Introduction to Theories of Personality PDF

` Theories of Personality Feist and Feist Introduction to Theories of Personality Humans are not alone in their uniqueness of and variability ` between individual members of the species. Individuals within every living species exhibit differences or var...

` Theories of Personality Feist and Feist Introduction to Theories of Personality Humans are not alone in their uniqueness of and variability ` between individual members of the species. Individuals within every living species exhibit differences or variability. Psychologists differ among themselves as to the meaning of personality. Most agree that the word “personality” originated from the Latin persona, which referred to a theatrical mask worn by Roman actors in Greek dramas. However, personality theorists have not agreed on a single ` definition of personality. Indeed, they evolved unique and vital theories because they lacked agreement as to the nature of humanity, and because each saw personality from an individual reference point. Many have drawn on their experiences as psychotherapists; others have relied more on empirical research to gather data on human personality.  Although no single definition is acceptable to all personality ` theorists, we can say that personality is a pattern of relatively permanent traits and unique characteristics that give both consistency and individuality to a person’s behavior. Traits contribute to individual differences in behavior, consistency of behavior over time, and stability of behavior across situations. ` Traits may be unique, common to some group, or shared by the entire species, but their pattern is different for each individual. Thus each person, though like others in some ways, has a unique personality. Characteristics are unique qualities of an individual that include such attributes as temperament, physique, and intelligence. A scientific theory is a set of related assumptions that allows scientists to use logical deductive reasoning to formulate testable. First, a theory is a set of assumptions. A single assumption can never fill all the requirements of an adequate theory. ` Second, a theory is a set of related assumptions. Isolated assumptions can neither generate meaningful hypotheses nor possess internal consistency—two criteria of a useful theory. A third key word in the definition is assumptions. The components of a theory are not proven facts in the sense that their validity has been absolutely established. They are, however, accepted as if they were true. This is a practical step, taken so that scientists can conduct useful research, the results of which continue to build and reshape the original theory.. Fourth, logical deductive reasoning is used by the researcher to formulate hypotheses. The tenets of a theory must be stated with sufficient precision ` and logical consistency to permit scientists to deduce clearly stated hypotheses. The final part of the definition includes the qualifier testable. Unless a hypothesis can be tested in some way, it is worthless. The hypothesis need not be tested immediately, but it must suggest the possibility that scientists in the future might develop the necessary means to test it.  `. Theory and Its Relatives Philosophy Theory is related to philosophy, but it is a much narrower term. Philosophy means love of wisdom, and philosophers are people who pursue wisdom through thinking and reasoning. Philosophers are not scientists; they do not ordinarily conduct controlled studies in their pursuit of wisdom. Philosophy encompasses several branches, one of which is epistemology, or the nature of knowledge. Theory relates most closely to this branch of philosophy, because it is a tool used by scientists in their pursuit of knowledge.   `. Theories do not deal with “oughts” and “shoulds.” Therefore, a set of principles about how one should live one’s life cannot be a theory. Thus, there are no theories on why society should help homeless people or on what constitutes great art. Philosophy deals with what ought to be or what should be; theory does not. Theory deals with broad sets of if-then statements, but the goodness or badness of the outcomes of these statements is beyond the realm of theory.  `. Speculation Second, theories rely on speculation, but they are much more than mere armchair speculation. They do not flow forth from the mind of a great thinker isolated from empirical observations.  Science is the branch of study concerned with observation and classification of data and with the verification of general laws through the testing of hypotheses. Theories are useful tools employed by scientists to give meaning and organization to observations.   `. Hypothesis A good theory is capable of generating many hypotheses. A hypothesis is an educated guess or prediction specific enough for its validity to be tested through the use of the scientific method. Of course, a close relationship exists between a theory and a hypothesis. Using deductive reasoning (going from the general to the specific), a scientific investigator can derive testable hypotheses from a useful theory and then test these hypotheses. Using inductive reasoning (going from the specific to the general), the investigator then alters the theory to reflect these results. Taxonomy A taxonomy is a classification of things according to their natural ` relationships. Taxonomies are essential to the development of a science because without classification of data science could not grow. 6 Dimensions for a Concept of Humanity 1.Determinism versus Free Choice ` Are people’s behaviors determined by forces over which they have no control, or can people choose to be what they wish to be? Can behavior be partially free and partially determined at the same time? 2.Pessimism versus Optimism Are people doomed to live miserable, conflicted, and troubled lives, or can they change and grow into psychologically healthy, happy, fully functioning human beings? In general, personality theorists who believe in determinism tend to be pessimistic (Skinner was a notable exception), whereas those who believe in free choice are usually optimistic. 3.Causality versus Teleology Briefly, causality holds that behavior is a function of past experiences, ` whereas teleology is an explanation of behavior in terms of future goals or purposes.  Do people act as they do because of what has happened to them in the past, or do they act as they do because they have certain expectations of what will happen in the future? 4.Conscious versus Unconscious Detreminants of Behavior Are people ordinarily aware of what they are doing and why they are doing it, or do unconscious forces impinge on them and drive them to act without awareness of these underlying forces? 5.Biological versus Social Influences on Personality Are people mostly creatures of biology, or are their personalities shaped ` largely by their social relationships? A more specific element of this issue is heredity versus environment; that is, are personal characteristics more the result of heredity, or are they environmentally determined? 6.Uniqueness versus Similarities Is the salient feature of people their individuality, or is it their common characteristics? Should the study of personality concentrate on those traits that make people alike, or should it look at those traits that make people different? ` ` ` ` ` `