Inclusiveness Module 4 PDF

Inclusiveness A Course for Higher Education of all Disciplines Developed By: 1. Dr. Alemayehu Teklemariam (Asso. Professor) Addis Ababa University: Chapter Five and Eight 2. Dr. Bitew Atnaf Bahirdar (Asst. Professor) University : Chapter Two and six 3. Jafar Lola (Asst. Professor) Jimma University: Chapter One 4. Dr. Mesfin Dejene (Asst. Professor) Kotebe Metropolitan University : Chapter Four 5. Teketel Agafari (Asst. Professor) Haromaya University : Chapter Three 6. Yitayal Alemu (Asst. Professor) University : Chapter Seven Editor: Alemayehu Teklemariam (PhD) Associate Professor, AAU January 2020 1 I. Course information 1.1. Course Title: Inclusiveness 1.2. Credit hours: 2 (4 ECTS) 1.3. Target group: Compulsory for all undergraduate students 1.4. Course code: SNIE 1012 1.5. Contact hours: 48 Hours 1.6. Course offering: A course should be offered only by certified Special Needs/Inclusive Education Professionals 1.7. Mode of delivery: Semester based/Parallel Students Lectures Tutorial Library/ Assignment Home Total work Load work Group report study Load works 48hrs - 20hrs 17hrs 50hrs 135hrs II. Course Description Development efforts of any organization need to include and benefit people with various types of disabilities, people at risks of exclusion/discrimination and marginalization, through providing quality education and training, creating equity, accessibility, employability, promoting prosperity, reducing poverty and enhancing peace, stability and creating inclusive society. Unfortunately, this has not been the practice for the majority of people with disabilities and vulnerable groups, due to unfavorable attitude, negligence, inaccessibility and exclusion from all development endeavors. It is obvious that people with disabilities are the large stand most disadvantaged minority in the world. They are about 15 percent of the global population (about one billion people), and 17.6 million in Ethiopia, with most extended families including someone with a disability (World Health Organization and World Bank and 2011). An exclusion practice of this large number of persons with disabilities in Ethiopia is an indicator of violating fundamental human rights that undermines their potential/ability to contribute to poverty reduction and economic growth within their household, their community and the country. It is clear that it is not impairment, but, the exclusion practices that has contributed for insecurity (conflict), poverty aggravation for persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities, that has highly demanding inclusive practices. Exclusion practices of persons with disabilities have a long history, affecting the life of people with disabilities and the society at large. In the past and even today people have been discriminated due to their disabilities. 2 Inclusiveness promotes effective developments through full participation of all members of a population, people with disabilities and vulnerabilities, where all are equal contributors of development and equitable beneficiaries. Through inclusive practices, it is possible to identify and remove social and physical barriers so that people with disabilities and vulnerabilities can participate and benefit from all developments. Genuine inclusion of people with disabilities and vulnerabilities allow of them to actively participate in development processes and eliminate dependence syndrome, leads to broader benefits for families and communities, reduces the impacts of poverty, and positively contributes to a country‘s economic growth, development and ultimately create inclusive society. All stages of development processes of any organization should be inclusive through creating equal access to education, health care services, work and employment, social protection and all development center of human being. Hence, in this course, the higher education students will learn how to assess, understand and address the needs of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities; and provide relevant support or seek extra support from experts. He/she also learns how to adapt and implementing services for an inclusive environment that aimed to develop holistic development such as affective, cognitive and psychosocial skills of the population with disabilities and vulnerabilities. Identification and removal/management of environmental barriers would find a crucial place in the course. The students learn how to give more attention and support for persons with; hearing impairments, visual impairment, deaf-Blind, autism, physical and health impairments, intellectually challenged, emotional and behavior disorders, learning difficulty, communication disorders, vulnerable persons including gifted and talented, and those at risk due to different reason (persons who are environmentally and culturally deprived, abused, torched, abandoned, and orphaned..etc.). All University students should be given the chance to study the specific developmental characteristics of each group of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities. Furth more, they also indentify the major environmental and social barriers that hinder the development of individuals; and come up with appropriate intervention strategies in inclusive settings of their respective professional environment and any development settings where all citizens are equally benefited. 3 III. Course objective and Expected Learning outcomes The objective of this course is to develop knowledge, skill and attitude of the learners so that they can provide appropriate services, the tools and strategies that help to create a convenient inclusive environment. This course encourages learners exploring the benefits of collaborating with colleagues to design and implement inclusion an all sphere of life. It also guides the discovery of ways to modify environment as well as services and practices to meet the needs of all persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities in inclusive environment. As a result of reviewing various reading materials, completing the assignments, engaging in related discussions, and strongly workings on activities, towards the completion of the course, the students will be able to:  Identify the needs and potentials of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities.  Identify environmental and social barriers that hinder the needs, potentials and full participations, in all aspects of life of persons disabilities and vulnerabilities  Demonstrate desirable inclusive attitude towards all persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities in full participations  Apply various assessment strategies for service provisions for evidence-based planning and implementation to meet the needs of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities  Adapt environments and services according to the need and potential of the persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities  Utilize appropriate assistive technology and other support mechanisms that address the needs of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities  Respect and advocate for the right of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities  Collaboratively work with special needs experts and significant others for the life success of all persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities in every endeavors and in all environments.  Create and maintain successful inclusive environment for persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities  Promote the process of building inclusive society 4 Chapter 1: Understanding Disabilities and Vulnerabilities Time allotted: 10 contact hours Chapter objectives At the end of completing this chapter, the students will be able to:  Define disability and vulnerability  List different types of disabilities and vulnerabilities  Explain brief causes of disability and vulnerability  Describe the brief historical movements from segregation to inclusion  Describe the effect of attitude on the move towards inclusion  Discuss models of disability Chapter Contents 1.1 Definitions of disability and vulnerability 1.2 Types of disabilities and vulnerabilities 1.3 Causes of disability and vulnerability 1.4 Historical movements from segregation to inclusion 1.5 The effects of attitude on the move towards inclusion 1.6 Models of disability Overview of the Chapter This chapter discusses issues that help to understand about disabilities and vulnerabilities. It starts by defining terms and concepts as these are basics to understand the other chapters also. It then proceeds to present types/classifications or characteristics and causes of the disabilities and vulnerabilities to help the learners understand the disabilities as well as vulnerabilities and what causes them. The chapter then moves to trace historical movement from segregation to inclusion including the attitude issues. The major models of understanding disability were also discussed in this chapter. Learning outcomes At the end of completing this chapter, the students will be able to:  Define disability and vulnerability  List different types of disabilities and vulnerabilities  Explain brief causes of disability and vulnerability  Describe the brief historical movements from segregation to inclusion  Describe the effect of attitude on the move towards inclusion 5  Discuss models of disability 1.1 Definitions of Basic Terms (Impairment, Disability and Handicap) Impairment Impairment means a lack/abnormality of an anatomic, physiological or psychological structure or function or deviation on a person. It refers to any loss or abnormality of physiological, psychological or anatomical structure or function. It is the absence of particular body part or organ. It could also a condition in which the body exists but doesn‘t function. Some children, for instance, have impairments such as eyes that do not see well, arms and legs that are deformed, or a brain not developing in a typical way etc. Disability The term disability is ambiguous as there is no single agreement on the concept (Mitra, 2006) It is not synonymous with AKAL-GUDATENGA (የአካል ጉዳተኛ) meaning impairment The concept of disability is complex, dynamic, multidimensional, and contested (WHO and World Bank, 2011). The full inclusion of people with impairments in society can be inhibited by: 1. Attitudinal (societal barriers, such as stigma) 2. Physical barriers (environmental barriers, such as absence of stairs), and 3. Policy barriers (systemic barriers), Where all together can create a disabling effect and inhibit disability inclusive development. They are disabling factors If these problems addressed, impairment may not lead to disability Where all together can create a disabling effect and inhibit disability inclusive development. Societal, environmental, and systemic barriers are the most popular disabling factors:  A disabled persons  Persons with disability What is disability? 1. Medical Approach Disability is pathology (physiological, biological and intellectual). Disability means functional limitations due to physical, intellectual or psychic impairment, health or psychic disorders on a person (WHO,1996). The medical definition has given rise to the idea that 6 people are individual objects to be ―treated‖, ―changed" or ―improved" and made more ―normal‖. The medical definition views the disabled person as needing to ―fit in ‖rather than thinking about how society itself should change. This medical definition does not adequately explain the interaction between societal conditions or expectations and unique circumstances of an individual The social definition of disability: Disability is a highly varied and complex condition with a range of implications for social identity and behavior. Disability largely depends on the context and is a consequence of discrimination, prejudice and exclusion. Emphasizes the shortcomings in the environment and in many organized activities in society, for example on information, communication and education, which prevent persons with disabilities from participating on equal terms. Medical model: Social model: Child is faulty Child is valued Diagnosis and labeling Strengths and needs identified Impairment is focus of attention Barriers identified and solutions developed Medical model: Social model: Segregation and alternative services Resources made available Re-entry if normal enough or permanent Diversity welcomed; child is welcomed exclusion Society remains unchanged Society evolves Causes of disability What do you think is the causes of disability? Some people, especially in the past times, wrongly believe that disability is a punishment from God. There are some who still believe that disability is a form of personal punishment for individual with disability, a kind of karma for their past mistakes, which is totally unacceptable now days. Disability can be caused by the following factors. Genetic Causes Abnormalities in genes and genetic inheritance can cause intellectual disability in children. In some countries, Down syndrome is the most common genetic condition. Sometimes, 7 diseases, illnesses, and over-exposure to x-rays can cause a genetic disorder.. Environmental Poverty and malnutrition in pregnant mothers can cause a deficiency in vital minerals and result in deformation issues in the unborn child. After birth, poverty and malnutrition can also cause poor development of vital organs in the child, which can eventually lead to disability. The use of drugs, alcohol, tobacco, the exposure to certain toxic chemicals and illnesses, toxoplasmosis, cytomegalovirus, rubella and syphilis by a pregnant mother can cause intellectual disability to the child. Childhood diseases such as a whooping cough, measles, and chicken pox may lead to meningitis and encephalitis. This can cause damage to the brain of the child. Toxic material such as lead and mercury can damage the brain too. Unfortunate life events such as drowning, automobile accidents, falls and so on can result in people losing their sight, hearing, limbs and other vital parts of their body and cause disability. Unknown Causes The human body is a phenomenal thing. Scientists have still not figured out what and how some things in the body, cells, brain, and genes come about. Humans have still not found all the answers to all the defects in the human body. Inaccessible environments Sometimes society makes it difficult for people with some impairment to function freely. When society develops infrastructure such as houses, roads, parks and other public places without consideration to people with impairment, the basically make it impossible for them to take care of themselves. For example, if a school is built with a ramp in addition to stairs, it makes it easy for people with wheelchairs to move about freely. This way, their impairment is not made worse. Lack of education, support services, health and opportunities for people with impairment can cause additional disability to people with disabilities and even people with no disability. Some type of disabilities: Some nine major disabilities are listed and briefly discussed in the coming pages below. 1.Visual impairment Visual impairment in general designates two sub- classifications. These are blindness and low vision.  Blindness, total or partial inability to see because of disease or disorder of the eye, optic nerve, or brain. The term blindness typically refers to vision loss that is not correctable with eyeglasses or contact lenses. Blindness may not mean a total absence 8 of sight, however. Some people who are considered blind may be able to perceive slowly moving lights or colors.  The term low vision is used for moderately impaired vision. People with low vision may have a visual impairment that affects only central vision—the area directly in front of the eyes—or peripheral vision—the area to either side of and slightly behind the eyes. Activities 1. How can we educate people with visual impairment? 2. What will be the consequences if we do not educate them? 3. What will be the consequences if ewe excludes them from all walks of life? 4. What support they demand for education, work and living daily life? 5. What is your role as an individual and group to create inclusiveness? 2. Hearing Impairment Different people define the term hearing impairment differently. The definitions given to hearing impairment convey different meaning to different people. Different definitions and terminologies may be used in different countries for different purpose. Pasonella and Carat from legal point of view, define hearing impairment as a generic term indicating a continuum of hearing loss from mild to profound, which includes the sub-classifications of the hard of hearing and deaf.  Hard of Hearing: "A hearing impairment, whether permanent of fluctuating, which adversely affects a child's educational performance but which is not included under the definition of 'deaf'." Whelan, R. J. (1988). This term can also be used to describe persons with enough (usually with hearing aids) as a primary modality of acquisition of language and in communication with others.  Deaf: Those who have difficulty understanding speech, even with hearing aids but can successfully communicate in sign language. Cultural definitions of deafness, on the other hand, emphasize an individual‘s various abilities, use of sign language, and connections with the culturally deaf community. Activities 1. How can we educate people with hearing impairment? 1. What will be the consequences if we do not educate them? 2. What will be the consequences if ewe excludes them from all walks of life? 3. What support they demand for education, work and living daily life? 4. What is your role as an individual and group to create inclusiveness? 9 3.Specific learning disability Specific Learning Disability means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations. The term includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. The term does not include learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities; of intellectual disability; of emotional disturbance; or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage. Learning disabilities should not be confused with learning problems which are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor handicaps; of intellectual disability; of emotional disturbance; or of environmental, cultural or economic disadvantages. Generally speaking, people with learning disabilities are of average or above average intelligence. There often appears to be a gap between the individual‘s potential and actual achievement. This is why learning disabilities are referred to as ―hidden disabilities‖: the person looks perfectly ―normal‖ and seems to be a very bright and intelligent person, yet may be unable to demonstrate the skill level expected from someone of a similar age. A learning disability cannot be cured or fixed; it is a lifelong challenge. However, with appropriate support and intervention, people with learning disabilities can achieve success in school, at work, in relationships, and in the community. Types of Specific Learning Disabilities Auditory Processing Disorder (APD) Also known as Central Auditory Processing Disorder, this is a condition that adversely affects how sound that travels unimpeded through the ear is processed or interpreted by the brain. Individuals with APD do not recognize subtle differences between sounds in words, even when the sounds are loud and clear enough to be heard. They can also find it difficult to tell where sounds are coming from, to make sense of the order of sounds, or to block out competing background noises. A. Dyscalculia 10 Dyscalculia is a specific learning disability that affects a person‘s ability to understand numbers and learn math. Individuals with this type of LD may also have poor comprehension of math symbols, may struggle with memorizing and organizing numbers, have difficulty telling time, or have trouble with counting. B. Dysgraphia Dyscalculia is a specific learning disability that affects a person‘s handwriting ability and fine motor skills. Problems may include illegible handwriting, inconsistent spacing, poor spatial planning on paper, poor spelling, and difficulty composing writing as well as thinking and writing at the same time. C. Dyslexia Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that affects reading and related language-based processing skills. The severity can differ in each individual but can affect reading fluency; decoding, reading comprehension, recall, writing, spelling, and sometimes speech and can exist along with other related disorders. Dyslexia is sometimes referred to as a Language- Based Learning Disability. D. Language Processing Disorder Language Processing Disorder is a specific type of Auditory Processing Disorder (APD) in which there is difficulty attaching meaning to sound groups that form words, sentences and stories. While an APD affects the interpretation of all sounds coming into the brain, a Language Processing Disorder (LPD) relates only to the processing of language. LPD can affect expressive language and/or receptive language. E. Non-Verbal Learning Disabilities Non-Verbal Learning Disabilities is a disorder which is usually characterized by a significant discrepancy between higher verbal skills and weaker motor, visual-spatial and social skills. Typically, an individual with NLD (or NVLD) has trouble interpreting nonverbal cues like facial expressions or body language, and may have poor coordination. F. Visual Perceptual/Visual Motor Deficit Visual Perceptual/Visual Motor Deficit is a disorder that affects the understanding of information that a person sees, or the ability to draw or copy. A characteristic seen in people with learning disabilities such as Dysgraphia or Non-verbal LD, it can result in missing subtle differences in shapes or printed letters, losing place frequently, struggles with cutting, holding pencil too tightly, or poor eye/hand coordination. 11 4.Speech and Language Impairments Speech and language impairment means a communication disorder such as stuttering, impaired articulation, language impairment, or a voice impairment that adversely affects a child‘s educational performance. It is disorder that adversely affects the child's ability to talk, understand, read, and write. This disability category can be divided into two groups: speech impairments and language impairments. Speech Impairments There are three basic types of speech impairments: articulation disorders, fluency disorders, and voice disorders. Articulation disorders are errors in the production of speech sounds that may be related to anatomical or physiological limitations in the skeletal, muscular, or neuromuscular support for speech production. These disorders include:  Omissions: (bo for boat)  Substitutions: (wabbit for rabbit)  Distortions: (shlip for sip) Fluency disorders are difficulties with the rhythm and timing of speech characterized by hesitations, repetitions, or prolongations of sounds, syllables, words, or phrases. Common fluency disorders include:  Stuttering: rapid-fire repetitions of consonant or vowel sounds especially at the beginning of words, prolongations, hesitations, interjections, and complete verbal blocks  Cluttering: excessively fast and jerky speech Voice disorders are problems with the quality or use of one's voice resulting from disorders in the larynx. Voice disorders are characterized by abnormal production and/or absences of vocal quality, pitch, loudness, resonance, and/or duration. Language Impairments There are five basic areas of language impairments: phonological disorders, morphological disorders, semantic disorders, syntactical deficits, and pragmatic difficulties. Phonological disorders are defined as the abnormal organization of the phonological system, or a 12 significant deficit in speech production or perception. A child with a phonological disorder may be described as hard to understand or as not saying the sounds correctly. Apraxia of speech is a specific phonological disorder where the student may want to speak but has difficulty planning what to say and the motor movements to use. Morphological disorders are defined as difficulties with morphological inflections (inflections on nouns, verbs, and adjectives that signal different kinds of meanings). Semantic disorders are characterized by poor vocabulary development, inappropriate use of word meanings, and/or inability to comprehend word meanings. These students will demonstrate restrictions in word meanings, difficulty with multiple word meanings, excessive use of nonspecific terms (e.g., thing and stuff), and indefinite references (e.g., that and there). Syntactic deficits are characterized by difficulty in acquiring the rules that govern word order and others aspects of grammar such as subject-verb agreement. Typically, these students produce shorter and less elaborate sentences with fewer cohesive conjunctions than their peers. Pragmatic difficulties are characterized as problems in understanding and using language in different social contexts. These students may lack an understanding of the rules for making eye contact, respecting personal space, requesting information, and introducing topics. Inclusive life for persons with speech and language difficulties 1. How can schools create inclusive education for students with speech and language difficulties? Discuss 2. How persons with speech and language difficulties should be employed and live independent life? 3. How can persons with speech and language difficulties lead independent life in the community? 4. What kind of technology they require for speech and language communication and daily life activities? 5.Autism Autism means a developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction, generally evident before age three that adversely affects a child‘s educational performance. Other characteristics often associated with autism 13 are engaging in repetitive activities and stereotyped movements, resistance to environmental change or change in daily routines, and unusual responses to sensory experiences. The term autism does not apply if the child‘s educational performance is adversely affected primarily because the child has an emotional disturbance, as defined in #5 below. A child who shows the characteristics of autism after age 3 could be diagnosed as having autism if the criteria above are satisfied. Autism is a neurodevelopment disorder defined by impairments in social and communication development, accompanied by stereotyped patterns of behavior and interest (Landa, 2007). Autism is pervasive developmental disorder characterized by lack of normal sociability, impaired communication and repetitive obsessive behavior such as politeness, turn-taking (Young & Nettlebeck , 2005). Linked to Profound Learning Disability (PLDs) are further impairments in the production of speech. Among these are (i) personal pronouns reversal for instance the use of ―I‖ instead of ―you‖ and vice-versa, (ii) the misuse of such prepositions as ―in‖, ―on‖, ―under‖, ―next to‖ (...), and (iii) the prevalence, in speech, of echolalia formal repetition of other‘s utterances (Arron and Gittens, 1999). Children with autism vary literally in their use of words, (Rutter, 1966). Communication deficiencies may leave a lasting mark of social retardation on the child. The link, between social skills and language is made evident by the often spontaneous appearance of affectionate and dependent behavior in these children after they have been trained to speak (Churchill, 1966 & Hewett, 1965). 6. Emotional and Behavioral Disorders According to Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), the term Emotional and Behavioral Disorders means a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects educational performance 1) An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors; 2) An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers; 3) Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances; 4) A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression; or 14 5) A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems. Classification of behavioral and emotional disorders An individual having behavioral or emotional disorders can exhibit widely varied types of behavior. Therefore, different classification systems of behavioral and emotional disorders can be used for special education. Different professionals have developed a classification system, which shows some promise for educational practice. These include:  Conduct disorder: individuals may seek attention, are disruptive and act out. The disorder is classified by type: overt (with violence or tantrums) versus covert (with lying, stealing, and/or drug use).  Socialized aggression: individuals join subculture group of peers who are openly disrespectful to their peers, teachers, and parents. Common are delinquency and dropping out of school. Early symptoms include stealing, running away from home, habitual lying, cruelty to animals, and fire setting.  Attention problems- These individuals may have attention deficit, are easily destructible and have poor concentration. They are frequently impulsive and may not think the consequence of their actions.  Anxiety/Withdrawn- These individuals are self-conscious, reserved, and unsure of themselves. They typically have low self-esteem and withdraw from immediate activities. They are also anxious and frequently depressed.  Psychotic behavior: These individuals show more bizarre behavior. They may hallucinate, deal in a fantasy world and may even talk in gibberish.  Motor excess: These students are hyperactive. They cannot sit nor listen to others nor keep their attention focused. Kauffman (1993) conclude that emotion or behavioral disorders fall into two broad classifications: 1) Externalizing Behavior: also called under controlled disorder, include such problems disobedience, disruptiveness, fighting, tempers tantrums, irresponsibility, jealous, anger, attention seeking etc… 2) Internalizing Behavior: also known as over controlled disorders, include such problems anxiety, immaturity, shyness, social withdrawal, feeling of inadequacy (inferiority), guilt, depression and worries a great deal 15 Causes of behavioral and emotional disorders Behavioral and emotion disorders result from many causes, these includes the following. 1. Biological- includes genetic disorders, brain damage, and malnutrition, allergies, temperament and damage to the central nervous system. 2. Family factors- include family interactions, family influence, child abuse, neglect, and poor disciplinary practices at home. 3. Cultural factors- include some traditional and cultural negative practices, for example watching violence and sexually oriented movies and TV programs. 4. Environmental factors- include peer pressure, living in impoverished areas, and schooling practices that are unresponsive to individual needs. Inclusive life for persons with behavioral difficulties 1. Do you think it is right to dismiss students with behavioral disorder from schools? 2. How can schools create inclusive education for students with behavioral disorders? Discuss 3. How persons with behavioral disorder should employed and live independent life? 4. How can persons with behavioral disorder lead independent life in the community? 7.Intellectual Disability Intellectual disability is a disability characterized by significant limitations in both intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior, which covers many everyday social and practical skills. This disability originates before the age of 18. An individual is considered to have an intellectual disability based on the following three criteria: 1. Sub average intellectual functioning: It refers to general mental capacity, such as learning, reasoning, problem solving, and so on. One way to measure intellectual functioning is an IQ test. Generally, an IQ test score of around 70 or as high as 75 indicates a limitation in intellectual functioning. 2. Significant limitations exist in two or more adaptive skill areas: It is the collection of conceptual, social, and practical skills that are learned and performed by people in their everyday lives.  Conceptual skills—language and literacy; money, time, and number concepts; and self-direction. 16  Social skills—interpersonal skills, social responsibility, self-esteem, gullibility, innocence (i.e., suspicion), social problem solving, and the ability to follow rules/obey laws and to avoid being victimized.  Practical skills—activities of daily living (personal care), occupational skills, healthcare, travel/transportation, schedules/routines, safety, use of money, use of the telephone. People with intellectual disabilities academic learning can be affected, as well as their ability to adapt to home, school, and community environments are presented under the following sub-headings: General Cognition: People with intellectual disabilities vary physically and emotionally, as well as by personality, disposition, and beliefs. Their apparent slowness in learning may be related to the delayed rate of intellectual development (Wehman, 1997). Learning and Memory: The learning and memory capabilities of people with intellectual disabilities are significantly below average in comparison to peers without disabilities. Children with intellectual disabilities may not spontaneously use appropriate learning or memory retention strategies and may have difficulty in realizing the conditions or actions that aid learning and memory. However, these strategies can be taught (Fletcher, Huffman, & Bray, 2003; Hunt & Marshall, 2002; Werts, Wolery, Holocombe, & Gast, 1995; Wolery & Schuster, 1997). Attention: To acquire information, children must attend to the learning task for the required length of time and control distractions. Children with intellectual disabilities may have difficulty distinguishing and attending to relevant questions in both learning and social situations (Saunders, 2001). The problem is not that the student will not pay attention, but rather that the student does not understand or does not filter the information to get to the salient features (Hunt & Marshall, 2002; Meyen & Skrtic, 1988). Adaptive Skills: The adaptive skills of people with intellectual disabilities are often not comparable to those of their peers without disabilities. A child with intellectual disabilities may have difficulty in both learning and applying skills for a number of reasons, including a higher level of distractibility, inattentiveness, failure to read social cues, and impulsive behavior (Hardman et al., 2008). The lack or underdevelopment of these skills notably affects 17 memory, rehearsal skills, organizational ability, and being in control of the process of learning (Erez & Peled, 2001; Hunt & Marshall, 2002). Speech and Language: People with intellectual disabilities may have delayed speech, language comprehension and formulation difficulties. Language problems are generally associated with delays in language development rather than with a bizarre use of language (Beirne-Smith et al., 2006; Moore-Brown & Montgomery, 2006). People with intellectual disabilities may show delayed functioning on pragmatic aspects of language, such as turn taking, selecting acceptable topics for conversation, knowing when to speak knowing when to be silent, and similar contextual skills (Haring, McCormick, & Haring, 1994; Yoder, Retish, & Wade, 1996). Motivation: People with intellectual disabilities are often described as lacking motivation, or outer-directed behavior. Past experiences of failure and the anxiety generated by those failures may make them appear to be fewer goals directed and lacking in motivation. The result of failure is often learned helplessness. The history of failure is likely to lead to dependence on external sources of reinforcement or reward rather than on internal sources of reward. They are less likely to self-starters motivated by self-approval (Beirne-Smith et al., 2002; Taylor et al., 2005). Academic Achievement: The cognitive difficulties of children with mild to moderate intellectual disabilities lead to persistent problems in academic achievement (Hughes et al., 2002; Macmillan, Siperstein, & Gresham, 1996; Quenemoen, Thompson, & Thurlow, 2003; Turnbull et al., 2004), unless intensive and extensive supports are provided. Physical characteristics: Children with intellectual disabilities with differing biological etiologies, may exhibit coexisting problems, such as physical, motor, orthopedic, visual and auditory impairments, and health problems (Hallahan & Kauffman, 2006). A relationship exists between the severity of the intellectual disabilities and the extent of physical differences for the individual (Drew & Hardman, 2007; Horvat, 2000). The majority of children with severe and profound intellectual disabilities have multiple disabilities that affect nearly every aspect of intellectual and physical development (Westling & Fox, 2004). Levels of support for individuals with intellectual disabilities Levels of support range from intermittent (just occasional or ―as needed‖ for specific activities) to pervasive (continuous in all realms of living). 18 Levels and areas of support for intellectual disabilities Level of Duration of Frequency of Setting of support Amount of professional support support support assistance Intermittent Only as needed Occasional or Usually only one or Occasional consultation or infrequent two (e.g. 1–2 classes monitoring by professional or activities) Limited As needed, but Regular, but Several settings, but Occasional or regular contact sometimes frequency varies not usually all with professionals continuing Extensive Usually Regular, but Several settings, but Regular contact with continuing frequency varies not usually all professionals at least once a week Pervasive May be lifelong Frequent Nearly all settings Continuous contact and or continuous monitoring by professionals Source: American Association on Mental Retardation, 2002: Schalock & Luckassen, 2004. Activities Inclusive life for persons with intellectual disabilities 1. How can schools create inclusive education for students with intellectual disabilities? Discuss 2. How persons with intellectual disabilities should employed and live independent life? 3. What kind of employment opportunities you can create for persons with intellectual disabilities 4. How can persons with intellectual disabilities lead independent life in the community? 8. Physical disability/Orthopedic Impairment and Health impairment Physical disability is a condition that interferes with the individual‘s ability to use his or her body. Many but not all, physical disabilities are orthopedic impairments. (The term orthopedic impairment generally refers to conditions of muscular or skeletal system and sometimes to physical disabling conditions of the nervous system). Health impairment is a condition that requires ongoing medical attention. It includes asthma, heart defects, cancer, diabetes, hemophilia. HIV/AIDS, etc. Classification and Characteristics How can you classify physical impairment? Physical disabilities:- based on the impact of physical disability on mobility and motor skills, it is divided into three. These are:- A. Mild physical disability:- these individuals are able to walk without aids and may make normal developmental progress. B. Moderate physical disability:- individuals can walk with braces and crutches and may have difficulty with fine-motor skills and speech production. C. Severe physical disability:-these are individuals who are wheel-chair dependent and may need special help to achieve regular development. 19 The physical disability could be broadly classified in to two I. The neurological system (the brain ,spinal cord & nerve) related problems. II. Musculo skeletal system ( the muscles, bones and joints) are deficient due to various causes. I. Neurological system:-with a neurological condition like cerebral palsy or a traumatic brain injury, the brain either sends the wrong instructions or interprets feedback incorrectly. In both cases, the result is poorly coordinated movement. With the spinal cord injury or deformity, the path ways between the brain and the muscles are interrupted, so messages are transmitted but never received. The result is muscle paralysis and loss of sensation beyond the point where the spinal cord or the nerve is damaged. These individuals may have motor skill deficits that can range from mild in coordination to paralysis of the entire body. The most severely affected children are totally dependent on other people or sophisticated equipment to carry out academic and self-care task Additional problems that can be associated with cerebral palsy include learning disabilities, mental retardation. Seizures, speech impairments, eating problems, sensory impairments, and joint and bone deformities such as spinal curvatures and contractures (permanently fixed, tight muscles and joints). Approximately 40 percent of those with cerebral palsy have normal intelligence; the remainders have from mild to severe retardation. This is an extremely heterogeneous group having unique abilities and needs. Epilepsy:-is disorder that occurs when the brain cells are not working properly and is often called a seizure disorder. - Some children and youth will epilepsy have only a momentary loss of attention (petit mal seizures); others fall to the floor and then move uncontrollably - Fortunately, once epilepsy is diagnosed, it can usually be controlled with medication and does not interfere with performance in school. Most individuals with epilepsy have normal intelligence. - Epilepsy is a condition that affects 1 to 2 percent of the population. It is characterized by recurring seizures, which are spontaneous abnormal discharge of electrical impulses of the brain. Spinal bifida and spinal cord injury:- damage to the spinal cord leads to paralysis and loss of sensation in the affected areas of the body. The spinal blfida is a birth defect of the backbone (spinal column). The cause si unknown but it usually occurs in the first twenty-six days of pregnancy. 20 II. Musculoskeletal system: - it includes the muscles and their supporting framework and the skeleton. 2. Progressive muscle weakness (muscular dystrophy); 3. Inflammation of the joints (arthritis), or 4. Loss of various parts of the body (amputation) The list of the impairment and associated with musculoskeletal malformation are the following: A. Muscular dystrophy:- is an inherited condition accruing mainly in males, in which the muscles weaken and deteriorate. The weakness usually appears around 3 to 4 years of age and worsens progressively. By age 11 most victims can to longer walk. Death usually comes between the ages of 25 and 35 from respiratory failure or cardiac arrest. B. Arthritis:-is an inflammation of the joints. Symptoms include swollen and stiff joints, fever, and pain in the joints during acute periods. Prolonged inflammation can lead joint deformities that can eventually affect mobility. C. Amputation:- a small number of children have missing limbs because of congenital abnormalities or injuiry or disease (malignant bone tumors in the limbs). These children can use customized prosthetic devices (artificial hands, arms, or legs) to replace limp functions and increase independence in daily activities. Other muscle-skeletal disorders are:- D. Marfan syndrome is a genetic disorder in which the muscles are poorly developed and the spine is curved. Individuals with marfan syndrome may have either long, thin limbs, prominent shoulder blades, spinal curvature, flat feet, or long fingers & thumbs. The heart and blood vessels are usually affected. The greatest danger is damage to aorta, which can lead to heart failure. Individuals with marfan syndrome need to avoid heavy exercise and lifting heavy objects. E. Achondroplasis:- is a genetic disorder that affects 1 in 10,000 births. Children with this disorder usually develop a normal torso but have a straight upper back and a curved lower back (sway back). These children are at risk of sudden death during sleep from compression of the spinal cord interfering with their breathing. The disability may be lessened through the use of the back braces or by surgery. 21 Polio:- is viral disease that invade the brain and cause severe paralysis of the total body system. In its mild form results in partial paralysis. Post polio muscles that were previously damaged weaken, and in some persons, other muscles that were not previously affected weaken as well. Club foot:- is a major orthopedic problem affecting about 9,000 infants each year. This term is used to describe various ankle or foot deformities, i.e  Twisting inward (equino varus), the most severe form  Sharply angled at the heel (calcanel vaigus), most common  The front part of the foot turned inward. These conditions can be treated with physical therapy, and a cast on the foot can solve the problem in most instances. In more severe cases, surgery is necessary. With early treatment, most children can wear regular shoes and take part in all school activities. Cleft lip and cleft palate:- are openings in the lip or roof of the mouth, respectively, that fail to close before birth, the cause is unknown. Most cleft problems can be repaired through surgery. Health Impairments What are the common health problems of students? Any disease that interferes with learning can make students eligible for special services. These disease caused problems are as follow. 1. Heart disease:- this is common among young people. It is caused by improper circulation of blood by the heart some of the disorders are congenital )present at birth);others are the product of inflammatory heart disease. Some students have heart value disorders; others have disorders of the blood vessels. His time heart implantation helps children to get cured. 2. Cystic fibrosis:- is a hereditary disease that affects the lungs and pancreas. It leads to recurrent respiratory and digestive problems including abnormal amounts of thick mucus, sweet and saliva. The disease is so progressive and few who have it survive beyond age 20. Children with such disease often spend significant timeout of school. 3. Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS):- is a very severe disease caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and transmitted primarily through exchange of bodily fluids in transfusions or unprotected sex, and by contaminated needles in addictive drug use. 22 4. Hemophilia:- is a hereditary disease in which the blood clots very slowly or not all. The disorder is transmitted by sex-linked recessive gene and nearly always occurs in males. 5. Asthma: is a chronic respiratory condition characterized by repeared eplosde of breathing difficulties especially while exhaling. 6. Diabetes: Developmental or hereditary disorder characterized by inadequate secretion or use of insulin 7. Nephrosis & Nephritis Kidney disorders or diseases caused by infections, poisoning, burns, accidents or other diseases 8. Sickle-cell anemia Hereditary and chronic blood disease (occurring primarly in African Americans) characterized by red blood cells that are distored and that do not circulate properly 9. Leukemia: Disease characterized by excessive production of white blood Cells 10. Lead poisoning Disorder caused by ingesting lead-based paint chips or other substances containing lead 11. Rheumatic fever Disease characterized by painful swelling and inflammation of the joints that can spread to the hear and central nervous system. 12. Tuberculosis Infectious disease that commonly affects the lungs and may affect other tissues of the body. 13. Cancer Abnormal growth of cells that can affect any organ system Activities Inclusive life for persons with mobility difficulties and health impairments 1. How can schools create inclusive education for students with physical disabilities? Discuss 2. How persons with physical disabilities should employed and live independent life? 3. How can persons with physical disabilities lead independent life in the community? 4. What kind of technology they require for mobility and daily life activities? 9. Vulnerability Vulnerable means being at risk of being harmed. Everyone can be harmed, so being vulnerable is part of being human. In principle, everyone is vulnerable to some adverse event or circumstance, but some people are more vulnerable than others. For instance, people with disabilities are more likely as a group to experience greater vulnerability. They are also often more severely affected by the vulnerability they experience. Based on the existing literature, vulnerability can be generally defined as a complex phenomenon that refers to the following dimensions: 23 1. Economic difficulties/lack of financial resources: poverty, low living standards, housing problems (e.g. too damp, too expensive, too cold or difficult to heat) etc.; 2. Social exclusion: limited access to facilities such as transporatation, schools, libraries or medical services; 3. Lack of social support from social networks: no assistance from family members, friends, neighbors or colleagues (referring to practical help as well as emotional support) like highly gifted individuals; 4. Stigmatization: being a victim of stereotypes, being devalued, confronted with disgraceful behavior because of belonging to a particular social or ethnic group; 5. Health difficulties: disadvantages resulting from poor mental health, physical health or disabilities; 6. Being a victim of crime: in family context especially of violence. Causes of Vulnerability Vulnerability may be causes by rapid population growth, poverty and hunger, poor health, low levels of education, gender inequality, fragile and hazardous location, and lack of access to resources and services, including knowledge and technological means, disintegration of social patterns (social vulnerability). Other causes includes; lack of access to information and knowledge, lack of public awareness, limited access to political power and representation (political vulnerability), (Aysan,1993). When people are socially disadvantaged or lack political voice, their vulnerability is exacerbated further. The economic vulnerability is related to a number of interacting elements, including its importance in the overall national economy, trade and foreign-exchange earnings, aid and investments, international prices of commodities and inputs, and production and consumption patterns. Environmental vulnerability concerns land degradation, earthquake, flood, hurricane, drought, storms (Monsoon rain, El Niño), water scarcity, deforestation, and the other threats to biodiversity. Characteristics of Vulnerable People The following are thought to be characteristics of vulnerable people (with examples of groups of potentially vulnerable people): 1. Less physically or mentally capable (infants, older adults, people with disabilities) 2. Fewer material and/or financial resources (low-income households, homeless) 3. Less knowledge or experience (children, illiterate, foreigners, tourists) 4. Restricted by society to grow and develop according to their needs and potentials 24 People who are helped by others (who are then restricted by commitments) are still vulnerable people, which includes the following extracted from various researches. A. Women: particularly women in developing nations and those who are living in rural areas are vulnerable for many backward traditional practices. These women are oppressed by the culture and do not get access to education and employment (Comfort et al., 1999; Morrow, 1999; McEntire et al. (2002; Thomalla et al. (2006; Laukkonen et al. (2009; Rubin, 2010; GNCSODR, 2013; GP DRR, 2013). B. Children: Significant number of children are vulnerable and at risk for development (Morrow, 1999; McEntire et al., 2002; Thomalla et al., 2006; Laukkonen et al., 2009 Dinh et al., 2012; Rubin, 2010; GP DRR, 2013; GNCSODR, 2013; Dinh et al. (2012). Children are vulnerable for psychological and physical abuse This include illegally working children, children who are pregnant or become mothers, children born out of marriage, children from a single-parent, delinquent children, homeless children, HIV- infected children, uneducated children, institutionalized children, married children, mentally ill children, migrant children, orphans, sexually exploited children, street children, war-affected children…etc. C. Minorities: some people are vulnerable due to their minority background. Particularly, ethnic (cultural and linguistic minority), religious minority. These people are political and socially discriminated (Comfort et al., 1999; Cardona, 2003; Brooks, 2003; National Research Council, 2006; Cutter et al., 2010; ). D. Poverty: People are vulnerable for many undesirable phenomena due to poverty. This may be resulted in, poor households and large households, inequality, absences of access to health services, important resources for life, lack of access to education, information, financial and natural resources and lack of social networks (Morrow, 1999; McEntire et al., 2002; Brooks, 2003; Dwyer et al., 2004; Vincent, 2004; Leichenko et al., 2004; National ResearchCouncil, 2006; Naudé et al., 2007; Kahn and Salman, 2012; MacDonald, 2013). E. Disabilities: People with disabilities very much vulnerable for many kind of risks. This includes abuses, poverty, illiteracy, health problems, psychological and social problems (Comfort et al., 1999; McEntire et al., 2002; Naudé et al., 2007; Cutter et al., 2010; Dinh et al., 2012;. Balica et al., 2012; GNCSODR, 2013). 25 F. Age: Old people or very young children are vulnerable for all kinds evils (Comfort et al., 1999; Morrow, 1999; McEntire et al. 2002; Cardona (2003; Vincent, 2004; Naudé et al., 2007; Dinh et al., 2012; Adikari et al., 2013; GNCSODR,2013). G. Illiteracy and less education: People with high rates of illiteracy and lack quality educational opportunities are vulnerable for absence all kinds of developments (Cardona, 2003; Adger et al., 2004; Leichenko et al., 2004; Naudé et al., 2007; Kahn and Salman, 2012; Adikari et al., 2013). H. Sickness: Uncured health problems for example people living with HIV/AIDS are much vulnerable for psychosocial problems, poverty and health (Vincent, 2004; Adger et al., 2004; Naudé et al., 2007). I. Gifted and Talentedness: Gifted and talented children are vulnerable for socio- emotional developments. Due to lack of psychological support they may feel isolation as they are pulled from their regular classrooms and given instruction in separate settings and due to myths and expectations of themselves and the public (Shechtman & Silektor, 2012, p. 63; Schuler, 2000). Activity 1. Persons with disabilities are highly excluded in Ethiopia from education, economic, psychological and political development? 2. The Natural rights of persons with disabilities are violated. Can you give some explanation on these points? 3. How can we make inclusion a reality for persons with disabilities in Ethiopia? 4. What can you do as an individual in your respective profusion? Chapter Summary Persons with disabilities, health impairments and vulnerable people are people who should be productive and able to live independent life. Their impairment is not something that has disabled them; rather, the social system is the major disabling factor. Disabilities do not only affect an impaired persons; it affect the whole nation, when this people are neglected from education and employment and when they are not actively participate in the social, political and economic activities. These situations make them to lead dependent lives which in turn affect the life of the nation. Hence, inclusiveness is an outlet for creating a society of productivity who leads independent life. 26 References David F. &, Jenifer L. (2016). A Teacher's Guide to Special Education. Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development Hallahan D. and Kauffman J. (2018). Exceptional Learners: An Introduction to Special Education (14 th ed).Pearson Heward, L.W. (2006). Exceptional Children: An introduction to special education (8th ed).USA: Pearson Education, Inc. Heward,L.H.(2006). Exceptional Children: An Introduction to Special Education. New Jersey; Pearson prentice Hall. Salisbury, R. (2008). Teaching pupils with visual impairment: a guide to making the school curriculum accessible. Bell & Bain ltd, Glasgow. Smart J. (2019). Disability, Society and the Individual (3 rd). Pro Ed Tirussew T. (2002). Human Disabilities: Developmental, Educational and psychological Implications. Department of Educational Psychology, Addis Ababa University. Toby J. (2017). Building on the Strengths of Students with Special Needs: How to Move Beyond Disability Labels in the Classroom : ASCD Yeseldyka, J.E. and Algozzine, B. (2006). Teaching Students With Learning Disabilities: A Practical Guide for Every Teacher Paperback YsseldykeYeseldyka, J.E. and Algozzine, B. (2007). Teaching Students With Sensory Disabilities A Practical Guide for Every Teacher New Delhi: Yeseldyka, J.E. and Algozzine, B. (2007). Teaching Students With Communication Disorders A Practical Guide for Every Teacher New Delhi: Yeseldyka, J.E. and Algozzine, B. (2011). Teaching Students With Mental Retardation A Practical Guide for Every Teacher New Delhi: Yeseldyka, J.E. and Algozzine, B. (2011). The Fundamentals of Special Education A Practical Guide for Every Teacher New Delhi: Yeseldyka, J.E. and Algozzine, B. (2014). Effective Assessment for Students With Special Needs New Delhi: 27 Chapter 2: Concept of Inclusion Chapter Overview This chapter tries to introduce students with the concept inclusion. The specific contents addressed in the chapter Include: definition of inclusion, concept of inclusion, inclusion shift from special education and integrated education, rationale for inclusion, factors that influenced development of inclusion, benefits of inclusion to students, teachers‘ parents and society, inclusive school and classroom environment, strategies to implement inclusion in teaching and learning processes and barriers to inclusion. Learning Objectives After the students have studied this chapter, they will be able to:  Define inclusion,  Discuss the concept of inclusion in education,  Identify reason regarding shift from special education and integrated education inclusion,  Differentiate the major rationales for inclusion,  List factors that influenced development of inclusion,  Identify benefits of inclusion to students, teachers‘ parents and society,  Name major characteristics of inclusive school and inclusive classroom environments,  Point out strategies to implement inclusion in teaching and learning processes  Differentiate the major barriers to inclusion. 2.1. Definition of Inclusion Brainstorming Questions  What comes to your mind when you hear about the word inclusion?  Do you know to whom inclusion is required? Why?  Who do you think benefit from inclusion?  Why inclusion has got the world wide attention?  Where do you think inclusion originated from?  How do you think inclusion can be implemented?  What are the barriers to inclusion? Inclusion in education/service refers to ―an ongoing process aimed at offering quality education/services for all while respecting diversity and the different needs and abilities, characteristics and learning expectations of the students and communities and eliminating all 28 forms of discrimination‖ (UNESCO, 2008, P.3, as cited in EADSNE, 2010, p.11). Inclusive services at any level are quality provisions without discrimination or partiality and meeting the diverse needs of people. Inclusion is seen as a process of addressing and responding to the diversity of needs of all persons through increasing participation in learning, employment, services, cultures and communities, and reducing exclusion at all social contexts. It involves changes and modifications in content, approaches, structures and strategies, with a common vision which covers all people, a conviction that it is the responsibility of the social system to educate all children (UNESCO 2005), employ and provide social services. Besides, inclusion is defined as having a wide range of strategies, activities and processes that seek to make a reality of the universal right to quality, relevant and appropriate education and services. It acknowledges that learning begins at birth and continues throughout life, and includes learning in the home, the community, and in formal, informal and non-formal situations. It seeks to enable communities, systems and structures in all cultures and contexts to combat discrimination, celebrate diversity, promote participation and overcome barriers to learning and participation for all people. It is part of a wider strategy promoting inclusive development, with the goal of creating a world where there is peace, tolerance, and sustainable use of resources, social justice, and where the basic needs and rights of all are met. This definition has the following components: 1) Concepts about learners  Education is a fundamental human right for all people  Learning begins at birth and continues throughout life  All children have a right to education within their own community  Everyone can learn, and any child can experience difficulties in learning  All learners need their learning supported child-focused teaching benefits all children. 2) Concepts about the education system and schools  It is broader than formal schooling  it is flexible, responsive educational systems  It creates enabling and welcoming educational environments  It promotes school improvement – makes effective schools  It involves whole school approach and collaboration between partners. 3) Concepts about diversity and discrimination  It promotes combating discrimination and exclusionary pressures at any social sectors 29  It enables responding to/embracing diversity as a resource not as a problem  It prepares learners for an inclusive society that respects and values difference. 4) Concepts about processes to promote inclusion  It helps to identifying and overcoming barriers to participation and exclusionary pressures  It increases real participation of all collaboration, partnership between all stakeholders  It promotes participatory methodology, action research, collaborative enquiry and other related activities 5) Concepts about resources  Promotes unlocking and fully using local resources redistributing existing resources  It helps to perceive people (children, parents, teachers, members of marginalized groups, etc) as key resources  It helps to use appropriate resources and support within schools and at local levels for the needs of different children, e.g. mother tongue tuition, Braille, assistive devices. McLeskey and Waldron (2000) have identified inclusion and non-inclusive practices. According to them inclusion includes the following components:  Students with disabilities and vulnerability attend their neighborhood schools  Each student is in an age-appropriate general education classroom  Every student is accepted and regarded as a full and valued member of the class and the school community.  Special education supports are provided to each student with a disability within the context of the general education classroom.  All students receive an education that addresses their individual needs  No student is excluded based on type or degree of disability.  All members of the school (e.g., administration, staff, students, and parents) promote cooperative/collaborative teaching arrangements  There is school-based planning, problem-solving, and ownership of all students and programs  Employed according to their capacities without discriminations 30 On the other hand, they argue that inclusion does not mean:  Placing students with disabilities into general education classrooms without careful planning and adequate support.  Reducing services or funding for special education services.  Placing all students who have disabilities or who are at risk in one or a few designated classrooms.  Teachers spending a disproportionate amount of time teaching or adapting the curriculum for students with disabilities.  Isolating students with disabilities socially, physically, or academically within the general education school or classroom.  Endangering the achievement of general education students through slower instruction or a less challenging curriculum.  Relegating special education teachers to the role of assistants in the general education classroom.  Requiring general and special education teachers to team together without careful planning and well-defined responsibilities. 2. Principles of Inclusion The fundamental principle of inclusion is that all persons should learn, work and live together wherever possible, regardless of any difficulties or differences they may have. Inclusive education extends beyond special needs arising from disabilities, and includes consideration of other sources of disadvantage and marginalization, such as gender, poverty, language, ethnicity, and geographic isolation. The complex inter-relationships that exist among these factors and their interactions with disability must also be a focus of attention. Besides, inclusion begins with the premise that all persons have unique characteristics, interests, abilities and particular learning needs and, further, that all persons have equal access education, employment and services. Inclusion implies transition from separate, segregated learning and working environments for persons with disabilities to community based systems. Moreover, effective transitions from segregated services to inclusive system requires careful planning and structural changes to ensure that persons with disabilities are provided with appropriate accommodation and supports that ensure an inclusive learning and 31 working environment. Furthermore, UNESCO (2005) has provided four major inclusion principles that support inclusive practice. These include: 1. Inclusion is a process. It has to be seen as a never-ending search to find better ways of responding to diversity. It is about learning how to live with difference and learning how to learn from difference. Differences come to be seen more positively as a stimulus for fostering learning amongst children and adults. 2. Inclusion is concerned with the identification and removal of barriers that hinders the development of persons with disabilities. It involves collecting, collating and evaluating information from a wide variety of sources in order to plan for improvements in policy and practice. It is about using evidence of various kinds to stimulate creativity and problem - solving. 3. Inclusion is about the presence, participation and achievement of all persons. ‗Presence‘ is concerned with where persons are provided and how reliably and punctually they attend; ‗participation‘ relates to the quality of their experiences and must incorporate the views of learners/and or workers and ‗achievement‘ is about the outcomes of learning across the curriculum, not just test and exam results. 4. Inclusion invokes a particular emphasis on those who may be at risk of marginalization, exclusion or underachievement. This indicates the moral responsibility to ensure that those ‗at risk‘ are carefully monitored, and that steps are taken to ensure their presence, participation and achievement. 2. Rationale for Inclusion Reflection activities: Dear students, why do you think inclusion in education is implemented in many countries of the world? Implementation of inclusion has number of rationales. The major ones include: educational, social, legal, economic and inclusive society building foundations Rationales for Inclusion and Their Respective Descriptions Educational Foundations  Children do better academically, psychologically and socially in inclusive settings.  A more efficient use of education resources.  Decreases dropouts and repetitions  Teachers competency( knowledge, skills, collaboration, satisfaction Social Foundation  Segregation teaches individuals to be fearful, ignorant and breeds prejudice.  All individuals need an education that will help them develop relationships and prepare them for life in the wider community. 32  Only inclusion has the potential to reduce fear and to build friendship, respect and understanding. Legal Foundations  All individuals have the right to learn and live together.  Human being shouldn‘t be devalued or discriminated against by being excluded or sent away because of their disability.  There are no legitimate reasons to separate children for their education Economic Foundation  Inclusive education has economic benefit, both for individual and for society.  Inclusive education is more cost-effective than the creation of special schools across the country.  Children with disabilities go to local schools  Reduce wastage of repetition and dropout  Children with disabilities live with their family use community infrastructure  Better employment and job creation opportunities for people with disabilities Foundations for Building Inclusive Society  Formation of mutual understanding and appreciation of diversity  Building up empathy, tolerance and cooperation  Promotion of sustainable development 2.3. Factors that Influenced Development of Inclusion Brainstorming questions: Dear student: 1. As stated earlier, inclusive education has got priority as the main education policy in many countries of the world. Why do you think it has got the world‟s attention? 2. Is it possible to solve different crises that the world is acing these days by implementing inclusion philosophy? If your answer is “Yes,” how it is possible? If your answer is “No,” why it is not possible? 3. What do you think are the drivers of inclusion to be materialized in reality? Inclusiveness originated from three major ideas. These include: inclusive education is a basic human right; quality education results from inclusion of students with diverse needs and ability differences, and there is no clear demarcation between the characteristics of students with and without disabilities and vulnerabilities. Therefore, separate provisions for such students cannot be justified. Moreover, inclusion has got the world‘s attention because it is supposed to solve the world‘s major problems occurring in social, economic, religious, educational and other areas of the world. For instance, it is supposed to : counteract-social, political, economical and educational challenges that happen due to globalization impact; enhance psychosocial, academic and other benefits to students with and without special needs education; help all citizens exercise educational and human rights; enhance quality education for all in regular class rooms through inclusion; create sustainable environmental development that is suitable for all human beings; create democratic and productive society 33 that promote sustainable development; build an attitude of respecting and valuing of differences in human beings; and ultimately build an inclusive society. Inclusive education is facilitated by many influencing actors. Some of the major drivers include: 1. Communities: pre-colonial and indigenous approaches to education and community-based programs movement that favor inclusion of their community members. 2. Activists and advocates: the combined voices of primary stakeholders – representatives of groups of learners often excluded and marginalized from education (e.g. disabled activists; parents advocating for their children; child rights advocates; and those advocating for women/girls and minority ethnic groups). 3. The quality education and school improvement movement: in both North and South, the issues of quality, access and inclusion are strongly linked, and contribute to the understanding and practice of inclusive education as being the responsibility of education systems and schools. 4. Special educational needs movement: the ‗new thinking‘ of the special needs education movement – as demonstrated in the Salamanca Statement – has been a positive influence on inclusive education, enabling schools and systems to really respond to a wide range of diversity. 5. Involvement of International agencies: the UN is a major influence on the development of inclusive education policy and practice. Major donors have formed a partnership – the Fast Track Initiative – to speed progress towards the EFA goals. E.g. UNESCO, etc. 6. Involvement of NGOs movements, networks and campaigns: a wide range of civil society initiatives, such as the Global Campaign for Education, seek to bring policy and practice together and involve all stakeholders based on different situations 7. Other factors: the current world situation and practical experiences in education. The current world situation presents challenges such as the spread of HIV/AIDS, political instability, trends in resource distribution, diversity of population, and social inclusion. This necessitates implementation of inclusion to solve the problems. On the other hand, practical experiences in education offers lessons learned from failure and success in mainstream, special and inclusive education. Moreover, practical demonstrations of successful inclusive education in different cultures and contexts are a strong influence on its development Benefits of Inclusion It is now understood that inclusion benefits communities, families, teachers, and students by ensuring that children with disabilities attend school with their peers and providing them with adequate support to succeed both academically and socially. 1. Benefits for Students with Special Needs Education In inclusive settings people will develop:  Appropriate models of behavior. They can observe and imitate socially acceptable behaviors of the students without special needs  Improved friendships with the social environment 34  Increased social initiations, interactions, relationships and networks  Gain peer role models for academic, social and behavior skills  Increased achievement of individualized educational program (IEP) goals  Greater access to general curriculum  Enhanced skill acquisition and generalization in their learning  improved academic achievement which leads to quality education service s  Attending inclusive schools increases the probability that students with SEN will continue to participate in a variety of integrated settings throughout their lives (increased inclusion in future environments that contribute building of inclusive society).  Improved school staff collaboration to meet these students‘ needs and ability differences  Increased parental participation to meet these students‘ needs and ability differences  Enhanced families integration into the community 2. Benefits for persons without Special Needs Education Students without special educational needs (SEN) will:  Have a variety of opportunities for interacting with their age peers who experience SEN in inclusive school settings.  serve as peer tutors during instructional activities  Play the role of a special ‗buddy‘ during lunch, in the bus or playground.  Gain knowledge of a good deal about tolerance, individual difference, and human exceptionality.  Learn that students with SEN have many positive characteristics and abilities.  Have chance to learn about many of the human service profession such as special education, speech therapy, physical therapy, recreation therapy, and vocational rehabilitation. For some, exposure to these areas may lead to career choices.  Have increased appreciation, acceptance and respect of individual differences among human beings that leads to increased understanding and acceptance of diversity  Get greater opportunities to master activities by practicing and teaching others  Have increased academic outcomes 35  have opportunity to learn to communicate, and deal effectively with a wide range of individuals; this prepares them to fully participate in society when they are adults that make them build an inclusive society 3. Benefits for Teachers and Parents/Family Brainstorming Questions 5. Dear student, do you think inclusive education is important for teachers of inclusive education and parents? If yes, give examples? If no, why not? Inclusive education has benefit to teachers. The benefit includes: developing their knowledge and skills that meet diverse students‘ needs and ability differences to enhancing their skills to work with their stakeholders; and gaining satisfaction in their profession and other aspects. Similarly, parents/family benefit from inclusive education. For example, parents benefit from implementation of inclusive education in developing their positive attitude towards their children‘s education, positive feeling toward their participation, and appreciation to differences among humankinds and so on. For detailed information, see the table below. when they participate in inclusive education of their children Table 2.3. Benefits of inclusion for Teachers and Parents/Family Benefits for Teachers Benefits for Parents/Family  They have more opportunities to learn new ways They: to teach different kinds of students.  Learn more about how their children  They gain new knowledge, such as the different are being educated in schools with their ways children learn and can be taught. peers in an inclusive environment  They develop more positive attitudes and  Become personally involved and feel a approaches towards different people with diverse greater sense of accomplishment in needs. helping their children to learn.  They have greater opportunities to explore new  Feel valued and consider themselves as ideas by communicating more often with others equal partners in providing quality from within and outside their school, such as in learning opportunities for children. school clusters or teacher networks, or with  Learn how to deal better with their parents and community members. children at home by using techniques  They can encourage their students to be more that the teachers use in school. interested, more creative and more attentive  Find out ways to interact with others in  They can experience greater job satisfaction and a the community, as well as to higher sense of accomplishment when ALL understand and help solve each other‘s children are succeeding in school to the best of problems. their abilities.  Know that their children—and ALL children—are receiving a quality  They get opportunities to exchange information education. about instructional activities and teaching 36 strategies, thus expanding the skills of both general and special educators  Experience positive attitude about themselves and their children by seeing  They benefit from develop Developing teamwork their children accepted by others, and collaborative problem-solving skills to successful in the inclusive setting, and creatively address challenges regarding student belonging to the community where they learning live  Develop positive attitude that help them promoting the recognition and appreciation that all students have strengths and are contributing members of the school community as well as the society Reflection 6. Dear student, can you briefly discuss how the teachers benefit from inclusion? 2.5. Benefits for Society Inclusion goes beyond education and should involve consideration of employment, recreation, health and living conditions. It should therefore involve transformations across all government and other agencies at all levels of society. When students with special needs and without special needs are educated through quality inclusive education, it not only benefits students, teachers and parents it also benefits the society. Some of the major benefits may include: Introduction of students with disabilities and vulnerabilities into mainstream schools bring in the students into local communities and neighborhoods and helps break down barriers and prejudice that prevail in the society towards persons with disability. Communities become more accepting of difference, and everyone benefits from a friendlier, open environment that values and appreciates differences in human beings. Meaningful participation in the economic, social, political and cultural life of communities own cost effective non-segregated schooling system that services both students with and without special needs education. Ultimate Goal of Inclusion Brainstorming questions 1. Dear student, what do you think about the ultimate goal regarding the implementation of quality inclusive education? The goal of inclusive education is to create schools where everyone belongs. By creating inclusive schools, we ensure that there‘s a welcoming place in the community for everyone after their school year‘s end. Students educated together have a greater understanding of 37 difference and diversity. Students educated together have fewer fears about difference and disability. An inclusive school culture creates better long-term outcomes for all students. Typical students who are educated alongside peers with developmental disabilities understand more about the ways that they‘re all alike. These are the students who will be our children‘s peer group and friends. These students hold the promise of creating inclusive communities in the future for all our children. These students will be the teachers, principals, doctors, lawyers, and parents who build communities where everyone belongs. Inclusive society is a necessary precondition for inclusive growth is a society which does not exclude or discriminate against its citizens on the basis of disability, caste, race, gender, family or community, a society which ‗levels the playing field for investment‘ and leaves no one behind. Thus, Inclusive growth which is equitable that offers equality of opportunity to all as well as protection in market and employment transitions results from inclusive society. Reflection  Dear student, can you explain the benefits o inclusive education or students, teachers, parents and society at large?  What kink o society can be created when inclusive education is properly implemented? 5. Features of Inclusive Environment Brain storming questions: Dear learners, what does inclusive environment mean? Do you think it is possible to create an inclusive environment? What could be the major components of inclusive environment interms of inclusive education? An inclusive environment is one in which members feel respected by and connected to one another. An inclusive environment is an environment that welcomes all people, regardless of their disability and other vulnerabilities. It recognizes and uses their skills and strengthens their abilities. An inclusive service environment is respectful, supportive, and equalizing. An inclusive environment reaches out to and includes individuals with disabilities and vulnerabilities at all levels — from first time participants to board members. It has the following major characteristics:  it ensures the respect and dignity of individuals with disabilities  it meets current accessibility standards to the greatest extent possible to all people with special needs  provides accommodations willingly and proactively 38 Persons with disabilities are welcomed and are valued for their contributions as individuals. 2.6. Inclusive Environments An inclusive environment is a place that is adjusted to individuals‘ needs and not vice versa – that individuals are adjusted to the environmental needs. It acknowledges that individual differences among individuals are a source of richness and diversity, and not a problem, and that various needs and the individual pace of learning and development can be met successfully with a wide range of flexible approaches. Besides, the environment should involve continuous process of changes directed towards strengthening and encouraging different ways of participation of all members of the community. An inclusive environment is also directed towards developing culture, policy and practice which meet pupils‘ diversities, towards identifying and removing obstacles in learning and participating, towards developing a suitable provisions and supporting individuals. Therefore, successful environment has the following characteristics:  It develops whole-school/environment processes that promote inclusiveness and quality provisions and practice that are responsive to the individual needs and diversities  It recognizes and responds to the diverse needs of their individuals and ensuring quality provisions for all through appropriate accommodations, organizational arrangements, resource use and partnerships with their community.  It is committed to serve all individuals together regardless of differences. It is also deeply committed to the belief that all persons can learn, work and be productive.  It involves restructuring environment, culture, policy, and practice.  It promoting pro-social activities  It makes provides services and facilities equally accessible to all people  It involves mobilizing resources within the community  It is alert to and uses a range of multi-skilled personnel to assist people in their learning and working environment.  It strives to create strong links with, clinicians, caregivers, and staff in local schools, work place, disability services providers and relevant support agencies within the wider community. 39  It develops social relationships as an equal member of the class. It is also the classroom responsive to the diversity of individuals‘ academic, social and personal learning needs. Barriers to Inclusion  Though many countries seem committed to inclusion their rhetoric, and even in their legislation and policies, practices often fall short. Reasons for the policy-practice gap in inclusion are diverse. The major barriers include:  Problems related with societal values and beliefs- particularly the community and policy makers negative attitude towards students with disability and vulnerabilities. Inclusion cannot flourish in a society that has prejudice and negative attitude towards persons with disability.  Economic factors- this is mainly related with poverty of family, community and society at large  Lack of taking measures to ensure conformity of implementation of inclusion practice with policies  Lack of stakeholders taking responsibility in their cooperation as well as collaboration for inclusion  Conservative traditions among the community members about inclusion  Lack of knowledge and skills among teachers regarding inclusive education  Rigid curricula, teaching method and examination systems that do not consider students with dives needs and ability differences.  Fragile democratic institutions that could not promote inclusion  Inadequate resources and inaccessibility of social and physical environments  Large class sizes that make teachers and stakeholders meet students‘ diverse needs  Globalization and free market policy that make students engage in fierce completion, individualism and individuals‘ excellence rather than teaching through cooperation, collaboration and group excellence.  Using inclusive models that may be imported from other countries. Reflection questions Think of Ethiopian socio-cultural, economic and political conditions and reflect on the following issues. Do you think the country‟s socio-cultural, economic and political conditions suitable to implement inclusive education? What should be done to make conditions suitable to implement inclusion? Due think the schools you leant in relation respecting students‟ rights to learn, addressing 40 the students‟ diverse needs and ability differences and promoting quality education for all students. Point out the strengths and weakness based on the inclusive education concepts and practices. Chapter summary Inclusion is defined from the concept of education process of education that is aimed at meeting students‘ diverse needs in regular classrooms. It focuses not only students with special educational needs but also students without special needs. It is based on the concept o respecting diversity and the different needs and abilities, characteristics and learning expectations of the students and communities and eliminating all forms of discrimination in educational, social, economic and other aspects o f life. The concept of inclusive education originated from three major

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