aimed at defining common goals. In school settings, everyone wants to be safe, to be appreciated, to be accepted as part of the school community, and be recognized as contributing to the school effectiveness or outcomes.  Leading and managing change/Adaptation: Change takes time. Experience has shown that the time required to make significant improvements in a school is typically about seven years (Tyler in Sinclair and Finn 1989). Making sure that the school staff maintains commitment and enthusiasm over time is an important challenge to the school leader. Many well-conceived school improvement plans have failed because people expected results too quickly. The leader is charged with balancing the management of the process of change and its anticipated goals. 1.6 Summary (20 minutes) Dear student, in this unit we discussed issues related to the broad concept of leadership in general and instructional leadership in particular. We discussed leadership theories; concept and evolution of instructional leadership; characteristics, knowledge and skills of an instructional leader. I hope you have grasped the major issues we dealt with. The major preoccupation of an instructional leader is instruction and curriculum. Principals should create schools in which student learning is continuously on the rise because the teachers of the schools are continuously learning. To create such schools requires a great deal of knowledge about the details of good curriculum and teaching. At the same time, it calls for skills of leadership. Some of the leadership skills that such principals need are communication, planning, supervisory and research and analysis. Effective instructional leaders also need to build social capital by creating trust and intellectual capital by playing a substantive role in curriculum management, by analyzing the form and quality of teaching and by organizing targeted opportunities for teachers to upgrade and update their profession. Principals should not only posses the knowledge, skills, and attitude to support learning; they should also spent significant chunk of their time on it. Principals need to be the prime role models of learning. We will conclude this unit by quoting Jenkins (2009): "If principals are to take the role of instructional leader seriously, they will have to free themselves from bureaucratic tasks and focus their efforts toward improving teaching and learning. Instructional improvement is an important goal, a goal worth seeking, and a goal that, when implemented, allows both students and teachers to make a more meaningful learning environment. To achieve this goal takes more than a strong principal with concrete ideas and technical expertise. It requires a redefinition of the role of principals, one that removes the barriers to leadership by eliminating bureaucratic structures and reinventing relationships.” (p.37)  15  Review Questions (120 minutes) 1. We have discussed different leadership theories including instructional leadership. Discuss which of those is more effective to bring about better student achievement and why? Argue, discuss and share your conclusions in writing with your instructor and with your classmates. 2. Discuss the difference between an instructional leader and an administrative leader that you read in your module and elsewhere. An instructional leader prioritises instruction over any other school activity and spends more of his/her time on improving curriculum and student learning. Imagine a one week worth of duties of a principal and based on your reading and discussion with your classmates of an instructional and administrative leader write a week worth of plan of activities for both leaders. In the plans show clearly the difference and potential similarities of both leaders. Prepare a power point presentation and present it in class in addition to the paper you submit to your instructor. 3. Go to your library and look for some of the materials mentioned in your reading list. From your reading describe the potential challenges of being an instructional leader in your school context and produce a paper and share them to your class. Unit Assessment Strategies Assessment will be continuous throughout the activities. Student contribution and participation during barnstorming; student involvement during lecture in the form of note taking and participation in question and answer (Q&A) sessions will be observed. Monitoring of student comprehension level of reading material and the depth of their analysis of scenarios will be assessed during the presentation. Instructional Resources Required The module itself 16 Readings Fink, E. and Resnick, L. B. Developing Principals as Instructional Leaders: New York City Learning Research and Development Center. University of Pittsburgh taken from http://www.educationalimpact.com/resources/usl2/pdf/usl2_2A_instructional_leade rs.pdf Goslin, K.G. (2009). How Instructional Leadership is Conveyed by High School Principals: The Findings of Three Case Studies. University of Prince Edward Island. A Paper Presented at the International Congress for School Effectiveness and Improvement. Haileselassie Woldegerima & Abraha Asfaw (January, 2012). Instructional Leadership for Primary School: A Training Module for Principals, Supervisors, and Education Officers Addis Ababa University. Lashway, L. Developing Instructional Leaders. Taken from https://scholarsbank.uoregon.edu/jspui/bitstream/1794/3383/1/digest160.pdf Matthews, K. W. (2007). The Relationships among Middle Level Teachers’ Assessment Practices, Instructional Leadership, and Student Achievement. A Dissertation presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School University of Missouri – Columbia Phillips, J. A. (n.d). Shift in the Role of the School Principal: Manager-Administrator to Instructional Leader: Faculty of Education. University of Malaya. taken from http://peoplelearn.homestead.com/principainstructleader.htm Waters, T. Marzano, R. McNulty, B. (2003). Balanced Leadership: What 30 years of research tells us about the effect of leadership on student achievement. McREL. 17  UNIT 2 VISION CRAFTING Time allotted (6hrs)  Unit Introduction Dear aspiring leaders, this unit will introduce you with the power and purpose of vision and mission statements, and will help you develop the understanding and skills to craft vision, and write mission a statement. As the old adage goes, 'People with a vision don't get lost in the desert'. Principals could get lost in the daily routines of administering a school chore if they don't have a clear lens through which they see their goals. These goals are their visions. In this unit you will learn more about visions, and make the best you can to learn so that you lead your school to the great destination you envision.  Unit Learning Outcomes At the end of this unit, students will be able to:  Recognize the differences and interdependencies among vision, mission, and goals of educational institutions.  Craft realistic vision, mission statements, and goals for their schools.  Address and incorporate stakeholder interests in the school Vision  Communicate with stakeholders to share the stipulated vision  Consistently adhere to the attainment of the school vision, mission, and goals  Moderate Platforms so as to maximize the benefits of the participation of key stakeholders.  Demonstrate visionary instances, accommodation of different viewpoints or interests of key stakeholders, openness, and creativity while leading their schools 2.1 Defining Mission, Vision, Goals, and Core Values Activity I: Take Home Reading and presentation (60 minutes) Read the following article Vision Building among School Leaders by Kai-ming Cheng at home. The article has been adapted to suit the purpose of the module and it will give you a very comprehensive view of what a vision is and what it is not. It will also introduce you with various 18 approaches of framing a vision. Read it carefully and answer the following questions. Bring your answers in writing to share them in class.  Questions: 1. According to the author what is vision and how is it similar and different from a dream? 2. Among the various visions described by the author, which one/s appeal/s more to you? Explain your argument. 3. In describing various visions the author also describes various core values that underpin the visions. What values attracted you most? Which of them do you wish to include in your school visions? 4. The author makes a distinction between school-centered and student-centered visions. Do you agree with the argument s/he makes? Substantiate your position. 5. What is the most important thing that the author discusses to secure the realization of visions? Vision Building among School Leaders Kai-ming Cheng INTRODUCTION While it is admitted that successful leaders are those with visions, little is written about whether or how such visions could be developed. This chapter, based on my practical experience, is an account of the various attributes of a school vision. Implicitly, it argues that it is possible to develop vision through a designed process by taking into account such attributes. VISION AS A DREAM What is vision? Owens (1998, p. 213) sees vision as ‘a new and better state in the future’. Vision is what one aspires to. In the case of a school, it is an imagination of what the school could become. It is the picture of the school when it is successful. In other words, vision is a dream. The school is perceived as successful when this dream comes true. The first question I usually ask during vision-building sessions is, ‘What is there that you have always dreamt about, but are never given the opportunity to realize?’ Answers are diverse. It is not important what the answers are, but it is essential that school leaders are given the opportunity to ask themselves: ‘Do I have a dream?’ and ‘What dream do I have?’ Once, I was visiting a new school where a retired education officer was appointed as the principal. ‘What is there that you would like to achieve most?’ I asked. ‘Follow me’, he said, and led me to the playground where he showed me the classrooms above us, ‘Most of the rooms are not in use, yet lights are not switched off. I will have over-expenditure in my electricity bill. What I would like to solve most is to find a way to reduce such wastage’. Apparently, he had taken problems for visions. Anybody who has taken over as principal in a new school would agree that there are a lot of things to be settled and to be started, and that the electricity bill is only one among minor problems. Solving the electricity bill 19 problem could not possibly be a major goal to achieve. This is one of the examples I used to provoke discussions during vision-building sessions. The question is ‘What is the problem?’ The following are some of the answers: ‘He has to find a way to discipline those who do not switch off the lights.’ ‘He has to set up a system such that lights would be properly switched off.’ ‘He has a poor staff.’ ‘He has to sack the janitors.’ ‘He is not good at management.’ Only a few would say ‘The problem is in the principal himself’. This could be seen as a typical case of ‘no vision’, or a case of ‘poor vision’. The principal’s vision hardly went beyond the electricity bill. With the electricity bill blocking his mind, perhaps with other management routines, it is difficult to conceive that he could pay more attention to student learning, innovations in management, development of school culture and so forth. Hence it is not always valid to assume that every school leader has a dream of the school. This is particularly true in a public (non-private) school system where schools work in a bureaucracy, with funding to be spent as specified and where they are expected to operate according to set procedures. Following rules and regulations may easily become the objectives of the school leaders, with little reference to the educational goals of the school. Indeed, any deviation from such rules and regulations may well lead to negative appraisals from above. In many such systems, the school is to serve the managerial or political masters above the school, rather than students and the community at large. Such systems are often unfavourable for the development of visions among school leaders. Under such circumstances, vision-building is not only a matter of working on the individual school leaders; it is also necessary to work against a larger culture that does not favour vision development within individual schools. VISION MAKES A DIFFERENCE It is implied in the above discussion that vision is a matter of individuality, of school characters. Even in a public system with a high level of uniformity in terms of funding and procedures, schools perform differently, and achieve differently. Even in a collective culture such as China or Japan, where uniformity and conformity prevail, schools carry different characters. Meanwhile, in many societies where private schools excel, they excel with characters, and such characters are reflected in their visions. In this connection, it is interesting to observe how school leaders’ visions work in more uniform and conforming systems such as those in Mainland China. Even before the system began to diversify in the 1980s, in a Chinese system where schools were expected to conform to national goals and visions, schools did differ. On the one hand, the Chinese system displays the highest uniformity in goals and objectives. On the other hand, the Chinese system has always been very good at publicly recognizing schools with outstanding performance. Even within a uniform larger umbrella, schools excel because of their particular visions. One school in Hong Kong has become known for its students’ activities. There is no homework in its early primary classes, which is rather unusual in Hong Kong. In a study about the school (Chan, 2000), it was revealed that the principal has happiness firmly in mind as a major vision 20 for the school. It is indeed a very happy school. However, the students have also achieved highly in academic studies. The notion of happiness, to the school principal, derives from a deep-rooted belief that learning is nature’s gift to students. Only when such a gift is treasured and facilitated by the school environment can children achieve real learning. And, when they can learn happily, they learn much more and much better. A school in Hong Kong appointed a new principal. He found that a neighbouring school, with students of the same background and founded at the same time, performed much better than his own school in almost all areas. He decided to pay full attention to public examination results first. He announced his intentions in a staff meeting, saying that for the foreseeable future he would not organize swimming galas or athletic meetings. ‘They are secondary’, he said. In about three years’ time, the examination results in his school rose to be on a par with the neighbouring school. Another school, a secondary school in Hong Kong, is known for the quality of its graduates. I interviewed its alumni and their employing firms or institutions. The descriptions were consensual: the graduates are often seen as ‘distinguished’ and ‘presentable’. When I studied the school, there were simply no school regulations for students. This was consistent with the school vision, which was written in the school philosophy, that placed high values on individuals. Hence, rather than setting regulations for students to follow, the school had expectations that formed the consensual norm among the students. Different from regulations, the expectations are seen to be from the students and of themselves, rather than from an authority and for the students to follow. Within such an environment, the students gain high esteem and the alumni shine. There was therefore an obvious consistency between the school vision, the expectations, and what the graduates demonstrate. We can come up with several observations from these examples. First, different visions lead to different characteristics of schools. Of first and foremost importance is whether or not there is a vision, whether or not there is something to look forward to. Second, whether or not the vision is a ‘good’ vision is a matter of the culture and a matter of value judgment. While in China there is the call for visions to move away from examination-oriented education, in India there are visions that ‘a good school principal should be examination-oriented’. Third, the appropriateness of the vision is perhaps tested only by the achievements of the school. Fourth, nonetheless, whether or not the vision is effective (that is, whether or not it brings about results) is a real concern and is an indicator of successful fulfilment of the vision. How the principal can articulate the vision is of less importance. The corollary, however, is that thing will not happen if they are not in the vision? If the leader is not looking forward to a goal, it is difficult to expect such a goal to be realized. For example, if the school did not consider happiness as a vision, the school would never tackle the issue of homework, and would most likely have regarded homework as an unchallenged natural routine. If the other school did not follow the tradition of respect for individuality, most likely school regulations would have been imposed unchallenged, again as a natural necessity. In this context, we may also say that vision is not only something to look forward to, but is also something that requires some effort in the implementation. Vision is also something to strive for. 21 VISIONS, BENCHMARKS AND VALUES The discussions above have already revealed that there may be a whole spectrum of types of visions. Different school leaders have different visions, pertaining to different aspects of school success, or different ways of looking at school success. In other words, different visions pertain to different core values. The following are some of the more frequent types. ‘We will become No. 1 in Asia!’ Such a vision may best fit a university, but primary and secondary schools may take a smaller locality: ‘The best school in town’, ‘No. 1 in the city’. Such a vision implicitly puts the school onto a league table of some kind, hence using the benchmarks on the league table as its target goals. In such a vision, the core value is competition. The ‘No. 1’ vision may take on many meanings. It could mean academic standing, such as indicated by university entrance. It could mean students’ all-round development, as could be indicated by all kinds of prizes won by students. It could mean popularity, demonstrated by parents’ choice. In practice, such a vision takes on the school as the eventual unit of concern. All achievements – student results, sports prizes, competition victory, campus development, technologies, and so on – converge as ways and means towards achievements of the school or even brand-building of the school. ‘We will achieve 100 per cent pass in the public examination!’ In Hong Kong, this is often initiated by the school board whose members knows little about education and only understands public examinations as the objective benchmark. Such visions are often seen in new schools, particularly schools that are situated in a rather under-developed area. This is a vision which is examination-oriented. Examination-orientation is often seen as inappropriate or wrong in an education system. Indeed, China has been trying to tackle the problem of examination-oriented education since the later 1980s, and called for its replacement by ‘quality education’. Hong Kong, in its major education reform launched in 2000, also proposed reduction of public examination pressure as one of its major goals. However, when I visited Bangalore, India in 1999, I found that in a most respected Principal’s Manual, the most eye-catching motto was ‘An effective school principal should be examination-oriented’. Indeed, most schools in India displayed in the most visible way their achievements in public examinations. In some cultures, examinations, which are seen as the major and fairest ladder for social mobility, are perceived as a decent vision for schools. ‘We will be the school for tomorrow!’ This is a type of vision where the target goal is conceivable but not tangible. The vision casts the concept of innovation into new directions. It implicitly presumes that schools in the future should be different from schools today, and that the goals of the school should aim at future goals. Many such visions are translated into physical facilities and technologies in particular. In the late 1990s, many schools in different systems ‘wired’ their schools. That is, they connected the schools to information networks by, for example, optical fibbers. This was a bold and forward- looking vision, because the vision led to a firm foundation for connectivity among schools, which would prove essential for students’ preparation for a knowledge society. Similarly, quite a few universities, in the late 1990s, started equipping their students with personal laptop computers. 22 Such visions are not without limits. One, technologies change quickly and soon become obsolete. For example, wired school systems are soon challenged by wireless connectivity. Two, emphasis on facilities and technologies may lead to neglect of educational visions that are essential to the real success of a school. However, it would be unfair to equate the vision for ‘tomorrow’s school’ with new technologies. There are indeed schools that foresee future developments and aim at target goals that look beyond what exists. Jian Ping school in Shanghai, for example, in the 1980s, foresaw the trends in the society, and required its graduates (who are students with high examination scores) to obtain at least one skill related public certificate beside the public examination diploma. This became very popular later. ‘Our school will have the highest value-added.’ This is a rather common recent vision, particularly among school districts or groups of schools run by the same school board. The underlying concept is that the school may or may not attract good students, but all of them will learn more and be better after studying in the school. Such a vision could be very educational, because it believes that regardless of how the students perform or are perceived in the past, they will grow and develop in the school. It is positive and constructive. However, such a vision is nonetheless still based on an external benchmark. The dimensions in the vision may or may not be the direct concern of the students and teachers in that school. For example, substantiating the ‘value-jadedness’ is inevitably the improvement in examination scores in one way or another, but such a dimension may not be the prime concern in a school where student scores are extremely low. Value-fadedness also tends to pay more attention to the tangible and measurable. Although it is conceivable to measure human dimensions such as students’ self-confidence, the ability of self-learning, or creativity, such measurements are seldom employed in a real account of value-addedness. The above cases represent a particular type of vision where the school is the focus of success. In other words, the visions are about the school. One may argue that a successful school is conducive to successful student learning. Nonetheless, the primary concern in the above- mentioned visions is the well-being of the school. They are school-centred visions. They are rather different from student-centred visions, and these we discuss below. The types of vision mentioned above also reflect a sense of competition. They carry a sense of ‘winning the competition’. This is quite different from visions where the competition is within the schools themselves rather than with other schools. One major difference is perhaps the former may see success in the championship, the latter never sees anything as ‘good enough’ (Collins and Porras, 1994: 10). In vision-building exercises, I would avoid judging the core values underpinning the various visions, but would definitely make sure that the participating school leaders could make a distinction between school-centred visions and student- centred visions, such that they are conscious of the nature of their visions. VISION AND STUDENTS When I ran my own school in the 1970s, it was a school that was able to attract only students with the poorest academic performance. One of our visions was that there should be an 23 opportunity for each student to be appreciated: ‘Every student should be applauded at least once’. The teachers developed the vision through their perception that all students were capable, but their capability might not be appreciated by the norms that the society accepted. By society norms, they were all failures. Our specific task was to allow the students to realize that they were not failures, and that was essential for their entire life. For that purpose, we made a lot of effort to provide opportunities for students to develop all kinds of talents, and to create opportunities for them to demonstrate such talents. In the now famous Zhabei No. 8 School in Shanghai, the motto is ‘let every student succeed’. The vision is that every student should be able to succeed. The principal of the school is known for his philosophy that students fail mostly because they are perceived as failures, and are told so. Hence, what he did is to provide easy starts, small steps, yet rapid progress. The net effect is that the students taste the fruit of success from the very first day they are in the school, and are guided to have confidence in themselves in mastering their studies. In the end, most of the students in the school achieved above average after three years of junior secondary study. In a few secondary schools that I studied, most of the students who perform poorly academically came from families under very difficult conditions. Either the parents were separated, or, in extremely difficult cases, the father old and the mother young, having been ‘brought in’ from nearby poorer countries. In these circumstances, the children have never been given a normal family life, and hence personal life, in their early years. Where the schools are successful, the principals’ visions often include restoration of normal lives for the students. They believe that only then can they properly engage in real learning. In one of the schools in my research, punctuality was given high priority among new entrants to the school. The school made a lot of effort to ensure punctuality, and through such efforts solved many life-organization problems among the students. Such school visions may not place the schools anywhere higher in any league table. Yet they are performing a noble task of enabling students to re-construct their own future. They have a noble vision. Given the fact that school leaders in a pluralistic society may have divergent visions, it is nonetheless important to remind them that schools as schools serve the students, not vice versa. Moreover, in such cases, the visions entail ambitions that do not ‘think big’ as one might expect. It is a vision where learning becomes a normal and delightful life experience, and the principal as a member of the community is part of that delightful experience. Such a vision is admired by all educators, but does not involve grand achievements normally on the agenda of school boards. VISIONS AGAINST THE TIDE Student-centred visions do not apply only to academically poor students. In the example of No. 4 School in Beijing mentioned earlier, teaching time is reduced but students achieve better. The vision is to restore the central position of learning, rather than teaching, into school lives. They have achieved the vision of ‘less teaching, more learning’. This is against the common belief that students learn more if they are taught more. Likewise, in one of the Hong Kong schools mentioned above, where homework is reduced to the minimum, there is the vision of giving students the greatest autonomy in their after-school lives. This is against Hong Kong parents’ belief that homework is not only necessity, but is also a 24 symbol of students’ diligence in study. Parents also believe that anything besides ‘study’ is a waste of time. The school has convinced parents with real practice that such beliefs are not valid. This echoed my experience in a village school in the north-eastern province of Liaoning in China (study reported in: Cheng, 1991). Among others, one dimension of the school’s vision statement was to give students ‘autonomous evenings’. Most students in East Asian societies do not enjoy that autonomy. They have to fulfil heavy homework requirements, prepare for frequent tests and, often, to attend private tutorials. They never have the autonomy to organize their own lives in the evening. About twenty-five years ago, a veteran kindergarten leader in Hong Kong started introducing an approach that delayed children’s learning of writing Chinese characters. Based on very professional judgments, she introduced only a little writing in the second year for the four year olds, whereas all other kindergartens started a large amount of writing at age three. She went as far as debating with parents who challenged her approach, but succeeded in demonstrating that her students wrote much better when they finished kindergarten. Her kindergartens later became very popular. REALIZATION OF VISIONS School leaders’ visions are not useful if they are unable to realize such visions. Vision has to be translated into missions. While vision is a dream and a future of the school that we aspire to, mission is what should be achieved in order to fulfil the dream. In other words, a vision is not a vision if the leader does not understand the implications of the vision. Typically missions are also translated into plans, preferably with vague three-year plans and more concrete annual plans. Only with such plans can one safely say that the vision has hope of realization. A visionary leader also marks the fulfilment of the missions with milestones. While plans refer mainly to the day-to-day operations and achievements of the school, milestones often refer to critical junctures or events that would provide a point of reference for both the target goals and the timeline for operations. For example, a school may typically use the celebration of its twenty- fifth anniversary as a milestone, such that in that year, the school should have a list of accomplishments. A milestone will also provide the school with an opportunity to take stock of its achievements and to renew its further plans. Visions have to be realized with strategy. Often, visions fail to materialize not because of lack of plans, but rather, the lack of strategies. Often, the crux of school development strategy is to decide on what should be removed in order to give way to areas of greater concern. As many writers have emphasized, visions reflect the core values upheld by the leadership. A school’s vision is realized only when such core values are disseminated among members of the school and shared by all in the school. Many school leaders think of a vision predominantly as policies and measures, assuming that what is regarded as appropriate and good by the leader should also be so regarded by other members. Such assumptions are simply invalid. On the contrary, if efforts are invested in communicating the visions and securing agreement on the core values, members will be motivated as autonomous individuals in realizing the visions. 25  This comes to the very core of the issue of vision. Vision is about trust. Anybody can have a vision of a school, but only those who have trust in teachers and students are able to realize such a vision. Schools are human organizations working on human beings through human interactions. Only by trust in teachers’ sincerity and professional wisdom, and trust in students’ capacity and intelligence, is it possible for school visions to be realized. For schools, a vision with no trust is not a vision.  Hints for activity I: Students, in your discussion of the above questions you will realize that visions are achievable and measurable but dreams are not. Discuss on the core values mentioned like, competition (as in ‘we will become No. 1 in Asia!’); exam-orientation ( as in ‘We will achieve 100 per cent pass in the public examination!’) future- orientation: (as in ‘We will be the school for tomorrow!’) Value-addition; student-success and others mentioned in the text and discuss which attracts you most and may use it in your school vision. You will also note that building trust on the people who work with you is a best strategy you can use to realize your shared vision. ACTIVITY II: vision crafting: (40 minutes)  Task: In your groups of three read the following vision statements and discuss the following questions: 1. Find out the similarities in the above three vision statements 2. Discuss why do we need to craft vision statements? 3. Discuss who should get involved in crafting the vision of your school? and explain why 4. Select a female secretary and present your ideas to the class using flip charts. 1. Building an education and training system which assures quality and equity education by the year 2020 that aims at producing competent citizens. MOE 2. To make Ethiopia one of the top five tourist destinations of Africa in 2020 through the development of its cultural wealth and natural attraction. Ethiopian tourism 3. Addis Ababa University aspires to be a pre-eminent African research university dedicated to excellence in teaching, critical inquiry, creativity and public action in an academic community that cultivates and celebrates diversity. AAU  Hints for Activity II 26 The above vision statements have similarities in many ways. To begin with they are short and memorable that members of the organizations can remember them easily in their every day routine. Second they put a time frame when they intend to achieve the vision, and finally you can see that what they intend to achieve is achievable. We need to write a vision statement because it provides a purpose and guides our actions. In the visioning process all relevant stakeholders need to be involved. What is vision? Students, a vision are what we are trying to become. Vision statements describe the future state of the organization. Visions often include how the organization will behave, what it will focus on or value, in order to realize the vision. Vision statements stir emotions and include a few universal values such as respect and integrity. A vision statement of a school describes what the school wants to be in the future. Vision is a long-term view, sometimes also describing how the school would like the world to be (www.britishcouncil.org/connectingclassrooms). A vision is a future state of being for an individual, a team, a department, an organization, a community, a nation, or the world. It is an idea, a way of being that captures the minds and hearts of people. In the words of Stephen Covey, it is "beginning with the end in mind." It appeals to the best in people, motivating them to contribute to something greater than themselves and to deliver outputs that will make positive differences in the lives of others. It is the mechanism that elicits a sense of selflessness, putting team goals first, ahead of personal goals. In turn, individuals have their needs met as they contribute selflessly to team goals. Vision purposes are noble and worthy of individual effort. Visions energize. Vision Litmus Test When developing a vision statement, it should be seen that the following questions are answered:  Does it make clear the school's direction and purpose?  Does it give a clear picture of the bright future?  Are there images and words that inspire loyalty and caring through the involvement of all employees?  Has it got memorable and engaging statements?  Does it align with the school's values and culture?  Does it refer to the unique strengths, culture, values, beliefs and direction of the school?  Will it inspire enthusiasm, belief, commitment and excitement in all school members?  Will it instill the belief in employees that they are part of something bigger than themselves and their daily work?  Does it challenge people to excel and to stretch and reach for a great future? The vision helps simplify the decision-making process, as schools need to make hundreds of decisions each day to simple stay afloat in the ever changing educational and world environments (www.britishcouncil.org/connectingclassrooms). Activity III: Writing a vision (30 minutes) 27 In your groups of three, using the knowledge and experience you gained so far, write down a vision for your school. You may have a male group leader. What is Mission? Mission statements identify what an organization is in business to accomplish, what we do as organization e.g., produce competent graduates, make high quality tires, health care products, food products, software. The mission statement of an organization defines specifically why it is in business, what it produces, and goals that are linked to high quality, continuous improvement, and ongoing customer satisfaction. Mission Statement Litmus Test: When developing a mission statement, it should be seen that the following questions are answered:  What is the main purpose of the school?  What are the school's values?  What are the main benefits the school provides?  Who are the school's main clients (stakeholders)?  What are the school's responsibilities for these clients?  Why does the school exist?  How is the school serving its clients?  What does the school do at the moment to achieve its vision? Examples of Mission Statement Marriott: "Grow a worldwide lodging business using Total Quality Management principles to continuously improve preference and profitability. Our commitment is that every guest leaves satisfied." Southwest Airlines: "The mission of Southwest Airlines is dedication to the highest quality of Customer Service delivered with a sense of warmth, friendliness, individual pride, and Company Spirit." Princeton Academy: "Our mission is to develop young men and women with active and creative minds, a sense of understanding and compassion for others, and the courage to act on their beliefs. We stress the total development of each child: spiritual, moral, intellectual, social, emotional, and physical. Students, missions could be given by parent organizations, in our case the Ministry of Education may give missions to every public university or public school. Hence you have gotten your missions from your respective Bureaus of Education. Hence you may not have to be worried about writing mission statements for your schools. But understanding them well and synchronizing them with your vision statements is very crucial. 28 2.2 The Purpose and Power of Vision, Mission and Goals (30 minutes) Dear Student, Vision is a powerful instrument to get your stakeholders focused and mobilized to achieve a goal. Vision can be thought of as the image stakeholders have for what they want the school to be. It is like a billboard image of what you are working towards, it gets your ideas across powerfully, accurately, and quickly. It sets a direction that helps guide choices of what to do to move in that direction. Effective principals help their schools to develop or endorse visions that embody the best thinking about teaching and learning. School principals inspire others to reach for ambitious goals. Your school must have a vision that all staff members recognize as a common direction of growth, something that inspires them to be better. An effective vision also announces to parents and students where you are heading and why they should take the trip with you. Without a vision, your school lacks direction. If you don't have a common, agreed-on destination, then everyone is left to his or her own devices to imagine one—a scenario that results in unharnessed and unfocused efforts, with everyone believing that what he or she is doing is right. A common understanding of the destination allows all stakeholders to align their improvement efforts. Developing strong vision and mission statements can help stakeholders in your school reach such a common understanding. A vision is your school's goal—where you hope to see it in the future. The mission provides an overview of the steps planned to achieve that future. A vision is concise and easy to recall, whereas a mission is lengthier and more explanatory in nature. Your school may also want to establish targets along the way to measure progress toward its vision. Understanding the Power of Vision Imagine