Evolutionary Theory of Personality Chapter 15 PDF

**CHAPTER 15: EVOLUTIONARY THEORY OF PERSONALITY -- BUSS** **Overview of Evolutionary Theory** - *Artificial selection (breeding):* occurs when humans select particular desirable traits in a breeding species. - *Natural selection:* a more general form of artificial selection in which...

**CHAPTER 15: EVOLUTIONARY THEORY OF PERSONALITY -- BUSS** **Overview of Evolutionary Theory** - *Artificial selection (breeding):* occurs when humans select particular desirable traits in a breeding species. - *Natural selection:* a more general form of artificial selection in which nature rather than people select the traits. It occurs when traits become either more or less common in a species over long periods of time because they do or do not lead to greater survivability. - *Sexual selection:* operates when members of the opposite sex find certain traits more appealing and attractive than others and thereby produce offspring with those traits. These qualities have to be markers of fitness that can't easily be faked. - *Adaptations:* evolved strategies that solve important survival and/or reproductive problems. - *By-products:* traits that happen as a result of adaptations but are not part of the functional design. - *Noise (random effects):* occurs when evolution produces random changes in design that do not affect function. **Biography of David Buss** - *Background:* born April 14, 1953, to a psychology professor father, Arnold H. Buss. - *Youth:* Struggled in school, dropped out, and later re-enrolled, joining the University of Texas in 1971. - *Academic Interests:* became fascinated with evolution and human behaviour, influenced by family focus on psychology. - *Graduate Studies:* earned PhD at UC Berkeley; co-developed the \"act-frequency\" approach to personality. - *Career:* taught at Harvard, collaborated with Leda Cosmides and John Tooby to help establish evolutionary psychology. - *Achievements:* notable awards and books, including *Evolutionary Psychology* and *The Evolution of Desire*. **Principles of Evolutionary Psychology** - *Evolutionary psychology:* the scientific study of human thought and behaviour from an evolutionary perspective and focuses on four big questions. - Why is the human mind designed the way it is, and how did it come to take its current form? - How is the human mind designed; that is, what are its parts and current structure? - What function do the parts of the mind have, and what is it designed to do? - How do the evolved mind and current environment interact to shape human behaviour? **Evolutionary Theory of Personality** - *Historical Shift in Personality Theories:* the 20th century saw personality theories move from grand theories (e.g., Freud) that attempted to explain all human behaviour to more focused theories targeting specific aspects of personality. - *Evolutionary Theory Approach:* unlike most theories that view personality as shaped by the environment, evolutionary theory links personality to ancient, biologically-rooted traits influenced by evolutionary adaptation. - *Personality and Evolution*: both personality and evolution focus on individual differences, yet evolutionary psychology struggled with the paradox that natural selection favours universal traits, potentially reducing individual differences. - *Challenge of Individual Differences:* Tooby and Cosmides argued that personality might not be an adaptation since adaptive traits should be species-typical. However, Buss and others later argued that personality traits could indeed be adaptations. - *Buss's Theory:* David Buss emphasized that personality traits are adaptive solutions to survival problems, laying the foundation for evolutionary personality psychology, with further expansions by neo-Bussian theorists. **The nature and nurture of personality** - *Fundamental situational error:* the tendency to assume that the environment alone can produce behaviour void of a stable internal mechanism. - *Fundamental attribution error:* our tendency to ignore situational and environmental forces on internal dispositions. **Adaptive problems and their solutions (mechanisms)** - *Mechanisms:* the psychological processes and traits that have evolved to solve specific adaptive problems faced by our ancestors, influencing behaviour, preferences, and interpersonal relationships. - Operate according to principles in different adaptive domains. - Number in the dozens or hundreds (or even thousands). - Are complex solutions to specific adaptive problems (survival, reproductions). - *Physical mechanisms:* physiological organs and systems that evolved to solve problems of survival. - *Psychological mechanisms:* internal and specific cognitive, motivational, and personality systems that solve specific survival and reproduction problems. **Evolved mechanisms** - Personality mechanisms fall into three categories: - Goals/drives/motives - Emotions - Personality traits - Motivation and Emotion: - Power and intimacy are adaptive drives aiding survival, often expressed through status, dominance, love, and alliance. - Emotions act as adaptive signals; negative emotions (e.g., sadness, anger) warn of harm, while positive emotions (e.g., pride) reinforce beneficial events. - Motivation and emotion contribute to stable personality traits. - *Personality Traits as Evolved Mechanisms:* - Buss argues that personality traits evolved to help solve survival and reproduction challenges, much like adaptations. - The Big Five personality traits offer insights into social functions: 1. *Surgency/Extraversion/Dominance:* involves sociability, confidence, and leadership. 2. *Agreeableness:* involves cooperation, group cohesion, and conflict resolution. 3. *Emotional Stability*: manages anxiety and responses to danger and stress. 4. *Conscientiousness:* reflects reliability and focus on tasks. 5. *Openness/Intellect:* associated with curiosity, innovation, and problem-solving. - *Adaptive Importance of Traits:* traits like dominance, agreeableness, and conscientiousness address questions of hierarchy, resource possession, mating choices, trust, and reliability within a social group. **Origins of individual differences** - Buss and Greiling (1999) suggest four sources of individual differences, blending both nature (genetics) and nurture (environment). - Environmental Sources: - *Early Experiential Calibration:* childhood experiences shape behaviour; e.g., growing up without a father may lead to early sexual activity and a more transient view of relationships. - *Attachment Style:* secure or avoidant attachment in childhood affects relationship patterns in adulthood. - *Alternative Niche Specialization:* individuals develop unique traits to stand out, influenced by factors like birth order; firstborns tend to align with authority, while younger siblings often challenge it. - *Heritable/Genetic Sources:* traits like body type, facial morphology, and physical attractiveness are genetically influenced and affect reproductive success. - Nonadaptive Sources: - *Neutral Genetic Variations:* genetic mutations that neither help nor harm survival or reproduction, remaining in the gene pool over time. - Maladaptive Sources: - *Genetic Defects:* harmful genetic mutations that reduce survival or attractiveness. - *Environmental Trauma:* injuries (e.g., brain or spinal cord trauma) that lead to maladaptive traits affecting survival or social adaptation. **Neo-Bussian evolutionary theories of personality** *Epigenetics:* change in gene function that does not involve changes in DNA. In other words, experiences that animals have create tags that attach to the outside structure of DNA and control gene expression. **Executing adaptations requires conscious mechanisms** - *Mechanisms for Survival & Reproduction:* evolved mechanisms for survival and reproduction don't require conscious or complex calculations, such as mathematical reasoning. - *Inclusive Fitness:* individuals are naturally more inclined to help closer relatives (e.g., a brother over a cousin, and a cousin over a stranger) due to genetic closeness, not conscious calculation. - *Strategies as Unconscious Acts:* evolutionary strategies, like mate selection, are subconscious, not conscious or wilful choices. - *Sexual Strategy:* preferences in mates are shaped by evolution to favour traits associated with producing and supporting healthy offspring who survive to reproductive age. **Mechanisms are optimally designed** - *Evolutionary Adaptations Are Not Always Optimal:* evolution does not always produce perfectly efficient solutions; some adaptations may be awkward or slow to adjust. - *Lag Between Adaptation and Environment:* evolution occurs gradually over many generations, leading to a delay between environmental changes and adaptations. - *Example:* preference for Fatty and Sugary Foods: In ancestral environments, these foods were scarce but valuable for nutrition. Now they are abundant, leading to widespread obesity, as adaptations lag behind modern dietary changes. - *Efficiency and Environmental Response:* if adaptations were optimally designed, they would adjust more quickly to environmental shifts. **Related research** - *Evolutionary origins of personality; Traits as related to fitness:* personality traits like extraversion and conscientiousness may enhance *fitness* (survival and reproductive success). - Is personality related to reproductive success? - Are there costs of being extraverted, open, prosocial, industrious, and not anxious? - Is personality related to and does it impact fitness-related activities (that is, time spent in childcare, socializing, and working)? - *Genetics and personality.* - *Monogenic transmission:* happens when single genes produce single traits (phenotypes). - *Polygenic transmission:* occurs when many genes interact to create a single characteristic. - *Quantitative trait loci (QTL) approach:* looking for the location of specific bits of DNA on genes that might be associated with particular behaviours. - *Twin-adoption studies* show 40 -- 60% of personality traits are genetic, with the rest shaped by environment. - *Animal personality:* animals exhibit personality traits similar to humans. - *Meta-analysis (1999):* identified Big Five traits across 14 species, supporting cross-species personality traits. **Critique of evolutionary theory of personality** - *Research base:* generates significant debate, supported by fields like biology, genetics, and neuroscience. - *Falsifiability:* difficult to falsify due to historical nature; often leads to post hoc "just-so stories". - *Knowledge organization:* effectively organizes knowledge, providing broad explanations for human thought, behaviour, and personality. - *Practical application:* low practical guidance for parenting, education, or therapy; considered more abstract. - *Internal consistency:* central concept of adaptation has general agreement, but disagreement exists on what constitutes an adaptation, especially regarding personality. - *Parsimony:* simple explanation of human personality origins through key concepts like adaptation and selection. **Concept of humanity** - *Neutral Perspective:* acknowledges both positive and negative aspects of human nature. - *Determinism vs. Free Will:* describes origins of traits rather than prescribing behaviour, emphasizing both biological and environmental influences. - *Causality Focus:* explains origins of traits, aligning with Darwin\'s emphasis on causation. - *Unconscious Influences:* many behaviours stem from unconscious mechanisms, which can provoke resistance to evolutionary explanations. - *Biological vs. Social Influence:* balances the role of biological factors with the need for environmental inputs. - *Individual vs. Universal:* common evolutionary mechanisms exist, but individual expressions vary widely. **\ ** **LECTURE 8 (23/10/2024) -- PART 1** **DAVID BUSS** **Biography** - Buss was born on April 14, 1953 in Indianapolis, Indiana. - Son of Arnold H. Buss, Sr. and Edith Nolte. - Buss had several achievements: - Obtained his PhD is Psychology from Indiana University in the early 1950s. - Became a professor of Psychology at the University of Pittsburgh, Rutgers. - Became Professor Emeritus at the University of Texas. - His research focused on the topics of aggression, psychopathology, self-consciousness, and social anxiety. - Although Buss has a family with an academic background, his youth filled with mediocre achievements. - He was also involved in drugs during high school. - At the age of 17, Buss quit his school and worked at a truck stop. He was accepted because he was willing to work on all night shifts. - After 3 months of work, Buss's various experiences made him realize that "there must be a better way to survive". The experiences that gave rise to this insight include: - When a drunk truck driver threatens to cut Buss' long hair. - A young man beat Buss with a bat for no apparent reason. The young man just wanted to start a fight. - Finally Buss decided to take the evening class and successfully completed his high school. However, his achievement was too low to apply to college. - In 1971, he was fortunate to win the lottery to enter the University of Texas. - At the university, Buss's love and interest in science and human behaviour grew. - Geology and Astronomy courses explain the importance of evolution. - Buss felt that his childhood experience and personality influenced his personality theory. - "Did this childhood experience somehow create some causal vector that motivated me to focus on mating in my personal life? Possibly, yet I doubt that my experiences are unique" (D. Buss, 2004, p.17). - When Buss was still an undergraduate student at the University of Texas, his father published a book called "Psychology -- Man in Perspective". This book used evolution as an umbrella theme for all of its topics. - "The only perspective that appears sufficiently grand in scope is that of evolution" (A. Buss, 1973, p.2). - Buss was very interested in theory of evolution in explaining human behaviour, especially regarding sexual behaviour. - Buss had a good track record as an undergraduate student and developed an interest in psychology and human behaviour. - He then attended the PhD program in Personality Psychology at the University of California at Berkeley (1976 -- 1981). Here, he worked with Jack and Jeanne Block, Richard Lazarus, and Harrison Gough. - He also collaborated with Ken Craik to develop a personality assessment that refers to the behaviour they call the *"act-frequency" approach*. - Buss got his professor position at Harvard University. He continued his research on "act-frequency", but over time, Buss returned his attention to the Evolutionary theory. - At Harvard, he collaborated with two of his students, Leda Cosmides and John Tooby. They worked together to develop the field of Evolutionary Psychology. **Overview** - The theory of evolution has evolved since ancient Greek, but Charles Darwin was the one who developed the basis for the modern theory of evolution. - Darwin's main contribution is about how evolution works: - Selection. 1. *Artificial selection:* occurs when humans select particular desirable traits in breeding species (ex. the difference between a very large Great Dane and a small Chihuahua is due to humans who chose these qualities in these breeds). 2. *Natural selection:* occurs when nature has a bigger role in choosing traits than humans. Trait becomes more or less common in a species for a long time because it helps or does not help with the survival. In this case, trait involves "evolved strategies" for the survival of a species. This process occurs blindly (nonconscious). Traits are selected because they help the species survive, so that more offspring with that traits can survive until reproductive age. 3. *Sexual selection:* occurs when the opposite sex sees certain trait as more appealing and attractive than others, thus producing offspring with those traits. Those traits have to be the marker of fitness that cannot be easily faked (ex. a healthy male peacock with large lungs is very attractive to a female peacock. In this case, the lungs cannot be faked). In humans, strength, physical appearance, dominance, intelligence, and status, are qualities that are considered attractive, so they are considered in choosing the opposite sex. - Chance. - The results of the evolution process are divided into 3 types: - *Adaptation:* strategies that solve or overcome the problem of survival and/or reproduction (ex. intelligence and creativity). - *By-product:* traits that arise as a result of adaptation, but are not part of functional design (ex. the ability to think scientifically and drive a car). - *Noise ("random-effect"):* occurs when evolution produces random changes in design that do not affect function (ex. shape of a belly button). **Principles of evolutionary psychology** - *Evolutionary psychology:* the scientific study of human thought and behaviour from an evolutionary perspective and focuses on 4 big questions: - Why is the human mind designed the way it is, and how did it come to take its current form? - How is the human mind designed; that is, what are its parts and current structure? - What function do the parts of the mind have, and what is it designed to do? - How do the evolved mind and current environment interact to shape human behaviour? **Evolutionary theory of personality** - Personality develops from evolution, it is the result of interaction between environmental changes with physical and brain changes. - The theory of evolution departs from the assumption that each member of each species is different from one another. - This is in line with assumptions from various other personality theories. - There is one serious problem that makes evolution and personality difficult to integrate: natural selection specifically works to reduce individual differences -- good traits are normalized and less adaptive traits are eliminated. - As a result, a paradox emerges: "If natural selection winnows out maladaptive traits and over the long-term produces a universal human nature, then how can individuals consistently differ in their disposition to think and behave (ex. have personality)?" - Human adaptation must remain universal and specific to each species. - However, Tooby and Cosmides argue: if the trait shows significant individual differences, then it cannot be called an adaptation. By definition, adaptation is a species typical (specifically for each species). - Some evolutionary psychologists argue that there are 2 solutions to this paradox: 1. Personality differences are "noise"; or, 2. Personality differences are the "by-product" of the evolved adaptive strategies. - Other figures argue that trait is something more than just noise or by-products, which is called "adaptations". - Buss' theory itself essentially seeks to discuss in depth about various adaptive problems and their solutions or mechanisms. **The nature and nurture of personality** - What causes individual differences? - The answer is nature and/or nurture. - Therefore, the conclusion that behaviour and personality are caused by both internal and external qualities is wrong. - Internal and external qualities can function because they influence each other. - Each of them cannot work alone. - *Fundamental situational error:* the tendency to assume that the environment alone can produce behaviour void of a stable internal mechanism. - Without internal mechanisms, there will be no behaviour. - *Fundamental attribution error:* the tendency to ignore situational and environmental forces when explaining the behaviour of other people and instead focus on internal dispositions. - Each of these views is incomplete because there is no pure internal or external factor to explain behaviour. - In general, evolution is the interaction between biology and the environment (nature and nurture) thus, biological and environmental factors are inseparable. - In the early stages of evolution, some individuals have qualities that work well in the environment, making them more able to survive and reproduce. - One of the basic assumptions of evolutionary theory of personality is that these adaptive qualities include a unique and consistent tendency to behave in certain ways in certain contexts, called personality traits. **Adaptive problems and their solutions (mechanism)** - There are 2 fundamental problems in adaptation: - Survival (food, danger, predation, etc.). - Reproduction. - To be able to survive, we have to be able to deal with hostile forces of nature (diseases, parasites, lack of food, harsh climate, etc.). - Humans who can pass it effectively and efficiently are most likely to survive, and survival is a precondition of reproduction. - *Mechanism:* a solution to both of these adaptive problems. - Operate according to principles in different adaptive domains. - There are hundred, or even thousands. - Complex solutions to specific adaptive problems (survival, reproduction). - Each mechanism works specifically on one problem and not on another problem (ex. sweat glands overcome the problem of body temperature regulation, but do not play any role in dealing with bodily diseases or injuries). - There are 2 types of mechanisms, namely: - *Physical mechanism:* organs and physiological systems that evolve or develop to overcome life's problems. 1. Usually owned by various species. 2. The focus of Biological Evolution. - *Psychological mechanism:* internal and specific systems of cognitive, motivation, and personality that overcome certain life and reproductive problems. 1. Usually specific to each species. 2. The focus of Evolutionary Psychology.  **Evolved mechanism** - Psychological mechanisms are internal processes that help us deal with life and/or reproduction problems. - Psychological mechanisms that are relevant to personality can be grouped into 3 main categories: - Goal/drive/motives. - Emotions. - Personality traits. **Motivation and emotion as evolution mechanism** - Two goals and motives that act as evolved mechanisms are power and intimacy. - *Power:* aggression, dominance, achievement, status, "negotiation of hierarchy". - *Intimacy:* love, attachment, "reciprocal alliance". - Evolutionary psychology considers these drives as adaptations, because they both have a direct impact on one's health and well-being. - Emotions are also adaptations, because they make an individual aware of a situation that is either harmful or beneficial to their well-being. **Personality trait as evolved mechanism** - Motivation, emotions, and personality are adaptive. They solve life and reproduction problems. - Buss argues that the 5 dimensions of personality (Big Five) can be best thought as a way of summarizing the social landscape, they signal to others about our ability to overcome survival and reproductive problems. - Individual and personality differences are strategies for overcoming various adaptive problems. - Buss' personality model is very similar to the Big Five trait approach from McCrae and Costa. **Buss' five personality dimensions** - Surgency/extraversion/dominance. - Agreeableness. - Conscientiousness. - Emotional stability (opposite of neuroticism). - Openness/intellect. **Surgency/extraversion/dominance** - The disposition to experience positive emotional states and to engage in one's environment and to be sociable and self-confident. - Nearly synonymous with extraversion. - In the language of evolution, surgency results in "hierarchy of proclivities", that is, how people negotiate and decide who is dominant and submissive. - Characteristics: - Have a high drive for achievement. - Dominant and direct to others. - Attractive, becoming the desired partner. - Tend to take risks. - Having positive emotions (ex. happy). - Initiates and maintains friendships and relationships. - Driven and ambitious. **Agreeableness/hostility** - The willingness and ability of a person to cooperate and help the group on the one hand, or to be hostile and aggressive towards the other. - Some people look warm, cooperative, and group-oriented, while others are selfish and hostile to others. - Characteristics: - Tend to solve conflicts within the group. - Happy to make alliances with others. - Encourage cohesiveness in groups. - Tends to follow group norms. - Can get along and work with others. **Emotional stability/neuroticism** - One's awareness or sensitivity to harm and threat is important and adaptive. - One of the things included in this behavioural disposition is a person's ability to manage stress. Fear and anxiety are adaptive emotions. - *Neuroticism:* a person's tendency to experience negative feelings, such as anxiety, guilt, and sadness. - The tendency to be sensitive of threats is an adaptation to hazardous environments. - Having a certain level of anxiety or fear is adaptive because it helps us to survive. - When the level is less or excessive, it can interfere with our daily functioning. **Conscientiousness** - The main characteristic is one's capacity and commitment to work. - People with conscientiousness can be trusted to complete work and responsibilities. - They are also people we can count on when needed. - Characteristics: - Careful. - Details oriented. - Focus. - Reliable. **Openness** - A person's propensity to innovation and ability to solve problems. - Closely related to intelligence. - Willingness to try new things and have new experiences rather than sticking in one's routines. - In ancestral time: explore new territories. - In modern life: arts workers and researchers. **Five dimensions** - From the five dimensions of personality, surgency/dominance, agreeableness, and conscientiousness are the most important traits. - They provide answers to the following questions: - Who is high or low in the social hierarchy? - Who possesses the resources that I need? - With whom should I mate? - Who might harm me or betray my trust? - Who will make me a good member of my group? - Whom can I trust and depend on when in need? **Origins of individual differences** - Environmental sources. - *Early environmental calibration:* childhood experience makes some behavioural strategies more likely than others. - *Alternative niche specialization:* different people find what makes them stand out from others in order to get the attention from parents or potential partners. - *Heritable (genetic) sources:* body type, facial morphology, and degree of physical attractiveness. - *Nonadaptive sources:* neutral genetic variations, take form of genetic mutations (they may stay in the gene pool indefinitely until pressure of natural or sexual selection eliminates them). - *Maladaptive sources:* those that actively harm one's chance for survival or decrease one's sexual attractiveness. **Neo-Bussian evolutionary theories of personality** - MacDonald (1995). - Tied personality with evolving motivation and emotional system. - Personality variations on the main dimensions of personality are alternative strategies for maintaining compatibility. - The personality dimension is related to evolutionary strategies to overcome various adaptive problems. - Only has 4 personality dimensions: dominance, conscientiousness, nurturance, and neuroticism. - Species produce individuals who vary along a continuum in their response to important problems, because environmental changes require different responses. - Nettle (2006). - Evolution supports the existence of individual defences because humans cannot predict what will happen in the future and what qualities are in accordance with changing environments. - There are advantages and disadvantages to each dimension of personality (see table). **Common misunderstandings in evolutionary theory** - Evolution implies genetic determinism. - Evolution is everything about physical changes related to environmental changes. - Therefore, using the perspective of "nature and nurture". - *Epigenetics:* changes in gene function that do not involve changes in DNA. This shows that experience (such as eating, drinking, or being exposed to chemicals) can affect our genes. - Executing adaption requires conscious mechanism. - The mechanism of evolution can operate without complex abilities (consciousness). - Example: the idea of "inclusive fitness" implies that we will tend to help siblings over cousins and help cousins over strangers. - This is because of the kinship we have, not because of the mathematical calculations we made about the situation. - Mechanisms are optimally designed. - In fact, some adaptations are rather awkward. - Changes in evolution occur from generation to generation, and always to the gap between adaptations and the environment. - Example: fatty and salty foods. 1. In ancient times, fatty and salty foods were still very difficult to obtain. Nowadays, they become cheap and plentiful. As a result, many people are overweight and obese. 2. If mechanisms are optimally designed, then we should be able to respond more quickly and efficiently to environmental changes like this. **Related research** - Research related to evolutionary bases on the development of human personality, can be divided into 3 main topics: - Temperament. - Genetic and personality. - Animal personality. - Findings from the study: support the view that personality has a biological basis and that this biological systems have evolved. **Critique of evolutionary theory of personality** - Difficult to falsify in the strict sense of the word. - Quite high in organizes known knowledge. - Low marks as a guide for practitioners. - Moderate on internal consistency. - High in criterion of parsimony. **VIDEO -- SEXUAL CONFLICT IN HUMAN MATING (BUSS, 2017)** In this video, the speaker explores conflicts between the sexes, using empirical studies to illustrate key points. A scenario is presented where individuals of the opposite sex respond to questions about dating, visiting an apartment, and having sex, revealing significant differences in responses. The speaker notes that women generally prefer fewer *sexual partners* than men, who desire around eighteen compared to women's ideal of four to five. This discrepancy leads to conflicts in sexual expectations. Additionally, the phenomenon of *sexual over-perception bias* is discussed, where men misinterpret women\'s friendliness as sexual interest, particularly towards attractive women. The speaker also addresses *deception* in online dating, highlighting how men often lie about their height and income while women may misrepresent their weight. The issue of *mate value discrepancies* is examined, where individuals pursue partners above their mate value, leading to frustration. *Infidelity* is discussed, with men often seeking sexual variety and women motivated by dissatisfaction in their primary relationship, known as the *mate-switching hypothesis*. The video concludes with a focus on the emotional impact of *breakups*, emphasizing the distress caused by conflicts over sexual access and shared resources in romantic relationships. **\ ** **CHAPTER 16: BEHAVIOURAL ANALYSIS -- SKINNER** **Overview of behavioural analysis** - *Behaviourism:* using psychometrics to build theories of human personality. - *Behavioural analysis:* a psychological approach that examines and modifies behaviour by understanding the influence of environmental factors and learning history, often focusing on the relationships between triggers, behaviours, and their consequences. - *Radical behaviourism:* a doctrine that avoids all hypothetical constructs, such as ego, traits, drives, needs, hunger, and so forth. - *Environmentalist:* psychology must not explain behaviour on the basis of the physiological or constitutional components of the organism, but rather on the basis of environmental stimuli. **Biography of B.F. Skinner** - Burrhus Frederic Skinner was born on March 20, 1904, in Pennsylvania, in a Presbyterian family. - Initially aspired to be a writer; shifted to psychology after a frustrating writing period. - Earned a PhD from Harvard in 1931 and became a prominent behaviourist. - Worked at Harvard and the University of Minnesota, developing Project Pigeon and the baby-tender. - Achieved success with his novel Walden Two, focusing on behavioural analysis. - Returned to Harvard in 1948, published influential works, and received multiple honours. - Died from leukaemia on August 18, 1990. **Precursors to Skinner's scientific behaviourism** - People tend to engage in pleasurable behaviours and avoid punitive ones. - *Law of effect:* learning takes place mostly because of the effects that follow a response. - Responses followed by satisfiers are \"stamped in.\" - Responses followed by annoyers are \"stamped out\" (later minimized). - B.F. Skinner emphasized that rewards are more effective than punishments in shaping behaviour. - John B. Watson influenced Skinner by promoting an objective study of behaviour, rejecting consciousness and introspection, and focusing on stimulus-response connections for predicting and controlling behaviour. **Scientific behaviourism** - Skinner emphasized a scientific approach to studying human behaviour without referencing internal needs, instincts, or motives. - He compared behaviour to natural phenomena, arguing that motivations are unnecessary for understanding actions. - Hunger, for instance, is an unobservable internal state; behaviour should instead focus on observable variables like food deprivation. - Skinner acknowledged internal states exist but believed using them as explanations limits the progress of scientific behaviourism. - He suggested that psychology must avoid assumptions about internal factors, which often leads to philosophical concerns about causation, or *cosmology*.Onderkant formulier Scientific behaviourism allows for an interpretation of behaviour, but not an explanation of its causes. **Characteristics of science** - *Cumulative Knowledge:* scientific knowledge builds over time, becoming more sophisticated (e.g., advancements in physics and chemistry). - *Empirical Observation:* science values facts obtained through observation rather than authority. It involves: - *Rejection of Authority:* claims must be tested empirically, not just accepted based on who said them. - *Intellectual Honesty:* scientists must accept and report findings, even if they contradict their hypotheses. - *Suspension of Judgment:* scientists wait for clear evidence before drawing conclusions to avoid premature claims. - *Search for Order and Lawful Relationships:* science seeks to understand the principles governing phenomena through: - *Observation:* gathering data from events. - *Hypothesis Formation:* making predictions based on observations. - *Testing:* conducting controlled experiments to validate or refute hypotheses. - *Description:* accurately reporting results and refining theories based on empirical evidence. **Conditioning** - *Classical conditioning:* a neutral (conditioned) stimulus is paired with -- that is, immediately precedes -- an unconditioned stimulus a number of times until it is capable of bringing about a previously unconditioned response, now called the conditioned response. - *Operant conditioning:* the immediate reinforcement of a response. The organism first does something and then is reinforced by the environment. - *Shaping:* a procedure in which the experimenter or the environment first rewards gross approximations of the behaviour, then closer approximations, and finally the desired behaviour itself *(successive approximations)*. 6. *Operant discrimination:* the process by which an organism learns to differentiate between stimuli, responding differently based on the presence or absence of specific signals that indicate reinforcement or punishment. 7. *Stimulus generalization:* a response to a similar environment in the absence of previous reinforcement. - *Reinforcement:* rewards that strengthens the behaviour and rewards the person. 1. *Positive reinforcement:* the process of increasing the likelihood of a behaviour by presenting a rewarding stimulus immediately after the behaviour occurs. 2. *Negative reinforcement:* the process of increasing the likelihood of a behaviour by removing an aversive stimulus immediately after the behaviour occurs. - *Punishment:* the presentation or addition of a negative, aversive consequence such as a hefty fine for an able-bodied driver parking in a handicapped spot ("positive punishment") or the removal of a positive one, such as revoking a teenager's driving privileges for texting and driving ("negative punishment"). **\ ** - Effects of punishment: 1. *Suppression of behaviour:* stops undesirable behaviour temporarily without teaching alternatives. 2. *Negative emotional conditioning:* creates fear or anxiety associated with the punished behaviour, preventing recurrence without constructive guidance. 3. *Spread of effects:* leads to avoidance of associated stimuli, resulting in maladaptive behaviours and negative feelings toward family or contexts related to the punishment. - Conditioned and generalized reinforces: - *Conditioned reinforcer:* those environmental stimuli that are not by nature satisfying but become so because they are associated with such unlearned or primary reinforcers as food, water, sex, or physical comfort. - *Generalized reinforcer:* reinforcer associated with more than one primary reinforcer. - Schedules of reinforcement: - *Continuous schedule:* the organism is reinforced for every response. This increases the frequency of a response but is an inefficient use of the reinforcer. - *Intermittent schedule:* a behaviour is reinforced only some of the time, rather than continuously, leading to greater resistance to extinction and more efficient use of reinforcers. 4. *Fixed-ratio:* the organism is reinforced intermittently according to the number of responses it makes. 5. *Variable-ratio:* the organism is reinforced after the *n*th response on the average. 6. *Fixed-interval:* the organism is reinforced for the first response following a designated period of time. 7. *Variable-interval:* the organism is reinforced after the lapse of random or varied periods of time. - *Extinction:* the tendency of a previously acquired response to become progressively weakened upon reinforcement. - *Operant extinction:* takes place when an experimenter systematically withholds reinforcement of a previously learned response until the probability of that response diminishes to zero. **The human organism** - Skinner believed principles of behaviour from animal studies apply to humans. - He argued psychology should focus on observable phenomena, progressing from simple to complex behaviours. - Skinner identified three forces shaping human behaviour and personality: - Natural selection. - Cultural practices. - Individual reinforcement history. - He acknowledged that behaviour can change through interactions with the environment over time. **Natural selection** - Human personality results from evolutionary history, genetic factors, and personal reinforcement histories. - Natural selection influences personality by favouring behaviours beneficial for survival. - Reinforcing behaviours tend to be repeated; non-reinforcing behaviours tend to diminish. - Examples of survival-related behaviours include: - Pupillary reflex (dilation/contraction for improved vision). - Rooting reflex in infants for suckling. - Some behaviours, like sexual behaviour, are individually reinforcing and contribute to species survival. - Not all traits from natural selection remain beneficial; for instance, overeating was once adaptive but now leads to health issues in food-abundant societies. - Skinner emphasized that while natural selection shapes some behaviour, most human actions are influenced by reinforcement contingencies, particularly cultural ones. **Cultural evolution** - Skinner emphasized culture\'s role in shaping human personality in his later work. - Cultural practices that survive are influenced by selection, similar to evolutionary processes. - Humans don\'t consciously choose practices for societal benefit; rather, cooperative behaviours in groups promote survival. - Reinforcement leads to cultural practices, like toolmaking and verbal communication, which may benefit the group but not necessarily individuals. - Not all cultural remnants are adaptive: - The division of labour increased productivity but often lacks individual reinforcement. - Warfare, once beneficial for some societies, now poses threats to human survival.Onderkant formulier **Inner states** - Skinner acknowledged the existence of internal states like feelings, emphasizing they can be studied through observable behaviours. - *Self-Awareness:* humans are aware of their consciousness and their observations of stimuli, allowing for subjective awareness of thoughts and feelings. Statements about internal states can be scientifically analysed as verbal behaviours. - *Drives:* Skinner viewed drives as explanatory fictions, merely reflecting deprivation and satiation effects, not as causes of behaviour. Understanding behaviour relies on antecedents, behaviours, and consequences, rather than fictional constructs like drives. - *Emotions:* Skinner recognized emotions but argued behaviour should not be attributed to them; instead, they are explained by survival and reinforcement. Pleasant emotions reinforce behaviours, increasing their likelihood. - *Purpose and Intention:* Skinner noted the existence of purpose and intention but cautioned against attributing behaviour to these concepts. They are internal stimuli that can be reinforcing but are not mentalistic explanations for behaviour. **Complex behaviour** - Skinner believed complex human behaviour is shaped by natural selection, cultural evolution, and individual reinforcement histories. - *Higher Mental Processes:* Skinner acknowledged thought processes (e.g., thinking, problem-solving, recalling) as covert behaviours influenced by environmental contingencies rather than as functions of a hypothetical \"mind.\" - *Creativity:* he compared creativity to natural selection, suggesting that accidental variations in behaviour, when reinforced, lead to creative outcomes. Creativity arises from random behaviours that get rewarded. - *Unconscious Behaviour:* Skinner accepted unconscious behaviour as most behaviour is not consciously recognized. Behaviours may become unconscious due to suppression through punishment, leading individuals to ignore or deny certain actions. - *Dreams:* dreams are viewed as covert behaviours that allow the expression of repressed emotions and desires without punishment, serving a wish-fulfilment function. - *Social Behaviour:* only individuals behave; groups form when individuals are rewarded for such behaviour. Group membership may persist even if abusive, due to intermittent reinforcement or lack of alternatives. **Control of human behaviour** - Individual behaviour is controlled by environmental contingencies, not free will, which can be established by society, individuals, or oneself. - *Social Control:* social groups form because such behaviour is reinforcing. Groups enforce control through written or unwritten laws, rules, and customs that transcend individual actions. - Skinner humorously illustrated social control by reinforcing critic Erich Fromm\'s arm movements during a discussion, showing how behaviour can be shaped unconsciously. - Four principal methods of social control: 1. *Operant Conditioning:* includes positive and negative reinforcement, and punishment (adding an aversive stimulus or removing a positive one). 2. *Describing Contingencies:* informing individuals about the consequences of their behaviours through language, such as threats or promises. 3. *Deprivation and Satiation:* controlling behaviour by either depriving individuals or satiating them with reinforcers (e.g., hunger affecting eating behaviour). 4. *Physical Restraint:* controlling behaviour through physical means, such as holding children back from danger or imprisoning lawbreakers. - Skinner argued that physical restraint does not negate personal freedom, as behaviour is ultimately shaped by environmental contingencies. - *Self-Control:* although personal freedom is a fiction, individuals can exercise self-control by manipulating environmental variables. - Techniques for self-control include: 5. Using physical aids (tools, money) to alter the environment. 6. Changing the environment to increase desired behaviours (e.g., turning off distractions). 7. Arranging the environment to escape aversive stimuli only by responding correctly (e.g., using an alarm clock). 8. Taking drugs to alter behaviour (e.g., using tranquilizers). 9. Engaging in substitute behaviours to avoid undesirable thoughts or actions (e.g., counting patterns to avoid guilt). **The unhealthy personality** - *Detrimental Effects:* excessive social control and inadequate self-control can lead to inappropriate behaviours and unhealthy personality development. - Counteracting Strategies: - *Escape:* individuals withdraw physically or psychologically from controlling agents. This can result in difficulties forming intimate relationships, mistrust of others, and a preference for isolation. - *Revolt:* active resistance to control, including vandalism, verbal abuse, and challenging authority. This form of behaviour is more aggressive and seeks to directly counteract societal controls. - *Passive Resistance:* more subtle than revolt, this involves behaviours like stubbornness and excuses to avoid compliance. For example, a child may delay homework, or an employee may undermine colleagues. - Inappropriate Behaviours: - Result from ineffective counteracting strategies or failed self-control, especially when accompanied by strong emotions. These behaviours are learned through reinforcement and punishment. - *Excessively Vigorous Behaviour:* responses that are disproportionate to the current situation but may be based on past experiences. - *Excessively Restrained Behaviour:* actions aimed at avoiding aversive stimuli linked to punishment. - *Blocking Out Reality:* ignoring aversive stimuli instead of confronting them. - *Defective Self-Knowledge:* this includes self-delusion through boasting or rationalizing, providing a negative reinforcement by avoiding thoughts of inadequacy. - *Self-Punishment:* involves individuals punishing themselves or creating situations where they are punished by others, reflecting a lack of healthy self-management. **Psychotherapy** - Skinner viewed psychotherapy as hindering psychology\'s scientific progress. - Therapists serve as supportive controlling agents, helping patients differentiate between harmful authority and warm therapists. - Behaviour shaping in therapy involves reinforcing gradual improvements. - Skinner criticized traditional theories for relying on fictional constructs instead of learning principles. - Behaviour therapy techniques focus on operant conditioning and actively promoting positive reinforcement. **Related research** - *How Conditioning Affects Personality:* research suggests that personality change can occur through conditioning, particularly in psychotherapy and educational settings, where operant conditioning techniques like token economies can reinforce desired behaviours, leading to stable behavioural changes that may be perceived as changes in personality over time. - *How Personality Affects Conditioning:* research indicates that personality can influence how individuals respond to conditioning, as demonstrated by a study showing that the reinforcing effects of D-amphetamine on smoking varied significantly among participants, suggesting that differences in sensitivity to dopamine---linked to personality traits---may affect conditioning outcomes. - *Mutual Influence Between Personality and Conditioning:* Research supports a mutual influence between conditioning and personality through Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST), which posits that individual temperaments related to emotional--motivational systems (approach and avoidance) affect responses to conditioning, exemplified in a study linking different forms of perfectionism to varying sensitivities to positive and negative reinforcers, thus demonstrating how personality traits shape, and are shaped by, conditioning processes. **Critique of Skinner** - *Research generation:* Skinner's theory has led to extensive research, earning a high rating. - *Falsifiability:* most of Skinner's ideas can be tested and potentially falsified, resulting in a high rating for this criterion. - *Organizing knowledge:* the theory receives a moderate rating for organizing knowledge about personality; while it explains many traits through operant conditioning, it struggles with concepts like insight and self-efficacy. - *Guidance for action:* Skinner's theory is highly rated for its practical application in various fields, including therapy and behaviour modification (ex. treating phobias, addiction, and enhancing compliance). - *Internal consistency:* the theory is rated very high for its clarity and operational definitions, avoiding mentalistic concepts. - *Parsimony:* this criterion is difficult to assess; while theory avoids complex constructs, it requires rephrasing everyday language in a novel way. **Concept of humanity** - *Deterministic View:* human behaviour is shaped by environmental forces, denying free will. - *Illusion of Freedom:* perceptions of choice stem from reinforcing concepts like freedom and dignity. - *Behavioural Analogy:* human actions result from environmental and genetic conditions, not spontaneous choice. - *Optimistic Adaptability:* Skinner viewed humans as adaptable, with behaviours shaped by reinforcement. - *Concerns for Society:* he expressed worries about issues like nuclear war and resource depletion. - *Neutral on Morality:* people are not inherently good or evil; behaviour depends on reinforcement history. - *Causality in Behaviour:* actions are determined by past experiences rather than future goals. - *Emphasis on Uniqueness:* Individual personalities result from unique reinforcement histories and genetic differences. **\ ** **LECTURE 8 (23/10/2024) -- PART 2** **BURRHUS FREDERIC SKINNER** **Biography** - Skinner was born on March 20, 1904, in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania, as the first child in the family. His father was a lawyer and an aspiring politician while his mother stayed home to care for their two children. - Skinner grew up in a happy environment where his parents practiced the values of temperance, service, honesty, and hard work. - His brother died suddenly when he was in college. The parents wanted him to become "the family boy". - As a child, Skinner was inclined toward music and literature. After taking his bachelor's degree in English, Skinner decided to become a creative writer. - Skinner returned to his parents' home in Scranton, built a study in the attic, and every morning went to work at writing. But after 18 months, nothing happened (Dark Year). - After reading some of the works of Watson and Pavlov, he became determined to be a behaviourist. He went to Harvard to take his PhD in psychology. - After he completed his PhD in 1931, Skinner received a fellowship from the National Research Council to continue his laboratory research at Harvard. - In the spring of 1933, Skinner spent the next 3 years doing more laboratory research in Harvard. - In 1936, Skinner began a teaching and research position at the University of Minnesota and published his first book "The Behaviour of Organisms" (1938). - Skinner's *Project Pigeon* was a clever attempt to condition pigeons to make appropriate pecks on keys that would manoeuvre and explosive missile into and enemy target. - Shortly after Skinner abandoned Project Pigeon, he became involved in another venture -- the *baby-tender*: an enclosed crib with a large window and a continual supply of fresh warm air. - Even as Skinner was becoming a successful and well-known behaviourist, he was slow to establish financial independence. - On August 18, 1990, skinner died of leukaemia. One week before his death, he received an unprecedented Citation for Outstanding Lifetime Contribution to Psychology, the only person to receive such an award in the history of APA. **Behavioural analysis** - The first psychologist to systematically study the consequences of behaviour was Thorndike, who worked originally with animals. Followed by Watson, who studied both animals and humans. Watson argued that human behaviour can be studied objectively. - *Radical behaviourism:* avoids all hypothetical constructs, such as ego, traits, drives, needs, hunger, and so forth. - *Deterministic:* rejected the notion of volition or free will. Human behaviour does not stem from on act of the will, but is lawfully determined and can be studied scientifically. - *Environmentalist:* psychology must not explain behaviour on the basis of the physiological or constitutional components of the organism, but rather on the basis of environmental stimuli. **Scientific behaviourism** - Behaviourism holds that behaviour can best be studied without reference to needs, instincts, or motives. - Although Skinner believed that internal states are outside the domain of science, he did not deny their existence. Such conditions as hunger, emotions, values, self-confidence, aggressive needs, religious beliefs, exist; aggressive needs, religious beliefs, exist; but they are not explanations for behaviour. - People do not eat because they are hungry, but because they are deprived from food for some time. **Conditioning** - Classical conditioning. - Operant conditioning. - Shaping. - Reinforcement. - Punishment. - Conditioned and generalized reinforcers. - Schedules of reinforcement. - Extinction. **Classical conditioning** - In classical conditioning, a neutral (conditioned) stimulus is paired with -- that is, immediately precedes -- an unconditioned stimulus a number of times until it is capable of bringing about a previously unconditioned response, now called the conditioned response. - Example: a child (little Albert, 11 months) presented with a white mouse. When albert touched it, there was a loud sound that causes fear. This condition is repeated several times. - The following days: Albert presented with beams, rabbits, fur coats, dogs, wool cloth. Albert was afraid of these objects except for the beam.  - This experiment demonstrated at least four points: - First, infants have few, if any, innate fears of animals. - Second, they can learn to fear an animal if it is presented in association with an aversive stimulus. - Third, infants can discriminate between a furry white rat and a hard wooden block, so that fear of a rat does not generalize to fear of a block. - Fourth, fear of a furry white rat can generalize to other animals as well as to other white hairy or furry objects. **Operant conditioning** - Skinner believed that most human behaviours are learned through operant conditioning. The key to operant conditioning is the immediate reinforcement of a response. - Reinforcement, in turn, increases the probability that the same behaviour will occur again. - This conditioning is called operant conditioning because the organism operates on the environment to produce a specific effect. **Shaping** - Shaping is a procedure in which the experimenter or the environment first rewards gross approximations of the behaviour, then closer approximations, and finally the desired behaviour itself. - Through this process of reinforcing successive approximations, the experimenter or the environment gradually shapes the final complex set of behaviours. - Three important conditions (A -- B -- C): - The antecedent. - The behaviour. - The consequence. - Why doesn't the organism simply repeat the old reinforced response? - Behaviour is not discrete but continuous; that is, the organism usually moves slightly beyond the previously reinforced response. - A response to a similar environment in the absence of previous reinforcement is called *stimulus generalization.* **Reinforcement** - Reinforcement has two effects: - It strengthens the behaviour. - It rewards the person. - Types of reinforcement: - *Positive reinforcement:* any stimulus that, when added to a situation, increases the probability that a given behaviour will occur. - *Negative reinforcement:* the removal of an aversive stimulus from a situation which increases the probability that the preceding behaviour will occur. **Punishment** - The presentation of an aversive stimulus or the removal of a positive stimulus. - The effect of punishment is different from reinforcement because it only suppresses behaviour without stating what behaviour is expected. - In reinforcement, the behaviour that emerges can be predicted and directed, while when we use punishment, the behaviour that emerges is uncertain. - The negative effect of punishment: - The conditioning of a negative feeling by associating a strong aversive stimulus with the behaviour being punished. It may elicit a classical conditioned response, such as fear, anxiety, guilt, or shame. - The spread of its effects: any stimulus associated with the punishment may be suppressed or avoided. **Conditioned and generalized reinforcers** - *Primary reinforcers:* stimuli that have a pleasing or satisfying need (ex. food). - *Conditioned reinforcers:* stimuli that do not have satisfying properties but become so because they are associated with primary reinforces (ex. money). - *Generalized reinforcers:* associated with more than one primary reinforcement (attention, approval, affection, submission, tokens). **Schedules of reinforcement** - *Fixed-ratio:* the organism is reinforced intermittently according to the number of responses it makes. Ratio refers to the ratio of responses to reinforcers. Usually begin at a low rate of responses and gradually build to a higher one. - *Variable-ratio:* the organism is reinforced after the *n*th response on the average. Again, training must start with continuous reinforcement, proceed to a low response number, and then increase to a higher rate of response (VR 3, VR 6, VR 10). - *Fixed-interval:* the organism is reinforced for the first response following a designated period of time. For example, FI 5 indicates that the organism is rewarded for its first response after every 5-minute interval. - *Variable-interval:* the organism is reinforced after the lapse of random or varied periods of time. For example, VI 5 means that the organism is reinforced following random-length intervals that average 5 minutes. - For humans, reinforcement results more often from one's effort rather than the passage of time. For this reason, ratio schedules are more common than interval schedules. **Extinction** - The tendency of a previously acquired response to become progressively weakened upon nonreinforcement. - *Operant extinction* takes place when an experimenter systematically withholds reinforcement of a previously learned response until the probability of that response diminishes to zero. - Once learned, responses can be lost because: it is forgotten, interference of preceding or subsequent learning, punishment. - Many of our behaviours persist over a long period of time because they are being intermittently reinforced, even though the nature of that reinforcement may be obscure to us. **The human organism** - Skinner's view was that an understanding of the behaviour of laboratory animals can generalize to human behaviour. - Human behaviour (and human personality) is shaped by three choices: - Natural selection. - Cultural practices. - The individual's history of reinforcement. **Natural selection** - Human personality is the product of a long evolutionary history. Individual behaviour that is reinforcing tends to be repeated. Those behaviours that were beneficial to the species, also tended to survive. - For example: natural selection has favoured those individuals whose pupils of their eyes dilated and contracted with changes in lighting (can see during daylight and night). - Skinner claimed that the contingencies of reinforcement, especially those that shaped human culture, account for most of human behaviour. **Cultural evolution** - Community of people who cooperate with each other tends to be more sustainable. Cultural practices, such as the manufacture of tools and verbal communication, begin when there is reinforcement for toolmaking and verbal behaviour. Both has survival values. - Not all forms of culture (as a result of natural selection) have adaptive value. - Example: the division of labour that resulted from the Industrial Revolution and ware that threatened human existence. **Inner states** - *Self-awareness:* humans not only have consciousness but are also aware of their consciousness; they are not only aware of their environment but are also aware of themselves as part of their environment. Each person is subjectively aware of his or her own thoughts, feelings, recollections, and intentions. - *Drives:* from the viewpoint of radical behaviourism, drives are not causes of behaviour, but merely explanatory fictions. To Skinner drives simply refer to the effects of deprivation and satiation and to the corresponding probability that the organism will respond. - *Emotion:* Skinner accounted for emotions by the contingencies of survival and the contingencies of reinforcement. Behaviours followed joy, pleasure, and other pleasant emotions tend to be reinforced, thereby increasing the probability that they would recur in the future. - *Purpose & intention:* purpose and intention exist within the skin, but they are not subject to direct outside scrutiny. What are called intentions or purposes, therefore, are physically felt stimuli within the organism and not mentalistic events responsible for behaviour. **Complex behaviour** - *Higher mental processes:* human thought is the most difficult of all behaviours to analyse. Thinking, problem solving, and reminiscing are covert behaviours that take place within the skin but not inside the mind. - *Creativity:* accidental traits, arising from mutations, are selected by their contribution to survival, so accidental variations in behaviour are selected by their reinforcing consequences. - *Unconscious behaviour:* in a more limited sense, behaviour is labelled unconscious when people no longer think about it because it has been suppressed through punishment. Behaviour that has aversive consequences has a tendency to be ignored or not thought about. - *Dreams:* dreams may serve a wish-fulfilment purpose. Dream behaviour is reinforcing when repressed sexual or aggressive stimuli are allowed expression. - *Social behaviour:* groups do not behave; only individuals do. Individuals establish groups because they have been rewarded for doing so. - For example: individuals form clans so that they might be protected against animals, natural disasters, or enemy tribes. **Control of human behaviour** - *Social control:* individuals act to form social groups because such behaviour tends to be reinforcing. Groups, in turn, exercise control over their members by formulating written or unwritten laws, rules, and customs. - Each of us is controlled by a variety of social forces and techniques which can be grouped under the following headings: 1. Operant conditioning. 2. Describing contingencies. 3. Deprivation and satiation. 4. Physical restraint. - *Self-control:* people can manipulate the variables within their own environment and thus exercise some measure of self-control. The contingencies of self-control, however, do not reside within the individual and cannot be freely chosen: - Use physical aids. - Change the environment. - Arrange the environment to escape from aversive stimulus. - Take drugs. **The unhealthy personality** - The techniques of social control and self-control sometimes produce detrimental effects, which result in inappropriate behaviour and unhealthy personality development. - *Counteracting strategies:* when social control is excessive, people can use three basic strategies for counter-acting it: - Escape. - Revolt. - Passive resistant. - *Inappropriate behaviours:* follow from self-defeating techniques of counteracting social control or from unsuccessful attempts at self-control, especially when either of these failures is accompanied by strong emotion. - Excessively vigorous behaviour. - Excessively restrained behaviour. - Blocking out reality. - Defective self-knowledge. - Self-punishment. **Psychotherapy** - Psychotherapy is one of the chief obstacles blocking psychology's attempt to become scientific behaviour therapy is the answer. - Therapist = controlling agent. - Shape behaviour; reinforcing slightly improved changes in behaviour. - Variety of techniques developed: operant conditioning, classical conditioning, etc. **Related research** - How Conditioning Affects Personality (Tidey, O'Neal & Higgins, 2000). - Reinforcers can change their value over time and in combination with other stimuli. - How Personality Affects Conditioning (Sigmon et al., 2002). - Personality can affect sensitivity to conditioning. **Critique of Skinner** - Skinner's theory is: - Very high on generating research, guiding action, and internal consistency. - High on falsifiability. - Moderate on organizing knowledge. - Difficult to rate parsimony. **Concept of humanity** - Determinism over free will (no free will). - Optimism over pessimism. - Causality over teleology. - Unconscious over conscious. - Social influence over biology. - Uniqueness over similarity. **CHAPTER 17: SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY -- BANDURA** **Overview of social cognitive theory** - *Role of Chance:* chance encounters and events can influence life paths, but reactions to these events are more impactful. - *Plasticity:* humans are flexible learners, capable of adapting behaviours in various situations. - *Vicarious Learning:* emphasizes learning through observation, including indirect reinforcement by witnessing others receive rewards. - *Triadic Reciprocal Causation:* consists of behavioural, environmental, and personal factors, allowing individuals to regulate their lives and evaluate their environments. - *Agentic Perspective:* humans can exercise control over their lives, being both producers and products of social systems, with self-efficacy playing a crucial role. - *Regulation of Conduct:* conduct is regulated through external (environmental) and internal (self-observation, judgment) factors. - *Moral Agency:* in morally ambiguous situations, individuals use moral agency to justify or distort their actions, avoid responsibility, or dehumanize others. **Biography of Albert Bandura** - *Birth and Early Life:* born on December 4, 1925, in Mundare, Alberta; the only boy in a family of five sisters; parents emigrated from Eastern Europe. - *Education:* encouraged independence by sisters; learned self-direction in a resource-limited school; graduated high school in 3 years. - *Career Beginnings:* worked in the Yukon, which sparked an interest in clinical psychology; decided to pursue psychology accidentally while commuting with premed students at university. - *Higher Education:* completed a master's degree and PhD in clinical psychology at the University of Iowa; joined Stanford University faculty in 1953. - *Publications:* early work focused on clinical psychology; notable books include Social Learning Theory (1977) and Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control (1997). - *Professional Recognition:* held leadership roles, including president of the American Psychological Association; received numerous awards and honorary degrees. - *Current Position:* holds the David Starr Jordan Professorship of Social Science in Psychology at Stanford University. **Learning** - *Learning:* Bandura's theory emphasizes humans\' flexibility in learning various attitudes, skills, and behaviours, primarily through vicarious experiences (learning by observing others) rather than just direct experience. - *Observational Learning:* this concept refers to learning that occurs by watching others, which Bandura argues is more efficient than learning through direct experience. Unlike Skinner, Bandura believes that reinforcement is not essential for learning; people can learn simply by observing others being rewarded or punished. - *Modelling:* the central process of observational learning, where individuals learn by observing, interpreting, and symbolically representing behaviours rather than merely imitating them. This involves cognitive processes like adding or subtracting from observed behaviours. - Factors Influencing Modelling: - *Characteristics of the Model:* people are more likely to model behaviours of those with high status, competence, or power. - *Characteristics of the Observer:* individuals lacking status or experience, particularly children, are more likely to model. - *Consequences of the Behaviour:* observers are more likely to adopt behaviours that they see valued or rewarded. - Processes Governing Observational Learning: - *Attention:* observers must pay attention to the model, influenced by factors like proximity, attractiveness, and perceived value of the behaviour. - *Representation:* information from observation must be stored in memory, which can be visual or verbal, aiding in later recall and rehearsal. - *Behavioural Production:* this involves translating observation into action by asking questions about how to perform the behaviour and evaluating one\'s performance. - *Motivation:* observational learning is most effective when there is motivation to perform the modelled behaviour. - *Enactive Learning:* learning that occurs through direct experiences and evaluating the consequences of actions. Bandura identifies three functions of response consequences: - Informing about the effects of actions. - Motivating anticipatory behaviour based on perceived future outcomes. - Reinforcing behaviours based on their consequences. **Triadic reciprocal causation** - *Triadic reciprocal causation:* suggests that human behaviour results from the interaction of three variables: the environment (E), behaviour (B), and personal factors (P), including cognitive processes like memory and judgment. This contrasts with Skinner's belief that behaviour is solely determined by environmental factors. - *Environment:* external conditions that influence behaviour. Individuals can exert control over their environment. - *Behaviour:* actions and responses that interact with personal and environmental factors. - *Person:* individual characteristics, including cognitive abilities and personal traits, that influence how one interacts with their environment. - *Variable influence:* the strength of the three components varies by individual and situation, with cognition often playing a significant role in behaviour and performance. - *Cognitive role:* individuals use cognition to evaluate situations and make decisions. - *Example:* a child asking for a second brownie illustrates triadic interaction. The child's request (environment) influences the father's behaviour. If the father reflects on the consequences (cognition), he may decide not to give in, affecting future interactions. - *Chance encounter:* an unintended meeting of persons unfamiliar to each other. - *Fortuitous event:* an environmental experience that is unexpected and unintended.  **Human agency** - *Intentionality:* this is the commitment to act in a certain way, which involves not just planning but actively working to achieve goals. It recognizes that while intentions guide actions, not all plans will succeed as people adapt based on outcomes. - *Forethought:* this feature involves setting goals and anticipating the consequences of actions. It allows individuals to strategize and select behaviours that lead to positive outcomes, thus breaking free from mere environmental responses. - *Self-reactiveness:* individuals are not only capable of setting goals but also of monitoring their progress. They evaluate their actions and make adjustments to enhance their chances of success. Effective self-regulation is essential for achieving goals. - *Self-reflectiveness:* people can analyse their motivations and assess their values and goals. This self-evaluation includes the crucial aspect of *self-efficacy,* which is the belief in one\'s capability to execute actions that produce desired results. **Self-efficacy** - *Self-efficacy:* one\'s belief in their ability to control their actions and influence events in their lives. - *Mastery experiences:* past successes raise self-efficacy, while failures can lower it, especially if the individual feels they have tried their best. - *Social modelling:* observing peers succeed can enhance self-efficacy, whereas witnessing their failures can diminish it. - *Social persuasion:* encouragement from credible sources can boost self-efficacy, but it\'s limited and works best when combined with successful performance. - *Physical and emotional states:* emotions can impact self-efficacy; high anxiety typically lowers it, while moderate arousal may enhance performance in simple tasks. - *Proxy agency:* involves relying on others to achieve goals in areas where they lack expertise. This reliance can diminish personal efficacy if overused. - *Collective efficacy:* the shared belief in a group\'s ability to achieve desired outcomes. It\'s shaped by individual self-efficacies and depends on collaboration and coordination within the group. **Self-regulation** - *Self-regulation:* the capacity of individuals to manage their own behaviours, emotions, and thoughts in pursuit of long-term goals. - *Self-efficacy:* the belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations. High self-efficacy enhances self-regulation, motivating individuals to pursue their goals. - *Proxies:* trusted individuals or external resources that can support and influence behaviour. Reliance on proxies can enhance one\'s confidence and self-regulation capabilities. - *Collective efficacy:* a group's shared belief in its ability to achieve goals. High collective efficacy can bolster individual self-regulation efforts. - *Reactive strategies:* efforts made to correct or improve behaviours that are not meeting personal or societal standards, allowing individuals to close the gap between their current state and their goals. - *Proactive strategies:* after addressing immediate discrepancies, individuals set new and higher goals to continue personal growth and improvement. - *Discrepancies:* gaps between one's current performance and goals. - *Disequilibrium:* a state of imbalance that motivates individuals to take action to regain equilibrium by achieving their goals. **Processes contributing to self-regulation** - *External factors:* standards for evaluating behaviour and sources of reinforcement. Standards can come from environmental interactions, such as parental guidance or societal norms. - Internal factors: - *Self-observation:* monitoring one's own performance, even if not comprehensive. This includes focusing selectively on aspects of behaviour relevant to one's goals. - *Judgemental process:* evaluating performance based on personal standards, reference performances, and the perceived value of activities. This process involves comparing current performance against past achievements or standards set by others. - *Self-reaction:* responding positively or negatively to one's behaviour based on how well it meets personal standards. Self-reinforcement occurs when individuals reward themselves for meeting standards, while self-punishment follows failures to meet those standards. **Moral agency and self-regulation** - *Moral agency:* Bandura defines moral agency as the ability to act according to moral standards, emphasizing the dual responsibilities of doing no harm and proactively helping others. - *Selective activation:* moral beliefs influence behaviour only when they are acted upon, not automatically. Bandura emphasizes that individuals can selectively activate their moral standards or disengage from them when necessary. - *Disengagement of internal control:* individuals can justify immoral actions through techniques such as moral justification, minimizing consequences, or blaming victims. This allows them to act contrary to their moral beliefs while maintaining a self-image of moral integrity. - *Redefine behaviour:* individuals can morally justify their actions or compare them to worse actions to absolve themselves of guilt. - *Distort consequences:* this involves minimizing or ignoring the harmful effects of one's actions, or misrepresenting the outcomes. - *Dehumanize victims:* people can justify harmful behaviour by viewing victims as less than human, or they may blame victims for their actions. - *Displace or diffuse responsibility:* responsibility for actions can be shifted to others or spread across groups, making it difficult to pinpoint individual accountability. **Dysfunctional behaviour** - *Triadic reciprocal causation:* this concept indicates that behaviour is influenced by: - *The environment:* social and contextual factors, including interpersonal relations and socioeconomic conditions. - *The person:* internal processes, such as cognition and neurophysiology. - *Behavioural factors:* previous experiences and learned behaviours, especially through reinforcement. - *Dysfunctional behaviour:* behaviours that are maladaptive and interfere with an individual\'s ability to function in daily life. - *Depressive reactions:* emotional responses characterized by persistent sadness or lack of interest. - *Phobias:* intense, irrational fears that can disrupt daily functioning. - *Aggressive behaviours:* actions intended to cause harm to others. **Depression** - *High personal standards:* while aiming for high achievement can foster self-satisfaction, setting goals too high can lead to failure, which in turn can precipitate depression. Individuals may undervalue their accomplishments, leading to chronic feelings of worthlessness and lack of purpose. - *Self-regulation:* Bandura outlines three self-regulatory subfunctions where dysfunction can arise: - *Self-observation:* individuals may misjudge their performance and distort memories of past successes, leading to a negative self-perception. - *Judgemental processes:* they may set unrealistically high standards, leading them to view achievements as failures. - *Self-reactions:* depressed individuals tend to judge themselves harshly and react negatively to their perceived shortcomings. **Phobias** - *Learning mechanisms:* phobias develop through: - *Direct contact:* experiencing fear-inducing situations. - *Inappropriate generalization:* extending fear from one situation to unrelated ones. - *Observational learning:* acquiring fears by watching others. - *Maintenance:* phobias can persist due to avoidance behaviours that provide temporary relief from anxiety. - *Example:* if a person fears being mugged in a park, they may avoid it, reinforcing their phobia through negative reinforcement. **Aggression** - *Acquisition of aggression:* Bandura posits that aggressive behaviour can be learned through: - *Observation:* watching others exhibit aggressive behaviour. - *Reinforcement:* experiencing rewards or punishments based on aggressive actions. - *Reasons for continuation:* once established, aggressive behaviours may persist due to: - *Enjoyment:* taking pleasure in harming others. - *Avoidance of consequences:* using aggression to mitigate aversive outcomes from others. - *Self-reinforcement:* justifying aggression based on personal conduct standards. - *Modelling:* observing others rewarded for aggression. - *Bandura's study:* a pivotal study conducted by Bandura and colleagues demonstrated that children exposed to aggressive models exhibited higher levels of aggression themselves, regardless of whether the model was live, filmed, or animated. This study challenged the notion that exposure to violent behaviour has a cathartic effect, suggesting instead that it can increase aggressive behaviours. **Therapy** - *Deviant behaviours:* these are behaviours that deviate from social norms and can include actions like smoking, overeating, or excessive drinking. They often start based on learned experiences and are maintained because they fulfil certain needs or desires. - *Social Cognitive Therapy:* the ultimate goal of this therapeutic approach is self-regulation***.*** Bandura (1986) outlines strategies that therapists can use to help individuals change their behaviours, generalize those changes to different situations, and maintain them over time to prevent relapse. **Related research** - *Self-Efficacy and Diabetes:* research by Sacco and colleagues demonstrates that self-efficacy significantly influences the management of Type 2 diabetes, as higher self-efficacy is associated with better adherence to treatment plans, lower depression levels, and improved physical health outcomes, suggesting that interventions aimed at enhancing self-efficacy can lead to more effective disease management. - *Moral disengagement and Bullying:* Bandura\'s concept of moral disengagement highlights how youth can engage in bullying behaviour without feeling moral responsibility, as both individual and collective moral disengagement are associated with increased aggressive behaviour, suggesting that interventions targeting these mechanisms may effectively combat bullying. - *Social Cognitive Theory "Goes Global":* Albert Bandura\'s recent work applies social cognitive theory to address global issues like population growth by producing entertainment education serial dramas that promote positive behaviour change, ultimately enhancing self-efficacy among viewers to influence family planning, contraceptive use, and women\'s status, while also exploring similar efforts in environmental preservation. **Critique of Bandura** - *Innovative Speculation & Observation*: Bandura balances theory building with careful observation, advancing his theories step-by-step based on data. - *Research Generation:* his theory has led to thousands of studies, indicating a strong capacity for generating research and testable hypotheses. - *Falsifiability:* the theory rates high in falsifiability, as self-efficacy suggests several research avenues that could lead to its testing and potential falsification. - *Knowledge Organization:* Bandura's model effectively organizes psychological research findings, providing a comprehensive framework for understanding behaviour through triadic reciprocal causation. - *Practical Application:* offers useful guidelines for therapists, educators, and parents on behaviour acquisition and maintenance, emphasizing self-efficacy and modelling. - *Internal Consistency:* The theory is internally consistent, remaining closely aligned with empirical data without excessive speculation. - *Parsimony:* Bandura's theory is straightforward and simple, avoiding unnecessary complexity or fanciful explanations. **Concept of humanity** - *Observational Learning:* humans learn behaviours primarily through modelling rather than trial and error, showcasing cognitive flexibility. - *Goal-Oriented and Adaptive:* individuals are motivated by multiple specific goals, enabling them to adapt and learn throughout life. - *Social and Biological Influences:* Bandura emphasizes the significance of social factors while acknowledging the role of genetics in shaping behaviour. - *Human Agency:* people can exert control over their actions and environments, although their freedom can be limited by external constraints and self-efficacy perceptions. **\ ** **LECTURE 8 (23/10/2024) -- PART 3** **ALBERT BANDURA** **Biography (1925 -- 2021)** In 2016, Bandura received a National Medal of Science award from the US Government for outstanding achievements in science. **Basic assumptions**  **Learning** - *Enactive learning:* "If knowledge could be acquired only through the effects of one's own actions, the process of cognitive and social development would be greatly retarded, not to mention exceedingly tedious." - Complex human behaviour can be learned when people think about and evaluate the consequences of their behaviours. - The consequences of a response serve 3 functions: 1. Inform us of the effect of our actions. 2. Motivate our anticipatory behaviour. 3. Reinforce behaviour. - *Observational learning:* humans are flexible and capable of learning a multitude of attitudes, skills, and behaviours. Much of what they learn is through observing others. - Humans are capable of learning a variety of attitudes, skills, and behaviour, which is largely a result of vicarious experiences (observing others). - Observation allows us to learn without having to do any behaviour. - Observational learning is much more efficient than learning through direct experience. - Reinforcement is not something essential in the learning process (in contrast to Skinner). **Triadic reciprocal causation** - Human behaviour is the result of an interaction among 3 variables: - *Person:* a person's characteristics and cognitive factors (memory, planning, judgement). - *Environment:* the outside environment. - *Behaviour.* - All three variables do not have to have the same strength or contribute. Usually the most influential is the cognitive aspect. - Example: a child is begging his father for a second brownie. The child is the outside environment for the father. Cognitive processes performed by the father determine his behaviour (consequences of his behaviour). Father influences the environment and behaviour. While changes in the environment (children's reactions) will also affect cognitive processes and his subsequent behaviour. - Although people can and do exercise a significant amount of control over their lives, they cannot predict or anticipate all possible environmental changes. - *Chance encounter:* an unintended meeting of persons unfamiliar to each other. - *Fortuitous event:* an environmental experience that is unexpected and unintended. - Chance encounter and fortuitous events are not uncontrollable. **Human agency** - Humans have the capacity to exercise control over their own lives. - People are self-regulating, proactive, self-reflective, and self-organizing. - They have the power to influence their own actions to produce desired consequences. **Core features of human agency** - *Intentionality:* acts a person performs intentionally. - *Forethought:* to set goals, anticipate likely outcomes of their actions, select behaviours that will produce desired outcomes and avoid undesired ones. - *Self-reactiveness:* process of motivating and regulating their own actions. - *Self-reflectiveness:* examine their own function. **Self-efficacy** - People's beliefs in their capability to exercise some measure to control over their own functioning and over environmental events. - People's confidence that they have the ability to perform certain behaviour. - Beliefs in one's personal efficacy will influence: - What course of action they choose to pursue. - How much effort they will invest in activity. - How long they will persevere in the face of obstacles and failure. - Resiliency following setbacks.  **What contributes to self-efficacy?** **Proxy agency** - Involves indirect control over those social conditions that affect everyday living. - By relying too much on the competence and power of others, people may weaken their sense of personal and collective efficacy. **Collective efficacy** - People's shared beliefs in their collective power to produce desired results. - The confidence people have that their combined efforts will bring about group accomplishments. **Self-regulation** - People who have high levels of self-efficacy and possess solid collective efficacy will have considerable capacity to regulate their own behaviour. - Self-regulation is the process by which an organism effortfully controls behaviour in order to pursue important objectives (Carver & Scheier, 2009a). **Strategies** - People use both reactive and proactive strategies for self-regulation. - *Reactively* attempt to reduce discrepancies between their accomplishments and their goal. - *Proactively* set newer and higher goals for themselves. **Factors affecting self-regulation** - External factors: - Providing standard for evaluating our own behaviour. - Providing the means of reinforcement. - Internal factors: - Self-observation (monitor our own performance). - Judgemental processes (evaluate our performance). - Self-reaction (self-reinforcement/punishment based on the result). **Moral agency** - People also regulate their actions through moral standards of conduct. - Two aspects that have been seen by Bandura: - Doing no harm to people. - Proactively helping people. - Self-regulatory influences are not automatic but operate by selectively activating or disengaging internal control. It allows people with the same moral standards to behave quite differently in different situations (self-activation and disengagement of internal control).  **Self-regulation through moral agency** - Redefine the behaviour. - *Moral justification:* convinced that killing enemy soldiers was morally defensible after quotation from the Bible. - *Palliative comparison:* the child who vandalizes a school building uses the excuse that others broke even more. - *Euphemistic label:* Nazi leaders called the murder of millions of Jews the "purification of Europe". - Disregard or distort the consequences of behaviour. - *Minimize the consequences:* a driver who runs a red light and strikes a pedestrian, says that the victim is not hurt really badly. - *Ignore or disregard the consequences:* in wartime, heads of state and army generals seldom viewed the total destruction and death resulting from their decisions. - *Distort or misconstrue the consequences:* a parent beats a child badly enough but explains that the child needs discipline in order to mature properly. - Blame or dehumanize the victims. - At various times in US history, Jews, African Americans, Hispanic Americans, Native Americans, Asian Americans, homosexuals, and street people have become *dehumanized victims.* - A rapist may blame his victim for his crime, citing her provocative dress or behaviour. - Displace or diffuse responsibility. - A college student who blames his professor for low grades. - A civil servant may diffuse responsibility for her actions by referring to "the policy". **Dysfunctional behaviour** - Depressive reactions. - *Self-observation:* misjudge their own performance or distort memory of past accomplishments. - *Judgemental processes:* faulty judgements. - *Self-reactions:* treat themselves badly for their shortcomings. - Phobias. - Once established, phobias are maintained by consequent determinants: the phobic person receives negative reinforcement for avoiding the fear producing situation. - Might be influenced by media. - Aggressive behaviour. - Aggressive behaviour is acquired through observation of others. - Boho doll experiment. - Once established, people continue to aggress for at least five reasons: 1. They enjoy inflicting on the victim (+ reinforcement). 2. They avoid or counter the aversive consequences by others (- reinforcement). 3. They receive injury or harm for not behaving aggressively (punishment). 4. They live up to their personal standard of conduct by their aggressive behaviour (self-reinforcement). 5. They observe others receiving rewards for aggressive acts or punishment for non-aggressive behaviour. **Therapy** - The ultimate goal of Social Cognitive Therapy is self-regulation. - Stages: - Instigate some change in behaviour. - Generalize specific changes. - Maintenance of newly acquired functional behaviours. - Approaches: - Overt to vicarious modelling (observe model; ex. watch videos). - Covert or cognitive modelling (visualize). - Enactive mastery (perform behaviour; systematic desensitization). - Cognitive mediation: - When people use cognition to increase self-efficacy and become convinced they can perform difficult tasks. They are able to cope with previously intimidating situations. **Related research** - Self-efficacy and Shyness (Caprara et al., 2003). - Shyness is, in part, the result of people using capacities for self-reflection. - Self-efficacy, Gender, and Academic Performance (Hampton & Mason, 2003). - Students with learning disabilities had less mastery, fewer role models, less positive reinforcement, and more anxiety. **Critique of Bandura** - Bandura's theory is: - Very high on generating research, internal consistency, and parsimony. - High on falsifiability, organizing knowledge, and practicality. **Concept of humanity** - Free choice over determinism. - Optimism over pessimism. - Equal emphasis on teleology and causality. - Conscious over unconscious. - Social factors over biology. - Uniqueness over similarity. "People's beliefs in the personal efficacy influence what courses of action they choose to pursue, how much effort they will invest in activities, how long they will persevere in the face of obstacles and failure experiences, and their resiliency following setbacks" -- Albert Bandura. **TRIGGER QUESTIONS** **What theory inspired the Evolutionary Theory of personality?** The theory that inspired the Evolutionary Theory of personality is Charles Darwin\'s Theory of Natural Selection. Darwin\'s theory focuses on how organisms develop traits that enhance their