Definitions, Subject, Functions and Aims of Philosophy PDF

Definitions, Subject, Functions and Aims of Philosophy At its simplest, philosophy (from the Greek or philosophia, meaning "the love of wisdom") is the study of knowledge, or "thinking about thinking“. Greek term for practical wisdom or prudence, the application of good judgment to human c...

Definitions, Subject, Functions and Aims of Philosophy At its simplest, philosophy (from the Greek or philosophia, meaning "the love of wisdom") is the study of knowledge, or "thinking about thinking“. Greek term for practical wisdom or prudence, the application of good judgment to human conduct, in contrast with the more theoretical inquiry leading to σοφια [sophía], or wisdom generally. Philosophy is the study of the most general and abstract features of the world and categories with which we think: mind, matter, reason, proof, truth, etc. Philosophy is the search for knowledge and truth, especially about the nature of man and his behavior and beliefs. Philosophy is the investigation of the nature, causes, or principles of reality, knowledge, or values, based on logical reasoning rather than empirical methods. So, the brief etymological interpretation of the term of “Philosophy” sounds like: LOVE WISDOM Task: Give your own definition of Philosophy The first who used the term of “philosophy ” was Pythagoras. He did not dare to call himself as wise man, in his view: it is only God is wise, there’s only God’s wisdom. Pythagoras believed, that Philosophy is the path between humans and Gods. Path to wisdom. Plato began to widely use the Aristotle believed that Descartes saw the real beginning of term “philosophy” in his philosophy begins with wonder. philosophy in doubt. When we doubt we “Dialogues”. Philosophy is the Wondering about world, nature, always look for something new, it can rational Dialogue between people man and so on. be new idea, new vision, new thoughts. and societies. Philosophy is a critical approach to the human life, all objective events and to all scientific knowledge, which is the essence of all knowledge, sciences and the human life. Here are some definition of philosophy given by famous philosophers: According to Cicero, Marcus Tullius “Philosophy is the mother of all arts and "the true medicine of the mind.” “Philosophy is an interpretation of the world in order to change it.” — [ Karl Marx] “Philosophy is a science of sciences.”— [Comte] “Philosophy is the science and criticism of cognition.”— [Immanuel Kant] “Philosophy is not a panacea (remedy for all kinds of diseases/troubles) for the problems of men, but is that which emerges out of the methods employed by them to solve their problems.” [John Dewey] According to Socrates : “Philosophy is a daily activity”.  Subject and Object of Philosophy The notions of subject and object are fundamental concepts in philosophy. The subject refers to the experiencing, The subject-object distinction is central to many philosophical traditions, particularly in theories of thinking, and acting agent - the "self" or "I" that perceives knowledge (epistemology) and theories of perception. and interacts with the world. The object, on the other hand, Epistemological debates often focus on how the subject can refers to anything that is perceived, thought about, or acted gain knowledge about the external, objective world of upon by the subject. objects. Theories of perception explore how the subject's senses and cognition mediate their experience of objects. Subjects are typically understood as having an inner mental Additionally, the subject-object distinction has implications life of thoughts, feelings, and experiences. Subjects are self- for theories of mind, ethics, and metaphysics. Philosophical aware and have a sense of agency - the ability to make questions arise about the relationship between the subjective self and the objective world, the role of the choices and initiate actions. In contrast, objects are the subject in shaping their experience, and the ontological things that exist independently of the subject, and include status of subjective mental states versus objective physical both physical entities as well as abstract concepts. phenomena.  Philosophical knowledge is oriented on the world Philosophy as we understand it, is a system of as a whole, on the "man-universe" system. generalized views of the surrounding world and man's place in it, of man's relationship to the world and himself. Philosophical knowledge can be described as well Philosophical knowledge also comes as critical as humanistic knowledge. In this case, we knowledge. Philosophy reflects all dogmas, investigate person as a philosophical phenomenon teachings, authorities, values ​which are circulating because every person exists as active side of in society. relationships between human and the world. Philosophy is focused on three key elements: - nature, Main instrument of philosophy is not conviction, but discovery and critical examination of the truth. - social life, - human. Functions of Philosophy 1. The world-view function of philosophy is the ability to give a united picture of the world in general, to combine data of sciences, arts, practices. The world-view is not only picture of the world, but also the mode of thinking about reality, and also the principles of life itself. An important component of the world-view is the ideals, the cherished and decisive aims of life. The character of a person's notion of the world, his world-view, facilitates the posing of certain goals which, when generalized, form a broad plan of life, ideals, notions of wellbeing, good and evil, beauty, and progress, which give the world-view tremendous power to inspire action. The world-view influences standards of behavior, a person's attitude to his life, work, to other people, the character of his aspirations in life, his everyday existence, tastes and interests. It is a kind of spiritual prism through which everything around us is perceived, felt and transformed.  4. Information-communicative - this function 2. Methodological function controls the transmission and content of the Methodological function is to identify ways to achieve transmitted data between any agents involved in some goal, such as scientific knowledge, aesthetic its processes. That is, it spreads knowledge creativity, social practice. between different disciplines both inside and The methodological function controls the development outside of philosophy, supporting cooperation and verification of the ways in which philosophy between other sciences and their disciplines; achieves its goals and research. She develops the 5. A critical function evaluates the methods and approaches used in the philosophical study, as well as evaluates and approbates them. phenomenon or process and compares it with the philosophy's opinion, that is, as the name A methodology is a system of principles and general implies - criticizes, draws conclusions and gives ways of organizing and structuring theoretical and a conclusion. practical activity, and also the theory of this system. 3. Practical function of philosophy helps us 6. Humanistic function is implemented in a very careful attention to the man, this function is figure out our roles in society, how to be good referring to man as the active phenomenon. people, and how to achieve happiness and Respect a man and his life. meaning in life.  Aims of Philosophy The aim of philosophy is to seek a deeper understanding of the fundamental nature of reality, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophers try to answer questions such as: What is the meaning of life? What is the nature of existence? How can we know what is true? What is the basis for moral and ethical behavior? Philosophy involves critical thinking, reasoned argument, and an examination of the assumptions, concepts, and implications underlying different belief systems and ways of understanding the world. Philosophy can help you develop Rather than changing our lives critical thinking skills that are crucial completely with a new job or goal, Philosophy can teach you to take for finding solutions in everyday life. philosophy teaches us how to make personal responsibility for the choices Rational and logical thinking will help small changes every day for positive you make in life and the subsequent you make better decisions. results. From little things big things events created by those choices. It also grow. The lessons learned from helps you let go of what you cannot Reading books about Eastern control. Taking personal responsibility studying philosophy will help you philosophy may teach you how to live for your life is vital for happiness and understand yourself better and in the moment, while reading Western success. improve your relationships with philosophy may help you understand others. Self-awareness (the ability to Reading philosophy will help you find your place in society. Philosophy be aware of your own emotions, answers to the existential questions gives you an opportunity to learn thoughts, and behaviors) is important you might have. Who am I? Why are different perspectives on life and as it allows you to control your we here? What does it mean to be further develop your ability to have emotions and understand the reasons human? empathy for others. behind your actions. Philosophy Map  How does philosophy work in our day-to-day life? Do you believe in God? What is real? Why do I live in this World? Why do you believe in God? Are we living in a simulation? What is my purpose? Can Morality exist without Religion? What can we know? Why are you here? What would a perfect society look Do we have free will? What is the meaning of life? like? What is The Good Life? And how do we find it? What would the ideal government What is Justice? Is the life after Death? look like? What is Happiness? Do you believe in fate? Does your worldview impact the way you make day-to-day decisions?  Major Branches of Philosophy AFTER ADDRESSING THE QUESTION “WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY ”, LET US NOW DISCUSS THE MAJOR BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY. Philosophy as a whole is traditionally split into four or more main branches. Metaphysics Epistemology Ethics Aesthetics Logic Political Philosophy History of Philosophy Metaphysics Metaphysics (Greek: μετά (meta)="after," φυσικά (phisiká)="those on nature," derived from the arrangement of Aristotle's works) is the branch of philosophy concerned with explaining the nature of the most fundamental aspects of the world. It addresses questions such as: What is the nature of reality? Does the world exist outside the mind? What is the nature of objects, events, places? Is free will possible in a world governed by causal laws? A central part of metaphysics is ontology, which is the study of being. The questions being include a wide range of issues concerning existence such as: the meaning of being or what it means "to be" for each of such beings as physical entities, souls, God, values, numbers, time, space, imaginary objects, and others; what is real existence; why something exists rather than nothing. Five central questions of metaphysics Mind and matter. Human beings seem to have properties of two quite different kinds: physical properties, such as size and weight, and mental properties, such as feeling pain or believing that Earth is the capital of Outer space, which imply sensation or thought. Among the properties of persons, mental properties have seemed to many philosophers to be in some sense deeper or more fundamental than physical properties. Objects and their properties. In looking at objects in the world, one often will look for things they "have something in common." For instance, one might say that two apples have the same color, that two people are the same height, or that two books have the same number of chapters. But what is the nature of these entities that are "had in common?" Identity and change. Puzzles associated with change go back at least to Heraclitus' famous claim that "you cannot step into the same river twice." As it is most often interpreted, Heraclitus is making the following point: Given that there is a single river from moment to moment, since there is a change in what is present (for instance, a difference in water levels), it cannot be strictly true that the same river is there. The structure of space and time. Space and time are some of the most basic features of the world. Things have spatiotemporal locations, and spatiotemporal relations to each other. One of the longest-standing metaphysical questions about space and time concerns how to understand the relationship between locations and relations. Determinism and free will. One of the most recurrent philosophical problems comes from the apparent incompatibility of two independently plausible claims: Everything in the universe is causally determined, and what is causally determined could not have been otherwise. In acting in the universe, one sometimes could have done otherwise than he actually did. Epistemology Epistemology or theory of knowledge is the branch of philosophy that studies the nature, origin, and scope of knowledge and belief. The term "epistemology" is based on the Greek words, "ἐπιστήμη or episteme" (knowledge or science) and "λόγος or logos" (account/explanation); Much of the debate in this field has focused on analyzing the nature of knowledge and how it relates to similar notions, such as truth, belief, and justification. In other words, epistemology primarily addresses the following questions: "What is knowledge," "How is knowledge acquired," and "What do people know?“ The problem or question of a definition of knowledge turns out to be much more difficult and controversial than it may initially seem to be. Nearly every philosopher who has written on the topic has a somewhat different understanding and definition—whether this is tacit or explicit— of knowledge. Broadly speaking, at least until the middle of the nineteenth century, most philosophers and philosophical approaches to the question can be divided into empiricists (or empiricism) and rationalists (or rationalism), with empiricists stressing the role of sensory perception of the sensible world in acquiring knowledge, and rationalists stressing the role of mind and its activity; the rise of pragmatism, phenomenology, and some other twentieth century philosophical schools and movements may mean that no longer can all theories of knowledge can be subsumed under rationalism and empiricism. Ethics Ethics (from the Greek ethos – custom) in the sense of systems of value and codes of conduct have always been part of human societies. In this sense, there are many distinct ethical traditions corresponding to the major cultural and religious divisions, such as Indian, Buddhist, Chinese, Jewish, Christian, and Islamic ethics. These are the ethical traditions that most people in the world look to for guidance about how to live. Philosophical ethics (also called moral philosophy) is divided into three main areas of inquiry: (1) meta-ethics, (2) normative ethics, and (3) applied ethics. Meta-ethics is a study of the nature of ethics. A meta-ethical study is concerned, amongst other things, with the meaning and objectivity of moral judgments, and how human beings can come to know what is right. By contrast, normative ethics aims to provide specific guidelines for action by constructing theories about what makes actions right and wrong. Applied ethics involves the application of normative ethical theories to particular issues of practical concern such as abortion, euthanasia, criminal punishment, and the treatment of animals. Aesthetics Aesthetics (also spelled esthetics) is a branch of philosophy; it is a species of value theory or axiology, which is the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste. Aesthetics is closely associated with the philosophy of art. Aesthetics is sometimes called "the study of beauty," but that proposed definition will not do because some of the things that many people find aesthetically valuable or good or noteworthy are not beautiful in any usual or reasonable sense of the term "beautiful.“ Today the word "aesthetics" may mean (1) the study of all the aesthetic phenomena, (2) the study of the perception of such phenomena, (3), the study of art or what is considered to be artistically worthwhile or notable or "good," as a specific expression of what is perceived as being aesthetic. Logic Logic, from Classical Greek λόγος (logos), originally meaning the word, or what is spoken, (but coming to mean thought or reason or an explanation or a justification or key) is most often said to be the study of criteria for the evaluation of arguments, although the exact definition of logic is a matter of controversy among philosophers. However the subject is grounded, the task of the logician is the same: to advance an account of valid and fallacious inference, in order to allow one to distinguish good from bad arguments. Informal logic is the study of arguments expressed in natural language. The study of fallacies—often known as informal fallacies—is an especially important branch of informal logic. An inference possesses a purely formal content if it can be expressed as a particular application of a wholly abstract rule, that is a rule that is not about any particular thing or property. (For example: The argument "If John was strangled he died. John was strangled. Therefore John died." is an example, in English, of the argument form or rule, "If P then Q. P is true. Therefore Q is true." Moreover, this is a valid argument form, known since the Middle Ages as Modus Ponens.) We will see later that on many definitions of logic, logical inference and inference with purely formal content are the same thing. This does not render the notion of informal logic vacuous, since one may wish to investigate logic without committing to a particular formal analysis. Formal logic is the field of study in which we are concerned with the form or structure of the inferences rather than the content. Symbolic logic is the study of abstractions, expressed in symbols, that capture the formal features of logical inference. Political Philosophy Political philosophy is a branch of philosophy, which studies fundamental questions concerning the social or communal life of human beings. It inquires into a broad range of questions, such as the principles of justification of power and social governance, the grounds for the justification of certain forms of government, social obligations of constituting members of a society, and the origin, nature, and purpose of government. Interlaced concepts examined include freedom, control, liberty, suppression, censorship, liberty, rights, property, utopia, human natures, war, peace, justice, and others. Political philosophy deals with both spiritual and material aspects of social life, it is intertwined with other branches of philosophy including Ethics, philosophy of law, philosophy of economics, and other fields of study such as sociology, sociology of knowledge, economics, anthropology, religion, aesthetics, theories of human natures, critique of cultures, and even metaphysics in some cases. Political philosophy focuses on the normative aspects of political theories and practices. History of Philosophy Philosophy of history or historiosophy is an area of philosophy concerning the eventual significance of human history. It examines the origin, goal, pattern, unit, determining factors for the process, and the overall nature of history. Furthermore, it speculates as to a possible teleological end to its development—that is, it asks if there is a design, purpose, directive principle, or finality in the processes of human history. A philosophy of history begins with a few basic assumptions. First, it determines what is the proper unit for the study of the human past, whether it is the individual subject, polis ("city"), sovereign territory, a civilization, culture, or the whole of the human species. It then inquires whether there are any broad patterns that can be discerned through a study of history, what factors, if any, determine the course of history, and the goal, destination, and driving force of history.  Conclusion Philosophy is the systematic study of ideas and issues, a reasoned pursuit of fundamental truths, a quest for a comprehensive understanding of the world, a study of principles of conduct, and much more. Philosophical training enhances our problem-solving capacities, our abilities to understand and express ideas, and our persuasive powers. It also develops understanding and enjoyment of things whose absence impoverishes many lives: such things as aesthetic experience, communication with many different kinds of people, lively discussion of current issues, the discerning observation of human behavior. In these and other ways the study of philosophy contributes immeasurably in both academic and other pursuits. Consciousness, soul, language and Nation Consciousness Representation of consciousness from the seventeenth century by Robert Fludd, an English Paracelsian physician  Consciousness at its simplest refers to sentience or awareness of internal or external existence. Despite centuries of analyses, definitions, explanations, and debates by philosophers and scientists, consciousness remains puzzling and controversial, being both the most familiar and the most mysterious aspect of our lives. Perhaps the only widely agreed notion about the topic is the intuition that it exists. Beyond the problem of how to define consciousness, there are also issues of whether non-human creatures have consciousness, and if so in what form; is consciousness a biological function, is it purely material depending on the functions of the physical brain; can machines, or artificial intelligence, have consciousness; is there an evolutionary progression to consciousness such that human consciousness of a higher order; and is human consciousness a spiritual function, not just cognitive? The answers to these questions are the avenue to greater understanding of what it means to be human.  The origin of the modern concept of consciousness is often attributed to John Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding, published in 1690, where he discusses the role of consciousness in personal identity: Consciousness which is inseparable from thinking, and, as it seems to me, essential to it: it being impossible for any one to perceive without perceiving that he does perceive. When we see, hear, smell, taste, feel, meditate, or will anything, we know that we do so.... For, since consciousness always accompanies thinking, and it is that which makes every one to be what he calls self, and thereby distinguishes himself from all other thinking things, in this alone consists personal identity. The English word "conscious" originally derived from the Latin conscius (con- "together" and scio "to know"). However, the Latin word did not have the same meaning as the English word—it meant "knowing with," in other words "having joint or common knowledge with another."  At its simplest, consciousness refers to "sentience or awareness of internal or external existence." It has been defined variously in terms of "qualia," subjectivity, the ability to experience or to feel, wakefulness, having a sense of selfhood or soul, the fact that there is something 'that it is like' to 'have' or 'be' it, and the executive control system of the mind. Despite the difficulty in definition, many philosophers believe that there is a broadly shared underlying intuition about what consciousness is. In sum, "Anything that we are aware of at a given moment forms part of our consciousness, making conscious experience at once the most familiar and most mysterious aspect of our lives.« In the Cambridge Dictionary we find consciousness defined as: "the state of understanding and realizing something." The Oxford Dictionary offers these definitions: "A person's awareness or perception of something" and "The fact of awareness by the mind of itself and the world.« Philosophers have used the term 'consciousness' for four main topics: knowledge in general, intentionality, introspection (and the knowledge it specifically generates) and phenomenal experience.  Mental processes (such as consciousness) and physical processes (such as brain events) seem to be correlated. However, the specific nature of the connection is unknown. The philosophy of mind has given rise to many stances regarding consciousness. In particular, the two major schools of thought regarding the nature of the mind and the body, Dualism and monism, are directly related to the nature of consciousness. Dualism, originally proposed by René Descartes, is the position that mind and body are separate from each other. Dualist theories maintain Descartes' rigid distinction between the realm of thought, where consciousness resides, and the realm of matter, but give different answers for how the two realms relate to each other. The two main types of dualism are substance dualism, which holds that the mind is formed of a distinct type of substance not governed by the laws of physics, and property dualism, which holds that the laws of physics are universally valid but cannot be used to explain the mind. Monism, on the other hand, rejects the dualist separation and maintains that mind and body are, at the most fundamental level, the same realm of being of which consciousness and matter are both aspects. This can mean that both are mental, such that only thought or experience truly exists and matter is merely an illusion (idealism); or that everything is material (physicalism), which holds that the mind consists of matter organized in a particular way; and neutral monism, which holds that both mind and matter are aspects of a distinct essence that is itself identical to neither of them.  Soul Rational Soul (Thinking) Wisdom Spirited Soul (Willing) Courage Appetitive Soul (Feeling) Moderation Soul is the active principle present in living things. Plato distinguished three distinct components of the human soul. Plato held that every human being includes three souls (Gk. ψυχη [psychê]) that correspond to the three classes of citizen within the state, each of them contributing in its own way to the successful operation of the whole person. The rational soul (mind or intellect) is the thinking portion within each of us, which discerns what is real and not merely apparent, judges what is true and what is false, and wisely makes the rational decisions in accordance with which human life is most properly lived. The spirited soul (will or volition), on the other hand, is the active portion; its function is to carry out the dictates of reason in practical life, courageously doing whatever the intellect has determined to be best. Finally, the appetitive soul (emotion or desire) is the portion of each of us that wants and feels many things, most of which must be deferred in the face of rational pursuits if we are to achieve a salutary degree of self-control. According to Aristotle, every animate being is a living thing which can move itself only because it has a soul. Animals and plants, along with human beings, are more like each other than any of them are like any inanimate object, since each of them has a soul. Thus, his great treatise on psychology, On The Soul, offers interconnected explanations for the functions and operations of all living organisms. All such beings, on Aristotle's view, have a nutritive soul which initiates and guides their most basic functions, the absorption of food, growth, and reproduction of its kind. All animals (and perhaps some plants) also have a sensitive soul by means of which they perceive features of their surroundings and move in response to the stimuli this provides. Human beings also possess (in addition to the rest) a rational soul that permits representation and thought. (On the Soul II 2) Notice that each living thing has just one soul, the actions of which exhibit some degree of nutritive, sensitive, and/or rational functioning. This soul is the formal, efficient, and final cause of the existence of the organism; only its material cause resides purely in the body. Thus, all of the operations of the organism are to be explained in terms of the functions of its soul.  I Am a Thinking Thing An initial consequence may be drawn directly from the intuitive certainty of the cogito itself. If I know that I am, Descartes argued, I must also know what I am; an understanding of my true nature must be contained implicitly in the content of my awareness. What then, is this "I" that doubts, that may be deceived, that thinks? Since I became certain of my existence while entertaining serious doubts about sensory information and the existence of a material world, none of the apparent features of my human body can have been crucial for my understanding of myself. But all that is left is my thought itself, so Descartes concluded that "sum res cogitans" ("I am a thing that thinks"). (Med. II) In Descartes's terms, I am a substance whose inseparable attribute (or entire essence) is thought, with all its modes: doubting, willing, conceiving, believing, etc. What I really am is a mind [Lat. mens] or soul [Lat. anima]. So completely am I identified with my conscious awareness, Descartes claimed, that if I were to stop thinking altogether, it would follow that I no longer existed at all. At this point, nothing else about human nature can be determined with such perfect certainty. In ordinary life, my experience of bodies may appear to be more vivid than self-consciousness, but Descartes argued that sensory appearances actually provide no reliable knowledge of the external world. If I hold a piece of beeswax while approaching the fire, all of the qualities it presents to my senses change dramatically while the wax itself remains. (Med. II) It follows that the impressions of sense are unreliable guides even to the nature of bodies. (Notice here that the identity of the piece of wax depends solely upon its spatial location; that's a significant hint about Descartes's view of the true nature of material things, which we'll see in more detail in Meditation Five.)  Language Language is a structured system of communication that consists of grammar and vocabulary. It is the primary means by which humans convey meaning, both in spoken and written forms, and may also be conveyed through sign languages. The vast majority of human languages have developed writing systems that allow for the recording and preservation of the sounds or signs of language. Human languages possess the properties of productivity and displacement, which enable the creation of an infinite number of sentences, and the ability to refer to objects, events, and ideas that are not immediately present in the discourse. The use of human language relies on social convention and is acquired through learning. A mural in Teotihuacan, Mexico (c. 2nd century) depicting a person emitting a speech scroll from his mouth, symbolizing speech  Depending on philosophical perspectives on the definition of language and meaning, when used as a general concept, "language" may refer to the cognitive ability to learn and use systems of complex communication, or to describe the set of rules that makes up these systems, or the set of utterances that can be produced from those rules. All languages rely on the process of semiosis to relate signs to particular meanings. Oral, manual and tactile languages contain a phonological system that governs how symbols are used to form sequences known as words or morphemes, and a syntactic system that governs how words and morphemes are combined to form phrases and utterances. The scientific study of language is called linguistics. Critical examinations of languages, such as philosophy of language, the relationships between language and thought, how words represent experience, etc., have been debated at least since Gorgias and Plato in ancient Greek civilization. Thinkers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) have argued that language originated from emotions, while others like Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) have argued that languages originated from rational and logical thought. Twentieth century philosophers such as Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951) argued that philosophy is really the study of language itself. Greek philosophers such as Gorgias and Plato debated the relation between words, concepts and reality. Gorgias argued that language could represent neither the objective experience nor human experience, and that communication and truth were therefore impossible. Plato maintained that communication is possible because language represents ideas and concepts that exist independently of, and prior to, language.  One definition sees language primarily as the mental faculty that allows humans to undertake linguistic behavior: to learn languages and to produce and understand utterances. This definition stresses the universality of language to all humans, and it emphasizes the biological basis for the human capacity for language as a unique development of the human brain. Another definition sees language as a formal system of signs governed by grammatical rules of combination to communicate meaning. This definition stresses that human languages can be described as closed structural systems consisting of rules that relate particular signs to particular meanings. This structuralist view of language was first introduced by Ferdinand de Saussure, and his structuralism remains foundational for many approaches to language. Another definition sees language as a system of communication that enables humans to exchange verbal or symbolic utterances. This definition stresses the social functions of language and the fact that humans use it to express themselves and to manipulate objects in their environment. Functional theories of grammar explain grammatical structures by their communicative functions. This view of language is associated with the study of language in pragmatic, cognitive, and interactive frameworks, as well as in sociolinguistics and linguistic anthropology. In the philosophy of language, the view of pragmatics as central to language and meaning is often associated with Wittgenstein's later works and with ordinary language philosophers such as J.L. Austin, Paul Grice, John Searle, and W.O. Quine. Nation Nationalism is the doctrine that one's national culture and interests are superior to any other, and that nations should act independently (rather than collectively) to attain their goals. It holds that a nation, usually defined in terms of language, ethnicity or culture, has the right to constitute an independent or autonomous political community based on a shared history and common destiny. It can also refer to the aspiration for national independence felt by people under foreign domination. Nationalism seeks to order the world as a series of nation-states, each based on the geopolitical national homeland of its respective nation, and holds that each nation has a moral entitlement to a sovereign state. It seeks to guarantee the continued existence of a nation, to preserve its distinct identity, and to provide a territory where the national culture and ethos are dominant. In turn, nation-states appeal to a national cultural-historical mythos to justify their existence, and to confer political legitimacy.  Nationalism may manifest itself along civic, ethnic, cultural, religious or ideological lines. Ethnic Nationalism: where the nation is defined in terms of ethnicity and descent from previous generations. It also includes the idea of a culture shared between members of the group, and usually a shared language. Civic Nationalism: where the state derives political legitimacy from the active participation of its citizenry and from the degree to which it represents the "will of the people". State Nationalism: a variant of Civic Nationalism, where the nation is assumed to be a community of those who contribute to the maintenance and strength of the state, and that the individual exists in the community expressly to contribute to this goal. Expansionist Nationalism: a radical form of imperialism (and not really true Nationalism at all) that incorporates autonomous, patriotic sentiments with a belief in expansionism, usually by military aggression. Liberal Nationalism: where it is claimed that individuals need a national identity in order to lead meaningful, autonomous lives, and that liberal democracies need national identity in order to function properly. John Stuart Mill expressed similar sentiments. Religious Nationalism: where a shared religion can be seen to contribute to a sense of national unity, and a common bond among the citizens of the nation.  Handouts Lecture №4 Being, Non- Being. Forms of Being. Being is a philosophical concept, conceptualizing the existence of phenomena and objects, synonymous with “existence” and “things”.  Being often acts as an element of the conceptual opposition (e.g., being and consciousness, being and thinking, being and essence). The problem of being is studied by such philosophical discipline as ontology.  What it means to be human We’ve all had to puzzle over such profound matters as birth, death, regret, free will, agency, and love. How might philosophy help us think through these vital concerns? How to approach the question of being is determined by the style of thought, philosophical approach, or methodology. For example, the phenomenological approaches of Husserl and Heidegger locate the question of being on the horizon of human consciousness and existence. Eastern philosophies emphasize the role of "non-being" for our understanding of being.  Being of Kazakh: 1. Life and prosperity in the steppe required patience and perseverance, good health and skills; 2. The nomadic way of life; 3. The value of freedom and peace; 4. The ability to forgive and forget all the bad things in history. (Asharshylyk 3 million 1921-1933 – 1941 Holocaust 6 million). 5. Positive philosophy for the future – 1941 Holocaust 6 million).  Definition: Being one of the fundamental concept philosophy which describe widely meaning of life. For instance: Being of Kazakh people – which includes of all virtues and values of nation.  Being in ancient philosophy As an independent concept, being appears in ancient Greek philosophy, in the Eleatic doctrine. 1. Parmenides formulated thesis, which became one of the paradigms of Western ontological standing Thinking: Being is eternal and immutable unity. Opposing to being (moving manifold) is non-being. Being is the fullness of all qualities that merge in the highest certainty In its historical beginning, the category of being perceived as controversial and paradoxical construct. On the one hand, being was a result of the first Greek philosophers, attempted to find an universal principle of organization of the world. “Logos” of Heraclitus, the “number” of Pythagoreans) On the other hand, the category of being criticized by sophists (Gorgias) as an empty concept.  Plato proposed a solution of the antinomies of being in his teaching about “ideas”. Being of Plato is a set of intelligible forms or essences – “ideas” – which is a reflection of the variety of real world. Plato holds difference not only between being and becoming, but between being and “beginning less beginning” of being which Plato calls as “blessing” An important feature of Plato’s understanding of being was his connection with the category of truth. Truth is a result of ascension to the mere, i.e. to the types of being. In Aristotle’s philosophy: denial of being as the highest generic concept identifying being with the substantial essence of individual thing attempt to divide different meanings of the word “to be” Medieval philosophy was based on the well-known biblical self- determination of God: “I am mere (Jehovah)” Various interpretations of being expressed in a dispute of realists and nominalists, respectively gravitating to Platonism and Peripatetism. 19 th century marked by anti- scholastic ontologism. Idea of being criticized by Kierkegaard, Schopenhauer, Feuerbach, Nietzsche. Heidegger’s philosophy can be regarded as a logical final chapter of critique of ontology (in the language of Heidegger – “Metaphysics”). Being, according to Heidegger, is non- theoretical event (Ereignis) in the world of “things”, “Clearance”(Lichtung) in the universe: Dasein as “Being-in-the-world”, they are often used hand-in-hand. Being-in-the- world is an existential concept that emphasizes human existence as a state of living with a highly meaningful orientation.  In conclusion: BEING: Term used mostly for describing widely; Substance, essence of life; synonym of meaning ; human values;  Lecture №5 Cognition, Critical Thinking and Creativity  1. Cognition Cognitive science, the interdisciplinary scientific investigation of the mind and intelligence. The term cognition, as used by cognitive scientists, refers to many kinds of thinking, including perception, problem solving, learning, decision making, language use, and emotional experience.  Cognitive activity The process of knowing is a personalized, individual task that is influenced by experience and unintentional contextual cues. There are three aspects of knowledge – the knower (the consciousness of the participant), the known (the field of study), and the process of knowing (which connects the knower to the known).  Gnoseology (Greek - Cognition, reasoning, teaching) the doctrine of cognition, is a branch of philosophy that studies the possibilities of understanding the world by man, the structure of cognitive activity, the forms of knowledge in its relation to reality, the criteria for the truth and reliability of knowledge, its nature and boundaries.  Cognition is the process of active representation of reality in human consciousness. WE HAVE SOME THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO UNDERSTAND EVERY PART OF COGNITIVE ACTIVITY Formal logic Formal logic provides some powerful tools for looking at the nature of representation and computation.  Rules Much of human knowledge is naturally described in terms of rules of the form IF … THEN …, and many kinds of thinking such as planning can be modeled by rule-based systems. People have mental rules. People have procedures for using these rules to search a space of possible solutions, and procedures for generating new rules. Procedures for using and forming rules produce the behavior.  Concepts Concepts, which partly correspond to the words in spoken and written language, are an important kind of mental representation. People have a set of concepts. People have a set of procedures for concept application, including spreading activation, matching, and inheritance. Concepts can be translated into rules.  Analogies Analogies play an important role in human thinking, in areas as diverse as problem solving, decision making, explanation, and linguistic communication. People have verbal and visual representations of situations that can be used as cases or analogs. How previous experiences can be found and used to help with new problems – analogies  Images Visual and other kinds of images play an important role in human thinking. People have visual images of situations. People have processes such as scanning and rotation that operate on those images. The processes for constructing and manipulating images produce the intelligent behavior.  Deep learning Deep learning is part of a broader family of machine learning methods based on artificial neural networks with representation learning. Learning can be supervised, semi- supervised or unsupervised. USE ALL THESE PARTS OF COGNITIVE ACTIVITY WE CAN FIND RELEVANT METHODS OR TRUTHFUL KNOWLEDGE IN COGNITIVE SCIENCE. the person has limited cognitive abilities (owing to limited cognitive abilities of the mind); the world itself is unknowable, that is, people will be able to cognize outside of the objects and phenomena, but never know the inner essence of these objects and phenomena, that is, “things in themselves”.  Principles of cognition Modern gnoseology in the majority stands on positions of Gnosticism and is based on the following principles: 1) Dialectics; 2) Historicism.  1) Dialectics, which implies the need dialectically (i.e. in terms of development) approach to the problem of cognition and knowledge, to use the laws, categories, principles of dialectics;  2) Historicism, which considers all things and phenomena in the context of their historical emergence and formation;  Critical Thinking Critical Thinking is the process of using and assessing reasons to evaluate statements, assumptions, and arguments in ordinary situations. The goal of this process is to help us have good beliefs, where “good” means that our beliefs meet certain goals of thought, such as truth, usefulness, or rationality. The term critical thinking was coined by American philosopher and educator John Dewey in the book How We Think (1910) and was adopted by the progressive education movement as a core instructional goal that offered a dynamic modern alternative to traditional educational methods such as rote memorization.  Dewey’s Three Main Examples Transit: “The other day, when I was down town on 16th Street, a clock caught my eye. I saw that the hands pointed to 12:20. This suggested that I had an engagement at 124th Street, at one o’clock. I reasoned that as it had taken me an hour to come down on a surface car, I should probably be twenty minutes late if I returned the same way. I might save twenty minutes by a subway express. But was there a station near? If not, I might lose more than twenty minutes in looking for one. Then I thought of the elevated, and I saw there was such a line within two blocks. But where was the station? If it were several blocks above or below the street I was on, I should lose time instead of gaining it. My mind went back to the subway express as quicker than the elevated; furthermore, I remembered that it went nearer than the elevated to the part of 124th Street I wished to reach, so that time would be saved at the end of the journey. I concluded in favor of the subway, and reached my destination by one o’clock.” (Dewey 1910: 68–69; 1933: 91–92)  Ferryboat: “Projecting nearly horizontally from the upper deck of the ferryboat on which I daily cross the river is a long white pole, having a gilded ball at its tip. It suggested a flagpole when I first saw it; its color, shape, and gilded ball agreed with this idea, and these reasons seemed to justify me in this belief. But soon difficulties presented themselves. The pole was nearly horizontal, an unusual position for a flagpole; in the next place, there was no pulley, ring, or cord by which to attach a flag; finally, there were elsewhere on the boat two vertical staffs from which flags were occasionally flown. It seemed probable that the pole was not there for flag-flying. “I then tried to imagine all possible purposes of the pole, and to consider for which of these it was best suited: (a) Possibly it was an ornament. But as all the ferryboats and even the tugboats carried poles, this hypothesis was rejected. (b) Possibly it was the terminal of a wireless telegraph. But the same considerations made this improbable. Besides, the more natural place for such a terminal would be the highest part of the boat, on top of the pilot house. (c) Its purpose might be to point out the direction in which the boat is moving. “In support of this conclusion, I discovered that the pole was lower than the pilot house, so that the steersman could easily see it. Moreover, the tip was enough higher than the base, so that, from the pilot’s position, it must appear to project far out in front of the boat. Moreover, the pilot being near the front of the boat, he would need some such guide as to its direction. Tugboats would also need poles for such a purpose. This hypothesis was so much more probable than the others that I accepted it. I formed the conclusion that the pole was set up for the purpose of showing the pilot the direction in which the boat pointed, to enable him to steer correctly.” (Dewey 1910: 69–70; 1933: 92–93)  Bubbles: “In washing tumblers in hot soapsuds and placing them mouth downward on a plate, bubbles appeared on the outside of the mouth of the tumblers and then went inside. Why? The presence of bubbles suggests air, which I note must come from inside the tumbler. I see that the soapy water on the plate prevents escape of the air save as it may be caught in bubbles. But why should air leave the tumbler? There was no substance entering to force it out. It must have expanded. It expands by increase of heat, or by decrease of pressure, or both. Could the air have become heated after the tumbler was taken from the hot suds? Clearly not the air that was already entangled in the water. If heated air was the cause, cold air must have entered in transferring the tumblers from the suds to the plate. I test to see if this supposition is true by taking several more tumblers out. Some I shake so as to make sure of entrapping cold air in them. Some I take out holding mouth downward in order to prevent cold air from entering. Bubbles appear on the outside of every one of the former and on none of the latter. I must be right in my inference. Air from the outside must have been expanded by the heat of the tumbler, which explains the appearance of the bubbles on the outside. But why do they then go inside? Cold contracts. The tumbler cooled and also the air inside it. Tension was removed, and hence bubbles appeared inside. To be sure of this, I test by placing a cup of ice on the tumbler while the bubbles are still forming outside. They soon reverse” (Dewey 1910: 70–71; 1933: 93–94).  The Process of Thinking Critically suggestions, in which the mind leaps forward to a possible solution; an intellectualization of the difficulty or perplexity into a problem to be solved, a question for which the answer must be sought; the use of one suggestion after another as a leading idea, or hypothesis, to initiate and guide observation and other operations in collection of factual material; the mental elaboration of the idea or supposition as an idea or supposition (reasoning, in the sense on which reasoning is a part, not the whole, of inference); and testing the hypothesis by overt or imaginative action. Kinds of mental acts and mental events in a critical thinking process: Observing Observational abilities Feeling Emotional abilities Wondering Questioning abilities Imagining Imaginative abilities Inferring Inferential abilities Knowledge Higher-order thinking Experimenting Experimenting abilities Consulting Consulting abilities Identifying and analyzing arguments Argument analysis abilities Judging Judging skills and deciding skills Deciding What is the relationship of critical thinking to problem solving, decision- making, creative thinking, and other recognized types of thinking?  2. Creativity The ability to make or otherwise bring into existence something new, whether a new solution to a problem, a new method or device, or a new artistic object or form.  “eureka moment” Philosophical issues related to scientific discovery arise about the nature of human creativity, specifically about whether the “eureka moment” can be analyzed and about whether there are rules (algorithms, guidelines, or heuristics) according to which such a novel insight can be brought about. Philosophical issues also arise about rational heuristics, about the characteristics of hypotheses worthy of articulation and testing, and, on the meta- level, about the nature and scope of philosophical reflection itself. Kant believed, that Imagination is a powerful agent for creating, as it were, a second nature out of the material supplied to it by actual nature. Kant takes imagination to be constitutive of creativity: what makes a creative process creative is the involvement of imagination aiming at the aesthetic. There are no facts, only interpretations. There is no greater joy than that of feeling oneself a creator. The triumph of life is expressed by creation.  Creativity Imagination creates our reality. “Logic will get you from A to B. Imagination will take you everywhere.” – Albert Einstein To think outside the box is imaginary world, where you find happiness. Education, Science and Digital transformation Education 1. Philosophical definition of Education 2. The aims of education 3. Teaching and learning  1. Philosophical definition of Education Philosophers and educators have offered a wide range of definitions of education, each reflecting different perspectives on its purpose and nature. Plato: Education is the process of drawing out the innate knowledge and virtues of the soul. In his view, education is not just about imparting knowledge but about guiding individuals to realize their own potential and achieve moral and intellectual development. Socrates: Education is the art of questioning and dialogue aimed at achieving deeper understanding and self-awareness. Socrates believed that education involved engaging in critical questioning and examining one's beliefs to attain wisdom. Aristotle: Education is the process of shaping character and intellect to achieve the good life. Aristotle emphasized the development of moral virtues and practical wisdom, seeing education as crucial for cultivating virtuous citizens who can contribute to the common good. Immanuel Kant: Education is the process of developing autonomy and moral maturity. Kant saw education as essential for individuals to achieve moral self-governance and to act according to reason and ethical principles.  Herbert Spencer: Education is the process of preparing individuals to adapt to their environment and to meet the demands of life. Spencer viewed education as a means of equipping individuals with the skills and knowledge necessary for survival and progress in society. Friedrich Nietzsche: Education is a means of cultivating individual strength and creativity. Nietzsche saw education as a way to overcome conventional values and to develop one's unique potential and vision. Maria Montessori: Education is a method of fostering a child’s natural desire to learn through a prepared environment and self-directed activity. Montessori emphasized respect for the child's independence and the importance of providing opportunities for self-discovery and exploration. John Dewey: Education is a social process that fosters growth through active and experiential learning. Dewey saw education as a means of adapting to and interacting with the environment, emphasizing the role of experience and problem-solving in learning.  Philosophy is the study of fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, values, and reality. It provides a framework for understanding the world around us and our place in it. In the context of education, philosophy is concerned with the study of the nature and purpose of education, the role of the teacher and student, and the methods of teaching and learning. Philosophy of Education is a label applied to the study of the purpose, process, nature and ideals of education. It can be considered a branch of both philosophy and education. Education can be defined as the teaching and learning of specific skills, and the imparting of knowledge, judgment and wisdom, and is something broader than the societal institution of education we often speak of. Philosophy of education refers to the underlying beliefs and values that inform educational practices. It shapes the goals and objectives of education and provides a framework for designing curricula, selecting teaching methods, and evaluating student learning. The philosophy of education is influenced by various factors such as cultural, social, and historical contexts, personal experiences, and philosophical traditions.  2. The aims of education Aims of education refer to the goals and objectives that educators hope to achieve through teaching and learning. The aims of education reflect the underlying philosophy of education and provide a guide for educational practices. They may include cognitive goals such as developing critical thinking skills and acquiring knowledge, affective goals such as promoting emotional and social development, and behavioral goals such as developing practical skills. The aims of education are informed by the broader social and cultural contexts in which education takes place. For example, in societies where the economy is highly industrialized, the aims of education may focus on developing technical and vocational skills that prepare students for the workforce. In societies where democracy is highly valued, the aims of education may focus on developing civic knowledge and skills that promote democratic participation.  Aims of Education in Idealism In an idealistic education system emphasis should be placed on developing the mind, personal discipline, and character development. A person should be literate and of good moral character. The aim of education is to brings the child as close to Absolute Truth as possible. All of the aims of the idealist as educator find their ground in the conception of Ultimate Reality and the students’ relation to this Reality. In idealism, the aim of education is to discover and develop each individual’s abilities and full moral excellence in order to better serve society  Aims of Education in Naturalism Education is for the body as well as the mind; and this should not be forgotten. Even if it were possible, there is no point in making a man mentally fit for life and neglecting his physical fitness The naturalist, as Herbert Spencer represents them, first regards the pupil from the physical side. For the child is at bottom a little animal, whatever else he may be. He has a body, or, to be more accurate, he is a body one of his first requirements therefore is that he be healthy, a vigorous animal, able to stand the wear and tear of living. Since the naturalist denies the validity of any aims outside the natural sphere, their concern must be with immediate or proximate aims. Perhaps these aims might be summed in the dictum that schools should develop the “whole child,” that is, the entire natural organism. Whereas traditional education had placed major emphasis upon intellectual function, the naturalist proposes that the child be given opportunity to grow physically, mentally, socially, emotionally, aesthetically, vocationally.  Aims of Education in Pragmatism According to pragmatists the main focus of education is not social heritage of the past, but the good life in the present and in the future. The standard of social good is constantly changing, so it should be tested and verified through changing experience. Life does not stand still and there is a constant need for improvement. To have an aim is to act with meaning.-John Dewey, Democracy and Education Pragmatists believe that the aims are always determined by individual not by any organization or any structure. Perhaps the best statement of what might be called the pragmatist’s educational aims can be found in the writing of John Dewey. The aim for education is to teach children to be comfortable in their learning environment to an extent that children are living their life. Dewey believed in this type of environment that is not considered a preparation for life, but life. He believed that educators should know the things that motivate and interest children and plan accordingly. Dewey believed that aims should grow out of existing conditions, be tentative, and have an end view.  Aims of Education in Realism Realists do not believe in general and common aims of education. According to them aims are specific to each individual and his perspectives. And each one has different perspectives. The aim of education should be to teach truth rather than beauty, to understand the present practical life. The purpose of education, according to social realists, is to prepare the practical man of the world. The science realists expressed that the education should be conducted on universal basis. Greater stress should be laid upon the observation of nature and the education of science. Neo-realists aim at developing all round development of the objects with the development of their organs. For example, realists set the school aside as a special place for the accumulation and preservation of knowledge. Intelligence is that human function which enables one to acquire knowledge.  Aims of Education in Existentialism According to existentialist, education should make a man subjective and should make him conscious for his individuality or ‘self’. Being self conscious he will recognize his ‘self’ and he will get an understanding of his ‘being’. Individuality lies on self-realization, a motivating force, from an existential perspective; a sense of self-identity is gained by how an individual relates to and values his or her relations. The purpose of education is to build character, to optimize potential and creativity and to enhance the quality of life through knowledge, and then from an existentialist perspective bureaucratization needs to be replaced by humanization. Every individual is unique. Education must develop in him this uniqueness. The most important aim in education is the becoming of a human person as one who lives and makes decisions about what he will do and be.  Aims of Education in Humanism As described by Gage and Berliner (1991) there are five basic objectives of the humanistic view of education: promote positive self-direction and independence (development of the regulatory system); develop the ability to take responsibility for what is learned (regulatory and affective systems); develop creativity (divergent thinking aspect of cognition); curiosity (exploratory behavior, a function of imbalance or dissonance in any of the systems); and an interest in the arts (primarily to develop the affective/emotional system). 3. Teaching and learning Many problems of educational practice that raise philosophical issues: Which subjects are most worth teaching or learning? Should less-able students be directed to vocational studies? Is there even a legitimate distinction to be drawn between academic and vocational education? More broadly, should students be grouped together—according to age, ability, gender, race, culture, socioeconomic status, or some other characteristic—or should educators seek diversity in the classroom along any or all of these dimensions? What are the effects of grading and evaluation in general and of high-stakes standardized testing in particular? Science Philosophy of Science is the study of the assumptions, foundations, and implications of natural science (which is usually taken to mean biology, chemistry, physics, earth science and astronomy, as opposed to social science which deals with human behavior and society). It asks questions like: "What is science?", "What are the aims of science" and "How ought we interpret the results of science?". Scientism is the broad-based belief that the assumptions and methods of research of the physical and natural sciences are equally appropriate (or even essential) to all other disciplines, including philosophy, the humanities and the social sciences. Positivism is the closely related philosophy which holds that the only authentic knowledge is scientific knowledge, and that such knowledge can only come from positive affirmation of theories through strict scientific method (which means the collection of data through observation and experimentation, and the formulation and testing of hypotheses).  The criteria for science typically include: the formulation of hypotheses that meet the logical criteria of contingency (i.e. not logically necessarily true or false), falsifiability (i.e. capable of being proved false) and testability (i.e. there is some real hope of establishing whether it is true or false) a grounding in empirical evidence the use of the scientific method  History of Philosophy of Science Empiricism Positivism Logical Positivism and logical empiricism Justification and falsification The priority of paradigms Underdetermination Digital transformation Our world is undergoing an enormous digital transformation. What can philosophy contribute as we try to understand and think through these changes? How does digitization challenge past ideas of who we are and where we are headed? Where does it leave our ethical aspirations and cherished ideals of democracy, equality, privacy, trust, freedom, and social embeddedness? Who gets to decide, control, and harness the powers of digitization and for which purposes?  Six Perspectives on Current Trends of Digitalization: Augmented Reality / Virtual Reality / Mixed Reality Classroom Set of Devices Redesigned Learning Spaces Personalized Learning Gamification Artificial Intelligence  Handouts Lecture №7 Philosophy of Man and Existentialism  Man issue Man (Gk. ἄνθρωπος, Lat. homo) is a concretely living being of a corporeal and spiritual nature In the ancient Indian philosophico-religious thought that is available to us today, man (puruṣa, manuṣya) was included in one of five sub-groups of domesticated animals: cows, horses, goats, and monkeys, and differed from them in his ability to perform sacrifices; furthermore, only man (and that was to testify to man’s supreme dignity) could free himself from the circle of palingenesis by definite modes of life.  In ancient Greek philosophy, although man is similar to the gods, yet he differs from them in that he is mortal and dwells on the earth; as a being subject to the influence of time and change, he is also subject, in his earthly life, to evil and misfortune. Therefore, according to the ancients, those whom the gods love die young. Philosophers, trying to gain knowledge of the universe and man’s place in it, regarded man as a “microcosm.” In ancient Greek thought, then, man appears as more and more perfect; in fact, he is perfect to such a degree that, for Protagoras, man is “the measure of all things.” The basic difference between Plato’s and Aristotle’s positions on the character of human cognition consists in the fact that in Plato man is regarded as a spirit-mind living an “immanent” eternal life, whereas Aristotle’s vision of man as a “rational animal” and a product of nature.  ST. AUGUSTINE. God created human with a mortal body with an immortal soul and gave him free will. RENE DESCARTES: idea of substance; man is a machine and a thinking being, a thing that thinks. KARL MARX: Human nature is derived from labor since its totality is human activity. THOMAS HOBBES: humans are physical objects, sophisticated machines. JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU: Human is unique in the world, one’s being, one’s existence, is different from all others. JEAN PAUL SARTRE: Human existence is found in human exercise of freedom and responsibility. MARTIN HEIDEGGER: Human existence can only attained when the human person lives his life authentically. VICTOR FRANKL: human can find meaning in his existence in a three-fold: By doing a life-project, By experiencing value, By finding meaning of suffering  1. Definition of Human Human is a special being, a natural phenomenon possessing, on the one hand, the biological beginning, on the other hand, spiritual beginning, that is ability to deep abstract thinking, articulate speech, high educability, to high level of the social organization.  For self-studies. 3. Jean-Paul Sartre: “Existentialism is a humanism”. 1)According to Sartre, human freedom is absolute; 2)The main problem of existential philosophy is choice; 3)The most important condition for human life is freedom; 4)Through making an existential choice, a person determines his ability to live.  The capacity for human life to flourish depends on the ability to make informed decisions. Social processes are shaped by individual intellect and cultural influences. As a result, humans have the potential to make more accurate and objective choices as a result of cultural developments. Introduction to Ethics ETHICS Ethics (or moral philosophy) is crucially important because it is devoted to answering questions like these: “What is best?” “What is the good life?” “How should I live?” “How should I behave towards other people?” “What is the purpose of life?” These are questions about what makes things valuable; they were the questions which drew me to philosophy in the first place. As you can probably see from this list, the subject holds plenty of interest even for people with no marked tendency to behave well!  Ethics (from the Greek ethos – custom) in the sense of systems of value and codes of conduct have always been part of human societies. In this sense, there are many distinct ethical traditions corresponding to the major cultural and religious divisions, such as Indian, Buddhist, Chinese, Jewish, Christian, and Islamic ethics. These are the ethical traditions that most people in the world look to for guidance about how to live. Ethics is concerned with questions of how people ought to act, and the search for a definition of right conduct (identified as the one causing the greatest good) and the good life (in the sense of a life worth living or a life that is satisfying or happy). The main goal of Ethics is Achieving Happiness. Philosophical ethics is divided into three main areas of inquiry: (1) meta-ethics, (2) normative ethics, and (3) applied ethics.  Meta-Ethics is concerned primarily with the meaning of ethical judgments, and seeks to understand the nature of ethical properties, statements, attitudes, and judgments and how they may be supported or defended. It tries to define the essential meaning and problem of Ethics, specifically the semantics, epistemology and ontology of ethics. meta-ethical views are commonly divided into two camps: Moral Realism and Moral Anti-Realism: Moral Realism (or Moral Objectivism) holds that there are objective moral values, so that evaluative statements are essentially factual claims, which are either true or false, and that their truth or falsity are independent of our beliefs, feelings or other attitudes towards the things being evaluated. Moral Anti-Realism holds that there are no objective moral values, and comes in one of three forms, depending on whether ethical statements are believed to be subjective claims (Ethical Subjectivism), not genuine claims at all (Non- Cognitivism) or mistaken objective claims (Moral Nihilism or Moral Skepticism).  Normative ethics, also known as normative theory, or moral theory, intends to find out which actions are right and wrong, or which character traits are good and bad. It attempts to develop a set of rules governing human conduct, or a set of norms for action. Normative ethics is normative in that they have either moral principles as standards of right action or virtues as standards of good character in terms of which right action can be known eventually. There are four normative theories: 1) Utilitarianism with the principle of utility as the basic moral principle; 2) Kantianism with the categorical imperative as the fundamental moral principle; 3) ethical intuitionism (in its methodological sense) with a plurality of moral principles; and 4) virtue ethics with virtues as its focus. Utilitarianism, which holds that an action is right if it leads to the most happiness for the greatest number of people ("happiness" here is defined as the maximization of pleasure and the minimization of pain).  Kant's own theory revolves around what he calls the categorical imperative, a moral principle which he regards as the fundamental principle of morality, and from which all our duties may be derived. Kant presents the single categorical imperative of morality: act only on that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law. Although there is only one categorical imperative, Kant argues that there can be four formulations of this principle: The Formula of the Law of Nature: "Act as if the maxim of your action were to become through your will a universal law of nature." The Formula of the End Itself: "Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end." The Formula of Autonomy: "So act that your will can regard itself at the same time as making universal law through its maxims." The Formula of the Kingdom of Ends: "So act as if you were through your maxims a law- making member of a kingdom of ends."  Ethical intuitionism is the idea that true, objective information about morality is accessible to people just through intuition. This means that true and false moral principles are distinguishable to people based on a sort of intellectual feeling about their accuracy. Ethical intuitionism also holds that there can exist no complete scientific or empirical deconstruction of moral goodness, as it is fundamental and non-natural. One example of ethical intuition is if someone intuitively believes that lying is wrong in principle, despite not having a specific argument for this belief. The person may decide not to lie simply because lying seems to be a bad thing. This would be a case of acting based on ethical intuitions. Intuitionism is the claim that some given category of knowledge is the result of intuition. Intuition is the way a person can know a statement is true without needing empirical evidence. Often intuitionism refers to ethical intuitionism, which focuses on intuitions about morality.  Virtue ethics offers an account of what states of character are desirable, or virtues, and then tends to define right actions in terms of these virtues. Aristotle believed that the ultimate aim of human existence is eudaimonia, often translated as “happiness” or “flourishing.” According to him, achieving eudaimonia requires cultivating virtues, which are habits of character that guide individuals towards moral excellence. Aristotle identified two types of virtues: intellectual virtues and moral virtues. Intellectual virtues, such as wisdom and practical reasoning, are developed through education and rational thinking. On the other hand, moral virtues, like courage, honesty, and generosity, are forged through practice and habituation. One key principle of virtue ethics is the emphasis on the “golden mean.” This principle suggests that virtues lie between excess and deficiency, encouraging individuals to find a balanced middle ground in their behavior. For instance, courage is the mean between recklessness and cowardice, and generosity lies between extravagance and stinginess. This balance seeks to avoid extremes and promotes moderation, fostering a well-rounded character.  Muslim thinkers have significantly contributed to the development and application of virtue ethics within Islamic philosophy and theology. Virtue ethics aligns well with Islamic teachings, emphasizing the cultivation of virtuous character traits to achieve moral excellence and a close connection with God (Allah). In Islamic thought, the concept of “ihsan” reflects the pursuit of excellence and virtue in all aspects of life. This notion is derived from a well-known hadith of the Prophet Muhammad, which encourages believers to worship Allah as if they see Him, and if not, to know that He sees them. This captures the essence of virtue ethics by promoting sincerity, mindfulness, and moral integrity in one’s actions. Al-Farabi’s emphasis on cultivating virtues within a just and harmonious society aligns with the idea of contributing positively to the community. The virtues emphasized in Islamic virtue ethics often parallel classical virtues, such as courage, justice, and temperance. However, Islamic ethics also introduces virtues specific to the faith, such as “taqwa” (God-consciousness), “sabr” (patience), and “husn al-khulq” (good manners). These virtues reflect the importance of aligning one’s actions and intentions with Islamic teachings and values.  Applied Ethics is a discipline of philosophy that attempts to apply ethical theory to real- life situations. Strict, principle-based ethical approaches often result in solutions to specific problems that are not universally acceptable or impossible to implement. Applied Ethics is much more ready to include the insights of psychology, sociology and other relevant areas of knowledge in its deliberations. It is used in determining public policy. The following would be questions of Applied Ethics: "Is getting an abortion immoral?", "Is euthanasia immoral?", "Is affirmative action right or wrong?", "What are human rights, and how do we determine them?“ Some topics falling within the discipline include: Medical Ethics: the study of moral values and judgments as they apply to medicine; Bioethics: concerns the ethical controversies brought about by advances in biology and medicine; Legal Ethics: an ethical code governing the conduct of people engaged in the practice of law; Business Ethics; Environmental Ethics: considers the ethical relationship between human beings and the natural environment; Information Ethics; Media Ethics: deals with the specific ethical principles and standards of media in general, including the ethical issues relating to journalism, advertising and marketing, and entertainment media Theory of value Value is not equivalent to moral value. Works of art have value, but not moral value. Or again, relaxation may be good for a person, but there is nothing morally good about taking a walk. The theory of value is concerned with the nature of goodness in general, of which moral goodness is one species. Other types of value include aesthetic value, and prudential value. The theory of value is of central importance to ethics, economics, and political philosophy. Theories of value are often classified in terms of the subjective-objective distinction. Subjectivist theories of value make value dependent on the subject states of human beings and other sentient creatures. Subjectivist theories say that certain things and states are valuable insofar as they produce pleasure, are desired, or preferred. Utilitarian theories of value, such as hedonism and its descendents, desire and preference satisfaction theories, are subjectivist accounts of value.  Objectivists may characterize value in terms of the states of individual sentient creatures but deny that good depends on what is desired or valued by people. Objectivists hold that, for example, knowledge, achievement, and aesthetic appreciation are good apart from any pleasure or satisfaction they bring. Their occurrence in a life makes that life better independently of how much they are desired or enjoyed, and their absence diminishes it even if it is not a source of regret. Most generally, objectivist theories of value hold that certain things and states could be valuable independently of their impact on consciousness states. Perfectionism is an objectivist theory of value according to which goodness depends on the actualization or perfection of human nature. According to Aristotle’s version of the theory, fulfilling the function (ergon) of a human being involves the exercise and perfection of its rational capacities. It follows that the good life for man involves the attainment of virtue or excellence (arête) in reason. In contrast, extreme objectivists characterise value entirely independently of human interests and concerns: they may hold, for instance, that the continued existence of diverse species of animals is a good in itself.  One important distinction in value is that between things valued as means— instrumental goods—and things valued as ends, or final goods. This distinction is often called the means/ends distinction. An object, experience or state of affairs is "instrumentally" valuable if it serves as a means to ones ends. For example, working out at gym may be laborious but is a means to the end of promoting good health. Similarly, the value of making money is dependent on the value of commodities one wants to obtain. It is instrumentally valuable: valuable only because of what one obtains by means of it. Another important distinction in value is the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic value. In Principia Ethica (1903), G.E. Moore argued that in order to ascertain whether something is intrinsically good we should employ a test of isolation, and ask: does the object have value apart from its relations to other things? This provides a criterion of intrinsic goods: an object, or state of affairs is "intrinsically" valuable if it is good simply because of its internal nature. It does not derive its value from anything else. Correspondingly, value is extrinsic if its worth is derivative from something else.  Axiology (from Greek ἀξίᾱ (axiā) translated as "value, worth"; and λόγος (logos) translated as "science") is the philosophical study of value. The term was first used in the early twentieth century by Paul Lapie, in 1902, and E. von Hartmann, in 1908. Axiology is the philosophical study of goodness, or value, in the widest sense of these terms. It may be used as the collective term for ethics and aesthetics— philosophical fields that depend crucially on notions of value—or the foundation for these fields, and thus similar to value theory and meta-ethics.  Handouts Lecture №10 Freedom and Political philosophy  The brief content: 1. Definition of Freedom; 2. Models of Democracy;  Freedom is the state of being allowed to do what you want to do. Freedom is being able to attempt to do what we desire to do, with reasonable knowledge, which no-one can or will obstruct us from achieving through an arbitrary exercise of their will. Most philosophers suppose that the concept of free will is very closely connected to the concept of moral responsibility. Acting with free will, on such views, is just to satisfy the metaphysical requirement on being responsible for one's action.  Types of Freedom “Freedom from” or Negative freedom means external interference that prevents you from doing what you want, when you want to do it. These restrictions are placed on you by other people, society and government and so on. “Freedom To” or Positive freedom is the freedom to control and direct one’s own life. Positive freedom allows a man to consciously make his own choices, create his own purpose, and shape his own life; he acts instead of being acted upon. Democratization very related with modernization.  Defining democracy:  The origins of the term democracy can be traced back to Ancient Greece. The terminology is derived from the Greek words “kratos”, meaning power or rule and from “demos”, meaning people.  These words combine mean ‘rule by the people’.  Models of Democracy: There are various contrasting models of democracy: 1. Liberal democracy; 2. Protective democracy; 3. Developmental democracy; 4. People’s democracy; 5. Classical democracy.  1. Liberal democracy; Liberal democracy is accepted as the worldwide practices of politics. Its key constructs are: Indirect or representative form of democracy in which political office is gained by success in regular elections. It is based on competition and electoral choice. There is a clear distinction between the state and civil society.  Various interpretation of liberal democracy as advanced by the following: Pluralism Elitism Corporatism The new right Marxism  2. Protective democracy: The idea of direct democracy was shelved. In the 17th and 18th centuries the focus was on protecting citizens from the encroachment of government, hence protective democracy. John Locke argued in the 17th century that the right to vote was based on the existence of natural rights (God-given rights that are fundamental to human beings and are inalienable).  3. Developmental democracy: Jean-Jacques Rousseau provided an alternative view to the democratic theory. At the Centre of Rousseau’s model is the general will: the genuine interests of a collective body, equivalent to the common good; the will of all provided each person acts selflessly. Development of self can only be achieved when citizen by participate in decisions that shape the their lives. Mills views are also instructive as he promotes the ‘highest and harmonious’ development of individual capacities, by participating citizen enhance their understanding, strengthen their sensibilities, and achieve the highest personal development.  4. People’s democracy: The term people democracy is derived from the orthodox communist regime. Karl Marx believed in the principle of a democracy based its implication of egalitarian prospects and thought of a society in which there was common ownership of wealth (social democracy) He believed the overthrow of capitalism would lead to the flourishing of a genuine democracy A system of ‘bourgeois’ democracy would be replaced by ‘proletarian’ democracy. He predicted that class antagonisms would dissolved and the capitalist state would ‘wither away’. There would only be one class  5. Classical democracy Among the many meanings are the following: a form of government in which the people rule themselves directly A system of rule that secure the rights and interests of the minorities by placing checks upon the power of the majority. A society based on equal opportunity and individual merit, rather than hierarchy and privilege.  Main Political view: 1. The pluralist view; 2. Elitist view; 3. Corporatist view; 4. Marxist view.  1. The pluralist view: The pluralists argued that society is ruled by competing organized groups in which individuals are represented largely through their membership, and all groups have access to the policy process. The main features of the pluralist perspective are as follows: There is a wide dispersal of political power amongst competing groups. There is a high degree of responsiveness with group leaders being accountable to members There is a neutral government machine that is sufficiently fragmented to offer groups a number of points of access.  2. Elitist view: Elitism developed as a critique of egalitarian ideas such as democracy and socialism (Heywood2007). Classical elitists argue that democracy is a ‘foolish delusion’, according to them the privileged minority in society always dominate with political power. It is this minority group that organize and make decisions, even in parliamentary democracy.  3. Corporatist view: Neo corporatism or liberal corporatism gives rise to ‘tripartite government’ in which government is conducted through organizations, state officials, employers’ groups and unions to deal directly with one another.  4. Marxist view: The Marxists view of democracy is that power can not be evenly dispersed in society as long as class power is unequally distributed.  Thus Democratization: Thus some disengagement may be justified. However, the state has to play a key role to create an adequate regulatory environment and fill the gaps created by market failure. Some note that an authoritarian government will be better prepared to take hard decisions in economic stabilization and structural adjustment programs.  №10 Seminar: Interpretation: “Philosophy of freedom and Democratization” Philosophy of Art and Aesthetics Ceiling of Sistine Chapel Tiffany Lamp  Questions… What is art? Are these pieces of Art? How do you determine what is good or bad art? Any requirements? Intuition 1. The act or faculty of knowing or sensing without the use of rational processes: immediate cognition. b. Knowledge gained by the use of this faculty; a perceptive insight. 2. A sense of something not evident or deducible; an impression. Perception The word, perception, comes from the Latin word: Capere - to take Per (the prefix) - ‘completely’ 1.The process, act, or faculty of perceiving: OBSERVATION 2.The effect or product of perceiving: CONCEPT 3. Recognition and interpretation of sensory stimuli based chiefly on memory. Art is natural; imitation is natural Encourages imagination Encourages truth (artists have to accurately portray nature) “Organic Unity” – all parts must work together to form whole Good art leads to morality and truth  3 Definitions for Aesthetics: 1. a particular taste for, or approach to, what is pleasing to the senses--especially sight; 2. a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art and beauty; 3. a particular theory or conception of beauty or art.  The philosophy of aesthetics asks and tries to answer the “Big” Questions: What is art? What makes a piece of art beautiful? How important are personal tastes when judging the quality of art? What are the standards for judging art? Why is originality so important in art? How do we define what is original or what is creative?  What makes a work of art original or creative? Andy Warhol, Flowers, 1970, Published Edition, screen print on paper, 36 x 36 in. ©AWF Original source material, Flowers series by Andy Warhol, 1964, Two-sided collage; adapted from Modern Photography magazine, June 1964, photographic spread of color transparencies by Patricia Caulfield. ©AWF If Warhol worked from other people’s photographs, is his work really original? … Why does he get to copy, but I can’t?  Who decides what is art? Who decides what makes an artwork special, valuable, or good? Andy Warhol, Brillo Soap Pads Box, 1964, silkscreen ink and house paint on plywood, 17 x 17 x 14 in. ©AWF  Art… “The product of creative human activity in which materials are shaped or selected to convey an idea, emotion, or visually interesting form.”  Aesthetic theories provide different answers to these questions: What makes something a work of art? What do we learn from it? What value does this work have?  1. Representation (imitation, realism, Basic mimesis) 2. Expressionism (emotionalism) Aesthetic 3. Formalism Theories: 4. Communication of moral and religious ideas 5. Symbolic (non-verbal) communication 6. Instrumentalism 7. Institutionalism  The essence of art is to Representation picture or portray reality. (imitation, realism, Good art mirrors the world, mimesis): imitating nature or some ideal form. Martin Johnson Heade, Thunderstorm at the Shore, c. 1870-1871, oil on paper mounted on canvas attached to panel 15 3/4 x 23 3/4 in. Carnegie Museum of Art, Howard N. Eavenson Memorial Fund Expressionism (emotionalism): The essence of art is expression of the inner emotions, feelings, moods, and mental states of the artist. Good art effectively and sincerely brings these inner states to an external objectification. Both Aristotle and Nietzsche both Willem de Kooning, agreed that artists should be Woman VI, 1953 Oil on canvas concerned with how their works will affect their audience.  The essence of art is “significant Formalism: form” - lines, shapes, colors, and other formal properties of the work; representation, expression, and other subject matter are irrelevant. Good art uses formal elements to trigger an “aesthetic emotion” in sensitive observers. Donald Judd, Untitled, 1974, Stainless steel and Plexiglas 8 x 194 1/2 x 14 in. Carnegie Museum of Art, Purchase: gift of Mr. and Mrs. Charles Denby, by exchange Communication of moral and religious ideas: The essence of art is the communication of important moral and religious values from the artist to the observer. Good art is a form of sincere communication by the artist that “infects” the observers with those important moral ideas. Simon Bening, St. Gertrude