Theories of Personality Outline PDF

# THEORIES OF PERSONALITY OUTLINE ## Introduction to Personality Theory - Psychodynamic Theories - Freud: Psychoanalysis - Adler: Individual Psychology - Jung: Analytical Psychology - Klein: Object Relations Theory - Horney: Psychoanalytic Social Theory - Fromm: Humanistic...

# THEORIES OF PERSONALITY OUTLINE ## Introduction to Personality Theory - Psychodynamic Theories - Freud: Psychoanalysis - Adler: Individual Psychology - Jung: Analytical Psychology - Klein: Object Relations Theory - Horney: Psychoanalytic Social Theory - Fromm: Humanistic Psychoanalysis - Sullivan: Interpersonal Theory - Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory - Learning Theories - Skinner: Behavioral Analysis - Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory - Rotter and Mischel: Cognitive Social Learning Theory - Dispositional Theories - Cattel and Eysenck: Trait and Factor Theories - Allport: Psychology of the Individual - Humanistic/Existential Theories - Kelly: Psychology of Personal Constructs - Rogers: Person Centered Theory - Maslow: Holistic-Dynamic Theory - May: Existential Psychology ## INTRODUCTION OF PERSONALITY THEORY - **Overview of Personality Theory** - Personality theorists make controlled observations of human behavior and speculate on the meaning of those observations. Differences in theories are due to more than differences in terminology; they stem from differences among theorists on basic issues concerning the nature of humanity. - **What is Personality?** - The term personality has several definitions. In everyday language, the word personality refers to one's social skills, charisma, and popularity. - However, scientists use the term to mean more than a person's persona, or public image. To them, personality is a pattern of relatively permanent traits or characteristics that give some consistency to a person's behavior. - **What Is a Theory?** - Theories are tools used by scientists to generate research and organize observations. - **Theory Defined** - A theory is a set of related assumptions that allows scientists to use logical deductive reasoning to formulate testable hypotheses. - **Theory and Its Relatives** - The term theory is often used incorrectly to imply something other than a scientific concept. Although theory has some relationship with philosophy, speculation, hypothesis, and taxonomy, it is not the same as any of these. Philosophy-the love of wisdom-is a broader term than theory, but one of its branches-epistemology-relates to the nature of knowledge, and theories are used by scientists in the pursuit of knowledge. - Theories rely on speculation, but speculation in the absence of controlled observations and empirical research is essentially worthless. Hypothesis, or educated guess, is a narrower term than theory. A single theory may generate hundreds of hypotheses. Taxonomy means a classification system, and theories often rely on some sort of classification of data. However, taxonomies do not generate hypotheses. - **Why Different Theories?** - Psychologists and other scientists generate a variety of theories because they have different life experiences and different ways of looking at the same data. - **Theorists’ Personalities and Their Theories of Personality** - Because personality theories flow from an individual theorist’s personality, some psychologists have proposed the psychology of science, a discipline that studies the personal characteristics of theorists. - **What Makes a Theory Useful?** - A useful theory must (1) generate research-both descriptive research and hypothesis testing; (2) be falsifiable; that is, research findings should be able to either support or refute the theory; (3) organize data into an intelligible framework and integrate new information into its structure; (4) guide action, or provide the practitioner with a road map for making day-to-day decisions; (5) be internally consistent and have a set of operational definitions; and (6) be parsimonious, or as simple as possible. - **Dimensions for a Concept of Humanity** - Personality theorists have had different conceptions of human nature, and the authors list six dimensions for comparing these conceptions. These dimensions include determinism versus free choice, pessimism versus optimism, causality versus teleology, conscious versus unconscious determinants of behavior, biological versus social influences on personality, and uniqueness versus similarities among people. - **Research in Personality Theory** - In researching human behavior, personality theorists often use various measuring procedures, and these procedures must be both reliable and valid. Reliability refers to a measuring instrument’s consistency whereas validity refers to its accuracy or truthfulness. ## PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES ### FREUD: PSYCHOANALYSIS - **Overview of Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory** - Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis has endured because it (1) postulated the primacy of sex and aggression-two universally popular themes; (2) attracted a group of followers who were dedicated to spreading psychoanalytic doctrine; and (3) advanced the notion of unconscious motives, which permit varying explanations for the same observations. -**Biography of Sigmund Freud** - Born in the Czech Republic in 1856, Sigmund Freud spent most of his life in Vienna. In his practice as a psychiatrist, he was more interested in learning about the unconscious motives of patients than in curing neuroses. Early in his professional career, Freud believed that hysteria was a result of being seduced during childhood by a sexually mature person, often a parent or other relative. In 1897, however, he abandoned his seduction theory and replaced it with his notion of the Oedipus complex, a concept that remained the center of his psychoanalytic theory. - **Levels of Mental Life** - Freud saw mental functioning as operating on three levels: unconscious, preconscious, and conscious. - **Unconscious** - The unconscious includes drives and instincts that are beyond awareness but that motivate most human behaviors. Unconscious drives can become conscious only in disguised or distorted form, such as dream images, slips of the tongue, or neurotic symptoms. Unconscious processes originate from two sources: (1) repression, or the blocking out of anxiety-filled experiences, and (2) phylogenetic endowment, or inherited experiences lie beyond an individual’s personal experience. - **Preconscious** - The preconscious contains images that are not in awareness but that can become conscious either quite easily or with some level of difficulty. - **Conscious** - Consciousness plays a relatively minor role in Freudian theory. Conscious ideas stem from either the perception of external stimuli (our perceptual conscious system) or from the unconscious and preconscious after they have evaded censorship. - **Provinces of the Mind** - Freud conceptualized three regions of the mind: the id, the ego, and the superego. - **The Id** - The id, which is completely unconscious, serves the pleasure principle and contains our basic instincts. It operates through the primary process. - **The Ego** - The ego, or secondary process, is governed by the reality principle and is responsible for reconciling the unrealistic demands of the id and the superego. - **The Superego** - The superego, which serves the idealistic principle, has two subsystems-the conscience and the ego-ideal. The conscience results from punishment for improper behavior whereas the ego-ideal stems from rewards for socially acceptable behavior. - **Dynamics of Personality** - Dynamics of personality refers to those forces that motivate people. - **Instincts** - Freud grouped all human drives or urges under two primary instincts-sex (Eros or the life instinct) and aggression (the death or destructive instinct). The aim of the sexual instinct is pleasure, which can be gained through the erogenous zones, especially the mouth, anus, and genitals. The object of the sexual instinct is any person or thing that brings sexual pleasure. All infants possess primary narcissism, or self-centeredness, but the secondary narcissism of adolescence and adulthood is not universal. Both sadism (receiving sexual pleasure from inflicting pain on another) and masochism (receiving sexual pleasure from painful experiences) satisfy both sexual and aggressive drives. The destructive instinct aims to return a person to an inorganic state, but it is ordinarily directed against other people and is called aggression. - **Anxiety** - Freud believed only the ego feels anxiety, but the id, superego, and outside world can each be a source of anxiety. Neurotic anxiety stems from the ego’s relation with the id; moral anxiety is similar to guilt and results from the ego’s relation with the superego; and realistic anxiety, which is similar to fear, is produced by the ego’s relation with the real world. - **Defense Mechanisms** - According to Freud, defense mechanisms operate to protect the ego against the pain of anxiety. - **Repression** - Repression involves forcing unwanted, anxiety-loaded experiences into the unconscious. It is the most basic of all defense mechanisms because it is an active process in each of the others. - **Undoing and Isolation** - Undoing is the ego’s attempt to do away with unpleasant experiences and their consequences, usually by means of repetitious ceremonial actions. Isolation, in contrast, is marked by obsessive thoughts and involves the ego’s attempt to isolate an experience by surrounding it with a blacked-out region of insensibility. - **Reaction Formation** - A reaction formation is marked by the repression of one impulse and the ostentatious expression of its exact opposite. - **Displacement** - Displacement takes place when people redirect their unwanted urges onto other objects or people in order to disguise the original impulse. - **Fixation** - Fixations develop when psychic energy is blocked at one stage of development, making psychological change difficult. - **Regression** - Regressions occur whenever a person reverts to earlier, more infantile modes of behavior. - **Projection** - Projection is seeing in others those unacceptable feelings or behaviors that actually reside in one’s own unconscious. When carried to extreme, projection can become paranoia, which is characterized by delusions of persecution. - **Introjection** - Introjections take place when people incorporate positive qualities of another person into their own ego to reduce feelings of inferiority. - **Sublimation** - Sublimations involve the elevation of the sexual instinct’s aim to a higher level, which permits people to make contributions to society and culture. - **Stages of Development** - Freud saw psychosexual development as proceeding from birth to maturity through four overlapping stages. - **Infantile Period** - The infantile stage encompasses the first 4 to 5 years of life and is divided into three subphases: oral, anal, and phallic. - During the oral phase, an infant is primarily motivated to receive pleasure through the mouth. - During the second year of life, a child goes through an anal phase. If parents are too punitive during the anal phase, the child may become an anal character, with the anal triad of orderliness, stinginess, and obstinacy. - During the phallic phase, boys and girls begin to have differing psychosexual development. At this time, boys and girls experience the Oedipus complex in which they have sexual feelings for one parent and hostile feelings for the other. - The male castration complex, which takes the form of castration anxiety, breaks up the male Oedipus complex and results in a well-formed male superego. For girls, however, the castration complex, in the form of penis envy, precedes the female Oedipus complex, a situation that leads to only a gradual and incomplete shattering the female Oedipus complex and a weaker, more flexible female superego. - **Latency Period** - Freud believed that psychosexual development goes through a latency stage-from about age 5 until puberty-in which the sexual instinct is partially suppressed. - **Genital Period** - The genital period begins with puberty, when adolescents experience a reawakening of the genital aim of Eros. The term "genital period" should not be confused with "phallic period." - **Maturity** - Freud hinted at a stage of psychological maturity in which the ego would be in control of the id and superego and in which consciousness would play a more important role in behavior. - **Applications of Psychoanalytic Theory** - Freud erected his theory on the dreams, free associations, slips of the tongue, and neurotic symptoms of his patients during therapy. But he also gathered information from history, literature, and works of art. - **Freud’s Early Therapeutic Technique** - During the 1890s, Freud used an aggressive therapeutic technique in which he strongly suggested to patients that they had been sexually seduced as children. He later dropped this technique and abandoned his belief that most patients had been seduced during childhood. - **Freud’s Later Therapeutic Technique** - Beginning in the late 1890s, Freud adopted a much more passive type of psychotherapy, one that relied heavily on free association, dream interpretation, and transference. The goal of Freud’s later psychotherapy was to uncover repressed memories, and the therapist uses dream analysis and free association to do so. With free association, patients are required to say whatever comes to mind, no matter how irrelevant or distasteful. Successful therapy rests on the patient’s transference of childhood sexual or aggressive feelings onto the therapist and away from symptom formation. Patients’ resistance to change can be seen as progress because it indicates that therapy has advanced beyond superficial conversation. - **Dream Analysis** - In interpreting dreams, Freud differentiated the manifest content (conscious description) from the latent content (the unconscious meaning). Nearly all dreams are wish-fulfillments, although the wish is usually unconscious and can be known only through dream interpretation. To interpret dreams, Freud used both dream symbols and the dreamer’s associations to the dream content. - **Freudian Slips** - Freud believed that parapraxes, or so-called Freudian slips, are not chance accidents but reveal a person’s true but unconscious intentions. - **Related Research** - Freudian theory has generated a large amount of related research, including studies on defense mechanisms and oral fixation. - **Defense Mechanisms** - George Valliant has added to the list of Freudian defense mechanisms and has found evidence that some of them are neurotic (reaction formation, idealization, and undoing), some are immature and maladaptive (projection, isolation, denial, displacement, and dissociation), and some are mature and adaptive (sublimation, suppression, humor, and altruism). Valliant found that neurotic defense mechanisms are successful over the short term; immature defenses are unsuccessful and have the highest degree of distortion; whereas mature and adaptive defenses are successful over the long term, maximize gratification, and have the least amount of distortion - **Oral Fixation** - Some recent research has found that aggression is higher in people who bite their finger nails than it is in non-nail biters, especially in women. Other research found that people who are orally fixated tend to see their parents more negatively than did people who were less orally fixated. - **Critique of Freud** - Freud regarded himself as a scientist, but many critics consider his methods to be outdated, unscientific, and permeated with gender bias. On the six criteria of a useful theory, psychoanalysis is rated high on its ability to generate research, very low on its openness to falsification, and average on organizing data, guiding action, and being parsimonious. Because it lacks operational definitions, it rates low its internal consistency. - **Concept of Humanity** - Freud’s concept of humanity was deterministic and pessimistic. He emphasized causality over teleology, unconscious determinants over conscious processes, and biology over culture, but he took a middle position on the dimension of uniqueness versus similarities among people. ### ADLER: INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY - **Overview of Adler’s Individual Psychology** - An original member of Freud’s psychoanalytic group, Alfred Adler broke from that group and advocated a theory of personality that was nearly diametrically opposed to that of Freud. Whereas Freud’s view of humanity was pessimistic and rooted in biology, Adler’s view was optimistic, idealistic, and rooted in family experiences. - **Biography of Alfred Adler** - Alfred Adler was born in 1870 in a town near Vienna, a second son of middle-class Jewish parents. Like Freud, Adler was a physician, and in 1902, he became a charter member of Freud’s organization. However, professional differences between the two men led to Adler’s departure from the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society in 1911. Adler soon founded his own group, the Society for Individual Psychology. Adler’s strengths were his energetic oral presentations and his insightful ability to understand family dynamics. He was not a gifted writer, a limitation that may have prevented individual psychology from attaining world recognition equal to Freud’s psychoanalysis. - **Introduction to Adlerian Theory** - Although Adler’s individual psychology is both complex and comprehensive, its main tenets can be stated in simple form. - **Striving for Success or Superiority** - The sole dynamic force behind people’s actions is the striving for success or superiority. - **The Final Goal** - The final goal of either success or superiority toward which all people strive unifies personality and makes all behavior meaningful. - **The Striving Force as Compensation ** - Because are born with small, inferior bodies, they feel inferior and attempt to overcome these feelings through their natural tendency to move toward completion. The striving force can take one of two courses: personal gain (superiority) or community benefit (success. - **Striving for Personal Superiority** - Psychologically unhealthy individuals strive for personal superiority with little concern for other people. Although they may appear to be interested in other people, their basic motivation personal benefit. - **Striving for Success** - In contrast, psychologically people strive for the success of all humanity, but they do so losing their personal identity. - **Subjective Perceptions** - People’s subjective view of the world-not reality-shapes their behavior. - **Fictionalism** - Fictions are people’s expectations of the future. Adler held that fictions guide behavior, because people act as if these fictions are true. Adler emphasized teleology over causality, or explanations of behavior in terms of future goals rather than past causes. - **Organ Inferiorities** - Adler believed that all humans are "blessed" with organ inferiorities, which subjective feelings of inferiority and people toward perfection or completion. - **Unity Self-Consistency of Personality ** - Adler believed that all behaviors are directed toward a single purpose. When seen in the light that sole purpose, seemingly contradictory behaviors be as in a self-consistent manner. - **Organ Dialect** - People use a physical disorder to style life, a Adler called organ dialect. - **Conscious and Unconscious** - Conscious unconscious processes are unified and to achieve single goal. The part of our goal that we do not clearly understood unconscious; the part of our goal that we to fully is conscious. - **Social Interest** - Human behavior has value to the extent that it motivated by social interest, that is, a feeling of with all of humanity. - **Origins Social Interest** - Although social interest as potentiality people, be fostered in a social environment. Adler believed that the parent-child relationship be so strong that it negates the effects of heredity. - **Importance Social Interest** - According to Adler, social interest is the sole criterion of human values," and the worthiness of all one's actions be seen by this standard. Without social interest, societies could not exist; individuals in antiquity not survived without with others to protect themselves from danger. Even today, an infant's helplessness it a nurturing person. - **Style of Life** - The manner of a person’s striving is called style of life, a pattern that is relatively well set by 4 or 5 years of age. However, Adler believed that healthy individuals are marked by flexible behavior and that they have some limited ability to change their style of life. - **Creative Power** - Style of life is partially a product of heredity and environment-the building blocks of personality-but ultimately style of life is shaped by people's creative power, that is, by their ability to freely choose a course of action. - **Abnormal Development** - Creative power is not limited to healthy people; unhealthy individuals also their own personalities. Thus, each of us to either a useful a useless style of life. - **General Description** - The most important factor in abnormal development lack social interest. In addition, people a useless style life tend to (1) set their goals high, (2) a dogmatic style of life, and (3) live in own private world. - **External Factors in Maladjustment** - Adler listed three factors that relate to abnormal development: (1) exaggerated physical deficiencies, which do not by themselves cause abnormal development, but may contribute to it by generating subjective and exaggerated feelings of inferiority; (2) a pampered style of life, contributes to an overriding drive to establish a permanent parasitic relationship with the mother or a mother substitute; and (3) a neglected style of life, leads to distrust other people. - **Safeguarding Tendencies** - Both normal neurotic people symptoms as a means of their fragile These safeguarding tendencies maintain a neurotic style life and a person from public disgrace. The three safeguarding tendencies are (1) excuses, allow people to their inflated sense of personal worth; (2) aggression, may take the form of depreciating others’ accomplishments, accusing others of being responsible for one’s own failures, or self-accusation; and (3) withdrawal, be expressed by psychologically moving backward, standing still, hesitating, or constructing obstacles. - **Masculine Protest** - Both men women sometimes overemphasize the desirability of being manly, a Adler called the masculine protest. The frequently found inferior status of women is not based on physiology historical developments and social learning. - **Applications of Individual Psychology** - Adler applied the principles of individual psychology to family constellation, early recollections, dreams, and psychotherapy. - **Family Constellation** - Adler believed that people’s perception of how they fit into their is related to their style of life. He claimed that firstborns are to strong feelings of power and superiority, to be overprotective, to more than their share of anxiety. Second-born children are to strong social interest, provided they do not get trapped trying to overcome their older sibling. Youngest children are to be pampered to lack independence, whereas only children some the characteristics of both the oldest the youngest child. - **Early Recollections** - A more method of determining style life is to ask people for their earliest recollections. Adler believed that early memories are templates on people project their current style life. These recollections be accurate accounts of early events; they have psychological importance because they reflect a person’s current view of the world. - **Dreams** - Adler believed that dreams can provide clues to solving future problems. However, dreams are disguised to deceive the dreamer and usually must be interpreted by another person. - **Psychotherapy** - The goal of Adlerian therapy is to create a relationship between therapist and patient that fosters social interest. To ensure that the patient’s social interest will eventually generalize to other relationships, the therapist adopts both a maternal and a paternal role. - **Related Research** - Although family constellation and birth order have been widely researched, a topic more pertinent to Adlerian theory is early recollections. Research shows that early recollections are to a number of personal traits, such as depression, alcoholism, criminal behavior, and success in counseling. Other research has shown that a change in style of life may be capable of producing a change in early recollections. Still other research suggests that made-up early recollections may be as meaningful as actual ones. - **Critique of Adler** - Individual psychology rates high on its ability to generate research, organize data, and guide the practitioner. It receives a moderate rating on parsimony, but because it lacks operational definitions, it rates low on internal consistency. It also rates low on falsification because many of its related research findings can be explained by other theories. - **Concept of Humanity** - Adler saw people as forward moving, social animals are motivated by goals they set (both consciously and unconsciously) the future. People are ultimately responsible for their own unique style of life. Thus, Adler’s theory rates high on free-choice, social influences, and uniqueness; high on optimism and teleology and average on unconscious influences. ### JUNG: ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY - **Overview of Jung’s Analytical Psychology** - Carl Jung believed that people are extremely complex beings possess a variety of opposing such as introversion and extraversion, masculinity and femininity, and rational and drives. - **Biography of Carl Jung** - Carl Jung was born in Switzerland in 1875, the oldest surviving child of an idealistic Protestant minister and his wife. Jung's early experience with parents were quite opposite each other) probably his own theory of Soon after receiving his medical degree he became acquainted with Freud’s writings and eventually Freud himself. Not long after he traveled with Freud to the United States, Jung became disenchanted with Freud’s pansexual theories, with Freud, and began own approach to theory and therapy, he called analytical psychology. From a critical midlife crisis, during he nearly lost contact with reality, Jung emerged to become one of the leading thinkers of the 20th century. He died in 1961 at age 85. - **Levels of Psyche** - Jung saw the human psyche as divided into a conscious an unconscious level, with latter subdivided into a personal and a collective unconscious. - **Conscious** - Images sensed by the ego are said to be conscious. The ego thus represents the conscious side of personality, and in the psychologically mature individual, the ego is secondary the self. - **Personal Unconscious** - The unconscious refers to those psychic images not sensed by the ego. Some unconscious processes from personal experiences, but others stem from our ancestors’ experiences with universal themes. Jung divided the unconscious into the personal unconscious, contains complexes (emotionally toned groups of related ideas) the collective unconscious, or ideas that beyond our personal experiences that originate from the repeated experiences of our ancestors. - **Collective Unconscious** - Collective unconscious images are not inherited ideas, but rather they refer to innate tendency to react in a particular way whenever our personal experiences inherited toward action. Contents of the collective unconscious called archetypes. - **Archetypes** - Jung believed that archetypes originate through the experiences of our ancestors that they expressed in certain types dreams, fantasies, delusions, hallucinations. Several archetypes acquire their own personality, and Jung these by name. One the persona-the side our personality that show to others. Another is the -the dark side of personality. To reach full psychological maturity, Jung believed, we must first realize accept shadow. A second hurdle in maturity is for men accept their anima, or feminine side, for women to their animus, or masculine disposition. Other archetypes include the great mother (the archetype of nourishment and destruction); the wise old man (the archetype of wisdom and meaning); and the hero, (the image we of a conqueror vanquishes evil, but has a fatal flaw). The most comprehensive archetype the self; that the image we of fulfillment, completion, or perfection. The ultimate psychological maturity is self-realization, is symbolized by the mandala, perfect geometric figure - **Dynamics of Personality** - Jung believed that the dynamic principles that apply to physical energy also apply to psychic energy. These forces include causality and teleology as well as progression and regression. - **Causality and Teleology** - Jung accepted a middle position between the philosophical issues of causality teleology. In other words, humans are motivated both by past experiences by expectations future. - **Progression and Regression** - To achieve self-realization, people must adapt to both their external internal worlds. Progression involves adaptation the outside world the forward flow of psychic energy, whereas regression refers to adaptation the inner world the backward flow of psychic energy. Jung believed that the backward step essential to a person’s forward movement self-realization. - **Psychological Types** - Eight psychological types emerge from of two attitudes four functions. - **Attitudes** - Attitudes are to act react in a manner. The two basic attitudes are introversion, refers to people's perceptions, and extraversion, indicates an orientation the world. Extraverts are more by the real world by their perception, whereas introverts rely their view of things. Introverts and extraverts mistrust misunderstand one another. - **Functions** - The two attitudes or extroversion and introversion combine with four basic functions to form eight personality types. The four are (1) thinking, or the meaning of stimuli; (2) feeling, or a value on something; (3) sensation, or taking in sensory stimuli; and (4) intuition, or perceiving elementary data that are beyond our awareness. Jung referred to thinking feeling as functions and sensation intuition as irrational functions. - **Development of Personality ** - Nearly unique among personality theorists was Jung’s emphasis on the second half of life. Jung saw middle and old age as times when people may acquire the ability to attain self-realization. - **Stages of ** - Jung development into four broad (1) childhood, lasts from birth until adolescence; (2) youth, the period from puberty middle life, which is a time for extraverted development and for being to the real world of schooling, occupation, courtship, marriage, and family; (3) middle life, is a from about 35 40 until old age when people should be adopting an introverted attitude; and (4) old age, is a for psychological rebirth, self-realization, preparation for death. - **Self-Realization** - Self-realization, or individuation, involves a rebirth and an integration of various parts the into a unified or whole individual. Self-realization represents highest level of human development. - **Jung’s Methods of Investigation** - Jung used the word association test, dreams, and active imagination during the process of psychotherapy, and all these methods contributed to his theory of personality. - **Word Association Test** - Jung used the word association test early in his career uncover complexes embedded in the personal unconscious. The technique requires a patient to utter the first word that comes to mind after the examiner reads a stimulus word. Unusual responses a complex. - **Dream Analysis** - Jung believed that dreams may have both a cause a purpose thus can useful in explaining past events and in making decisions about the future. "Big dreams" "typical dreams," both of come from the collective Unconscious, meanings that beyond the experiences of a single individual. - **Active Imagination** - Jung used active imagination to arrive collective images. This technique requires the patient to concentrate on a single image that image to in a different form. Eventually, the patient see figures that represent archetypes other collective unconscious images. - **Psychotherapy** - The goal of Jungian therapy is to help neurotic patients become healthy and to move healthy people in the direction of self-realization. Jung was eclectic in his choice of therapeutic techniques and treated old people differently than the young - **Related Research** - Although Jungian psychology has not generated large volumes of research, some investigators have used the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator to examine the idea of psychological types. Some research suggests that extraverts and introverts have different preferences in choice of academic partners. Other researchers have reported that personality type is to academic performance success. - **Critique of Jung** - Although Jung considered himself a scientist, many of his writings more of a philosophical than a psychological flavor. As a scientific theory, it rates on its ability to generate research, but very low on its ability to withstand falsification. It is about average on its ability to organize knowledge but low on each of the other criteria of a useful theory. - **Concept of Humanity** - Jung saw people as extremely complex beings who are a of conscious unconscious personal experiences. However, people are also by inherited remnants that from the experiences of their early ancestors. Because Jungian theory is a psychology of opposites, it receives a rating the issues of free will determinism, optimism pessimism, and causality unconscious influences. It high uniqueness, and low social influences. ### KLEIN: OBJECT RELATIONS THEORY - **Overview Object Relations Theory** - Many theorists accepted some of Freud’s basic assumptions rejecting others. One approach to extending psychoanalytic theory has the object relations theories Melanie Klein and others. Unlike Jung and Adler, who came reject Freud’s ideas, Klein tried to validate Freud’s theories. In essence, Klein extended Freud’s developmental stages the first 4 to 6 months after birth. - **Biography of Melanie Klein** - Melanie Klein was born in Vienna 1892, the youngest of four children. She had neither a Ph.D. nor an M.D. degree became an analyst by psychoanalyzed. As an analyst, she in working young children. In she moved to London she practiced until her death in 1960. - **Introduction to Object Relations Theory** - Object relations theory from Freudian theory in at least three ways: (1) it places emphasis interpersonal relationships; (2) it stresses the infant’s relationship with the mother rather than the father; and (3) it suggests that people are primarily for human contact than for sexual pleasure. The term object in object relations theory to any person part of a person that infants introject, take into their structure and later project onto people. - **Psychic Life of the ** - Klein believed that infants life an inherited to reduce the anxiety that they experience as a of the clash between the life instinct the death instinct. - **Fantasies** - Klein that very young infants possess an active, unconscious fantasy life. Their most basic fantasies images of "good" breast the "bad" breast. - **Objects** - Klein agreed with Freud that drives have an object, but she was more to emphasize child’s with these objects (parents’ face, hands, breast, penis, etc.), she saw as having a life of their own within child’s fantasy world. - **Positions** - In their to reduce the conflict produced by good and bad infants organize experience into positions, ways dealing both internal external objects. - **Paranoid-Schizoid Position** - The struggles that infants experience with the good breast the bad breast lead to two and opposing feelings: a desire harbor the breast a to bite or destroy it. To tolerate these two the ego itself by parts of its life death instincts projecting parts the breast. It has a relationship with the ideal breast the persecutory breast. To this infants adopt the paranoid-schizoid which is a to see the world as having destructive omnipotent qualities. - **Depressive Position** - By depressive position, Klein meant the anxiety that infants experience around 6 months of age over their mother and yet, at the same time, to destroy her. The depressive is when infants fantasize that they made up their previous transgressions their mother also that their mother not abandon them. - **Psychic Mechanisms** - According Klein, children adopt various psychic defense mechanisms to their ego against anxiety by their own fantasies. - **Introjection** - Klein defined as the fantasy of taking into one’s own body the images that one has of an external object, especially mother’s breast. Infants usually introject objects as a protection against anxiety, but they also bad in order to gain control of them. - **Projection** - The that one’s own feelings and reside within another person called Children project both good bad especially their parents. - **Splitting** - Infants tolerate and bad aspects of themselves of external objects by splitting, or mentally keeping incompatible Splitting be beneficial to children adults, because allows them to themselves still recognizing some qualities. - **Projective Identification** - Projective identification is the psychic defense mechanism whereby infants split off parts themselves, project them onto another object, finally them an altered form. - **Internalizations** - After external objects, infants organize into a psychologically meaningful framework, a that Klein internalization. - **Ego** - are aided by the early ego’s ability to