IGS 1104 Introduction to Philosophy and Critical Thinking PDF

DEDAN KIMATHI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY COMMON UNIT: IGS 1104 INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY AND CRITICAL THINKING FIRST YEAR STUDENTS INSTITUTE OF GENERAL STUDIES 1.0 Introduction Dedan...

DEDAN KIMATHI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY COMMON UNIT: IGS 1104 INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY AND CRITICAL THINKING FIRST YEAR STUDENTS INSTITUTE OF GENERAL STUDIES 1.0 Introduction Dedan Kimathi University of Technology has established Introduction to Philosophy and Critical Thinking unit as a common course to be taken by all the first year undergraduate students registered in our University. This unit is purposely designed to assist the learner in articulating life issues in a critical, ethical and realistic manner which enables one to be responsive, accountable and transparent citizen. Thus, the unit brings about the philosophical and critical mind that appreciates the necessity of a reflective, innovative and nation cohesion oriented individual. As one goes through this unit he/she becomes a value driven individual whose desire is to build, educate and transform the society in a wider manner. Being a common unit, Introduction to philosophy and Critical Thinking is mandatory to all the students and is designed in such way that it enhances holistic education and promotes decision making skills thus equipping the learners with knowledge and ability of becoming transformative agents in society and appreciation of their continuous transformation in their character and lifestyle. The knowledge of national values and cohesion will enable them identify the problems within and without the University and empower them to be part of the solutions as envisaged in Kenya’s constitution. Introduction to Philosophy and Critical Thinking unit therefore makes a student to embrace a unique culture which is critically and value driven in as they begin their academic life. To this end and in order to achieve Page 1 of 74 its objectives. The unit will be Competent Based in Assessment (CBA) with 60% practical in basic parameters assessed by tutorial fellows/graduate assistants. The final assessment will be an online/sit in examination based on the teaching of the contents. This means that a learner cannot score a pass mark of 40 and above without participating practically in debating, discussion and doing an academic writing and presentation driven by the contents of the course. 1.1 Justification of the Unit Critical Thinking: a) The ability to think clearly and independently. It is a product of logic a key branch in philosophy thus covers pretty much the same subject as what is usually taught in practical logic, informal reasoning or the study of argumentation. b) Enables the learner to clarify goals, examine assumptions, discern hidden values, evaluates evidence, accomplishes actions, and assesses conclusions. This means that the main focus of the course lies in arguments, nature, use and their import. c) Concerned with the unruly nature of real argumentation that does not allow unambiguous and definite formalization. d) An art that seeks to evaluate judgments and examine the process of making them in a particular historic and social context. e) Enables the learner to clarify goals, examine assumptions, discern hidden values, evaluates evidence, accomplishes actions, and assesses conclusions.The present course is designed to serve as a methodical preparation for more effective reasoning and improved cognitive skills. Its ambition is to develop those intellectual dispositions that are essential for effective evaluation of truth claims as well as for making reasonable decisions based on what one knows or believes to know. It is more about the quality of human beliefs and the reasons that support them than about their contents. Thus conceived, this course prepares learners to tackle all kinds of problems including those important questions that do not allow an easy and definitive answer. The inclusion of the ethical dimension is critical in the decision making of a learner and it gives a window to transformative behaviour thus making an individual to become an agent of change or transformation in society. The practical aspect of the course will include debate, academic writing, and assignments which will mould the learner so that the knowledge and skills acquired can be demonstrated individually even beyond the university life. Hence, the course objectively enable learners to enhance their transformational behaviour through moral and ethical reasoning; Emotional intelligence connects well with critical thinking and analytical thinking because the learner is able to relate well with him/her and also the society in many areas such as respect of self, other people’s views, etiquette, time Page 2 of 74 management and courtesy. Further, the course will enable the learner to know and practice national values and national cohesion within the University and outside in order to achieve the constitution mandate for Kenyans A. Purpose The aim of this unit is to enable learners to:  become better critical and analytical thinkers as well as agents of morally and ethically informed decisions and choices in their university life and beyond.  Appreciate the difference between intellectual quotient and emotional intelligence in critical decision-making process and efficient performance of duties and in relationships.  Acquire the ability to be excellent and skilful debaters, public speakers and good academic writers.  Impart knowledge and ability in applying national values and national cohesion as stipulated in the constitutions and related Acts and respective statutes. B. Learning Outcome At the end of this course, learners should be able to: a) Knowledge 1. To know the meaning of philosophy, logic, ethics as the bases of critical thinking, reasoning and analytical thinking. 2. Identify the obstacles of critical and analytical thinking. 3. To know the national values and national cohesion as stipulated in the constitutions and related Acts. b) Skills 1. Distinguish between critical thinking, critical reasoning and casual reasoning. 2. Ability to demonstrate analytical thinking in research work and argumentations. 3. Ability to demonstrate academic writing skills. 4. Demonstrate capability to identifying and solving individual and communal, individually and through teamwork. 5. Ability to debate logically and deductively avoiding fallacies 6. Ability to make informed moral choices and sound decisions 7. Ability to demonstrate the practice of national values and national cohesion within the university and beyond. c) Aptitude  Grow mentorship skills and attitude in a student  Capacity to accept one’s strength, weaknesses and threat with the aim of translating them to opportunities.  Grow and practice ethical living at individual levels and in relationship with others  Enable learners to be good future leaders who will lead by integrity Page 3 of 74   Develop attitude of asking reasonable questions, comments and suggestions on issues. Course Description Introduction to philosophy and its branches with special emphasis on logic, ethics, values and virtues, moral decision making; critical thinking, analytical thinking, critical reasoning, intellectual quotient and emotional intelligence, Values of arguments, evaluation and judgment. Obstacles to critical thinking and fallacies. Decision making and problem solving, problem identification and search for solutions, changing complaints into creative challenges; consistency and credibility; Time management; introduction to National values and national cohesion, leadership and integrity. TOPIC ONE: Introduction to Philosophy in General a) Introduction b) Etymological definition and meaning of philosophy c) Branches of philosophy d) Logic, obstacles and fallacies; e) Ethics, character and behaviour change f) Moral values, Virtues and Vices g) Conclusion TOPIC TWO; Logic and Critical Thinking a) Critical thinking and Analytical thinking b) Critical thinking tools of Analysis c) Critical and Analytical thinking Skills d) Transformation role of critical thinking to a learner’s mindset. e) Use of critical thinking in debates, Academic writing, group Discussions and presentations TOPIC THREE; Essentials of Critical Thinking and Argumentation a) Creative and critical reasoning b) Intellectual Quotient IQ and Emotional Intelligence EI c) Meaning and Values of arguments d) Obstacles and barriers of critical thinking e) Judgment TOPIC FOUR; Decision Making And Problem Solving a) Meaning of informed decision b) Ethical and moral decision making. c) Problems identification and seeking solutions d) Changing complaints into Creative Challenges TOPIC FIVE; National Values, Leadership and Integrity, EAC a) National values b) Leadership and integrity c) Corruption and remedies d) Role of Ethics and Anticorruption Commission e) Critical thinking; its implications in freedom and responsibility Page 4 of 74 References: Main Book: Namwamba, T M. (2011); Essentials of Critical Thinking and Creative Thinking 2nd edition, Njigua Books,Nairobi Other books: Bassham G, William Irwin, Carl, Henry Nardone, James M. Wallace (2004), Critical Thinking, 2nd edition, McGraw Hill, Boston, Toronto. Copi I., Carl Cohen (2005), Introduction to Logic, 12th edition, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River. Njino, J (2008); A Guide to Ethics; A Zapf Chancery Research Publishers Richard P., Linda Elder (2002); Critical Thinking: Tools for Taking Charge of Your Professional and Personal Life. Published Jun 13, by FT Press. Fisher A (2011); Critical Thinking: An Introduction; Cambridge University Press Sherry Diestler (2011); Becoming a Critical Thinker: A User Friendly Manual; Pearson publisher ASSESSMENT GRADING A. PARAMETERS MARKS i. Articulation, diction and fluency in language 10 ii. Academic writing 10 iii. Application of Critical, creative & analytical Thinking & Debating Skills 25 iv. Application of informed, ethical decision making & responsible choices 15 Total 60 B. End of Semester exam 40 Total 100 METHODOLOGY Lectures, Group Tutorials, Debates, Discussions, Academic Writing, Case Studies scenarios, Video debates and analysis, PowerPoint presentations. Page 5 of 74 TOPIC ONE; INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY Learning Outcomes By the end of this topic the learners should;  Define the meaning of philosophy, logic, ethics as the bases of critical thinking  Utilize use of logic positively in their arguments  Identifying fallacies and how to avoid fallacies in reasoning.  Explain ethics and character and explain how this determine behavior change of a university student  Have the ability to own and apply ethical values and virtues A. Etymological definition Q1. What is an etymological definition? ANS;  Latin etymologia < Greek etymología, equivalent to etymológ(os) studying the true meanings and values of words (étymo(s) true (see etymon) + lógos word, reason).  The derivation of a word. Synonyms: word origin, word source, derivation, origin.  A chronological account of the birth and development of a particular word or element of a word, often delineating its spread from one language to another and its evolving changes in form and meaning.  The study of historical linguistic change, especially as manifested in individual words.  In short, an etymological definition goes deep into the root of a particular word or phrase and gives meaning from its original language. Q 2. Define the term etymology, etymologically? Ans. The English word etymology comes from two Greek words namely;  Etymos - which means root or origin of a word  Logos - a) a study of ; b) Science of a) Knowledge or /about b) Discourse Examples  Biology -bio - life logos meaning a), b),c), d) study of life etc  Anthropology -Anthropos- Man Logos - a, b,c,d study of man and his works  Sociology - Socios- group of people or community logos meaning a),b),c), d) study society etc  Philosophy - philia - Love Sophia - Wisdom/ Gk sapience Latin Love of wisdom Page 6 of 74 B. Philosophy as defined and explained by early Greek philosophers i. Protagoras Definition The first thinker to coin the word philosophy was Protagoras (480-410) He referred to philosophy in Greek as (pronounced “philia tes Sophia “) which literally means “love of wisdom”. So, the origin of the word philosophy is two Greek words “philia” (love) and “Sophia’ (wisdom). Etymologically then, philosophy is the love of wisdom. ii. Pythagoras Definition  Angeles 1986:211 states that Pythagoras, a pre- Socratic philosopher was the first ancient Greek thinker to call himself a “philosophos” - “a “lover of wisdom” or a philosopher in Greek.  He believed that human beings can only love and seek wisdom but cannot possess it fully like the gods. For Protagoras “Sophia” or “wisdom” meant not merely knowledge of facts but of the under-laying reasons or causes of things as they appear to us or rather knowing why a thing is what it is.  According to Pythagoras only gods can possess wisdom. Human beings because of their wrong / bad conducts can only love wisdom or enquire or be curious about it. iii) CLASSICAL DEFINITION OF PHILOSOPHY Pre-socratic Philosophers and their concerns for ultimate causes The ancient thinker defined philosophy as “the science of realities in their ultimate causes”. The key words in this definition are “science” “reality” “ultimate” and “cause” What is the meaning of these terms in their classical (ancient -medieval) context? a) “Science” or “scientia” in Latin simply means knowledge. But the ancient medieval thinkers defined science in general terms as an “organized or systematized body of knowledge. “Any discipline worth the name science is said to be organized because there are certain fundamental laws, principles and methodological procedures governing the study of the scientific discipline in question. These laws give us a certain degree of certainty in that science. So there is very little room for guess work in a scientific discipline. This understanding of science explains why the so called “humanities” or “art” disciplines are sciences in their own right from the very ancient times. b) “Reality”: Etymologically the word “reality” comes from Latin word “res” meaning “thing”. Its adjective form given us the English equivalent “reality” Reality then is “that which exists or has the possibility of existence” c) “Ultimate”; The word ultimate is also from the Latin word “ultimus” which means “end” or “last” or even “furthest” the ultimate then is the “last” d) “Cause”: Cause is that which explains why a thing is. It is also that from which something else originates or that from which something else proceeds Page 7 of 74 iv) Oniang’o Contribution and comments Philosophy: From this etymological definition of philosophy, the implication is that “… philosophy consists of insight, soundness of perspective and balance of proportion in judgment “(Oniang’o 1994:2). This same author makes a clear distinction between knowledge and wisdom. According to him’ knowledge simply involves acquiring of a great deal of facts. Anyone with good memory, some amount of dedication and sound intelligence can acquire it. In short knowledge is simply the capacity for sound integration and evaluation of facts. Wisdom; wisdom on other hand is the capacity to judge rightly in serious matters like those involving life and conduct and also to integrate facts and evaluate them skillfully. It entails soundness of judgment in the choice of means and ends in practical affairs. (Oniang’o 1994:2) Let us now focus on the classical definition of philosophy 1. BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY a. Axiology comes from two Greek words; “axios” which means “worthy” and “logos” which means “the study of”. Axiology means study of values; the investigation of its nature, criteria, and metaphysical status. The analysis of values to determine their meaning, characteristics, origins, types, criteria, and epistemological status. Axiology is sub-divided into two main parts; Ethics and aesthetic  Ethics is a general term for what is often described as the "science (study) of morality". In philosophy, ethical behavior is that which is "good" or "right."  Aesthetics; comes from Greek word aisthetikos, “one who is perceptive of things through his sensations, feelings, and intuitions” the word aesthesis means “primary, rudimentary sensation” this is the study of beauty, and of related concepts such as the sublime, the tragic, the ugly, the humorous, the drab, the pretty. b. Epistemology: the science or theory of knowledge. Episteme- means knowledge, and Logos means theory/science/study/discussion of. This is the branch or discipline of philosophy which investigates the origin, structure, method and validity of knowledge. Epistemology in another sense is an enquiry into the nature and ground of experience, belief and knowledge. The types of knowledge from the point of view of epistemology; i) a priori (analytic) knowledge; this is knowledge by definition e.g., by definition only, a triangle is a figure with three sides and three angles It is analytical knowledge. ii) A posteriori knowledge; this is knowledge (empirical knowledge) based upon (sense) experience-it is synthetic knowledge. Page 8 of 74 c. Cosmology; Etymological definition, the name comes from two Greek words namely; -Kosmos-order, the form or structure of a thing and Logos-means study of the ordered universe or harmony of the word, of the universe-as contrasted with Chaos. The universe here is taken as a single integrated whole and not chaotic and disorderly. It is the study of philosophy which deals with the science of the universe as a whole-the earth-the globe- Cosmology also covers speculations about the cosmos- the world as an orderly systematic whole. It also deals with the nature of cosmos for instance; the possibility of a form of life existing on the planets is a cosmological question. d. Ontology; The word Ontology comes from two Greek words namely Onta-the really existing things, true reality and Logos-the study of the theory which accounts of. This is the branch of philosophy which deals with speculations concerning pure being (God) as well as the realm of Human existence. For instance, the nature of life and death is a concern for ontology. e. Metaphysics; The term “metaphysics” comes from two Greek words names meta- “after”, “beyond”, and physikos, “pertaining to nature”, or physis, “nature,” “natural”. Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy which studies the ultimate reality of things. An attempt to find a true account of reality. It is the study of the first principles and ultimate problems. Hence Metaphysics studies all reality, since everything real has being. f. Theodicy comes from two Greek words namely; Theos-God, Dike-Justice, right, hence theodicy refers to justice rightness of God. It is the study that attempt to justify the ways of God to humanity. It studies God not only from the point of existence and the pure being, but as the cause of all beings and origin of human life and the end of the conduct and actions of human beings. g. Psychology; Etymologically Psychology comes from two Greek words, namely; Psyche- Soul, mind, breath, spirit life. Logos-study of the soul, mind, breath of life, spirit-of a person. Psychology is the science that investigates mental states directly. It uses generally empirical methods to investigate concrete mental states like joy, fear or obsessions. Psychology investigates the laws that bind these mental states to each other or with inputs and outputs to the human organism. Page 9 of 74 C. LOGIC AND FALLACIES; a) Logic: what is it?  Logic is the branch of philosophy which treats all forms of thinking in general and particularly.  Logic is “… the study of the rules of correct argument” in the philosophical domain. Logic refers to valid reasoning which moves from universal premises or preposition to a particular conclusion/deduction or inference  One who is logical must be systematic, coherent in thought and connectedness in his or her argumentation. Two types of logic or valid reasoning. i) Deductive Logic; in deductive logic one argues from universal to a particular conclusion or inference. Eg; First premise/proposition ; all cats eat rats Second………………… ; this is a cat Conclusion/ deduction/inference; this cat eats rats Give more examples ii) Inductive logic; in inductive logic one urges from particular cases to universal conclusion which is either less or more probable.  This kind of argument is the one followed by scientists in their investigations; a scientist goes on experimenting and goes on with his investigation and testing and comes out with a particular medicine to cure diseases like Ebola or Malaria.  He begins experimenting on animals like rats, monkeys and then apes after which he comes to particular human beings only after the vaccine has high probability of curing human beings it is accepted as tablets to be prescribed for human.  But then the mosquitoes may develop some immunity some years when this happens, the scientists goes back to the drawing board to look for the vaccine which can be used by human beings and also killing the malaria; thus inductive logic tells us that the results are basically highly probable but not 100% constant at all times  Inductive arguments may have universal propositions for premises as well as for conclusion as in; Examples  All cows are mammals and have lungs  All horses are mammals and have lungs  All men are mammals and have lungs  Therefore, probably all mammals have lungs And they may have particular proposition for their conclusions, as in Idd Amin was a dictator and was ruthless Adolf Hitler was a dictator and was ruthless Namwamba is a dictator Therefore, Nambwamba is probably ruthless Page 10 of 74 The general answer  Man gets to know reality in a partial, step-by step manner. He proceeds from what is sensible to what is intelligible, from some aspects of reality to others by way of reasoning. His knowledge does not encompass reality all at once and in a complete way.  Reasoning would not be necessary if we had a perfect, once –and- for- all knowledge of reality. However, the limits of our knowledge demand the use of reasoning, so that with the use of our mind and starting from some previously acquired knowledge, we can attain further knowledge.  Hence, through induction, we obtain universal knowledge by considering some particular cases. For instance, from the repeated experience of seeing bodies fall towards the ground, we induce that this is common to all bodies.  Through deduction we proceed from universal knowledge to individual cases. For instance, if we know that all bodies tend to fall, we deduce that when we throw a specific body upward, it will fall to the ground.  Logic studies the laws that apply to different types of reasoning, that is, the conditions that must be met to make them valid. Logic studies mental processes, to make sure that they are correct and that they lead to the truth(Mariano Artigas 2006) b) FALLACIES Criteria for relevance and ambiguity cannot be made formal because of the many ways in which an attempted inference may fall. When an attempted inference fails because the premises are irrelevant or ambiguous, we shall describe the argument containing inference as a FALLACY. In this case, a fallacy is an error in thinking. The purpose of any inference in LOGIC is to establish Truth of a Conclusion. An argument whose attempted inference fails to establish the truth of its conclusion is a fallacy. FALLACIES in logic are incorrect forms of arguments. They may appear to be correct since a fallacy cannot inform us of the truth of its conclusion, yet can seem correct, its aim must be to cause us to accept or agree to its conclusion.  We have seen that, while a literal use of words can inform us, the use of emotive terms can influence our attitude or feelings. This one way in which an argument may attempt fallaciously to cause us to accept or agree to its conclusion is through the use of emotive language. Our first criterion of relevance is now the presence of an emotive appeal in premises. Fallacies of this sort may be called fallacies of emotive appeal Page 11 of 74  Examples of Fallacy i) Argumentation ad Misericordium (pity) a) “Passing this course means a great deal to me. It will enable me to stay in school and make my parents very happy. So, I hope you can see to it that I get a passing grade” b) “And so, ladies and gentlemen of the jury, I know you will find it in your hearts it dismiss the charges against this man who has had poverty and misfortune to cope with all his life and who has done his best even though, like all of us, he has made mistakes” (lawyer of the defendant.) c) “If you don’t agree that his conclusion follows from these premises. I will flunk (fail) you”- (Dean of Students) ii) Argumentum ad Hominem (abusive) “The idea of taxing large incomes at a greater rate than small ones is one of those unfortunate consequences of the ill-fated Ndegwa Commission. Therefore, this bill which is related to the commission must be defeated). iii) Arguntum ad Ignorantiam (appeal to Ignorance) “it is obviously foolish to believe in immorality, since no one has ever proved that man has a soul that survives death” iv) Argumentum ad Populum (Public) When we are urged to believe on the ground that others do so, we encounter an “appeal to the public” v) Argumentum ad Vere cundum (appeal to Authority) The error in fallacious appeal to authority consists in the attempt to associate something or someone already approved by or with some claim to authority or conclusion. E.g. “The president, ministers have agreed that the Harmonized Draft constitution is good for Kenya and there is no need for any single amendment change to it. So, you are supposed to say yes to the draft” vi) Argumentum ad Baculum (Appeal to force) Where fallacies contain threat of harm or punishment, the fallacy is that of appeal to force vii) Argumentum ad Hominem- Circumstantial appeal to person’s circumstances viii) Argumentum ad ignorantiam (Appeal to ignorance). To attempt to gain assent through reference to lack of evidence. We might not hear that in the legal context; the innocence of the accused is assumed or affirmed. Hence, lack of evidence of guilt does not prove innocence but simply constitutes the failure to prove guilt and the original assumption stands. Page 12 of 74   Fallacy comes about because of accident, hasty generalization or false course. Fallacies of the second type could be due to faulty selections or fallacies of neglected aspect.  The next two fallacies of relevance we will consider might be called fallacies of concealed assumption. Fallacies of Composition and Division The ambiguity in the fallacies of composition and division concerns the relations of classes and, properties, or wholes. Examples fallacy of division, “Kenya is known for its hospitality. You can be sure you will be welcomed by every mwananchi you meet” Fallacy of Equivocation “Kip Keino was a good Athlete. He should make a good politician”. Fallacy of Composition - “Surely we can’t trust any organization of which he is a member”. - “Pele is the best striker in the world. Therefore, we expect the Cosmos (his club) to be the best soccer club in the world”. NB: Avoid Fallacious Argumentation and conversation. Note them when they are made by others and correct them. APPLICATION OF LOGIC (fallacy included) BY LAWYERS, POLITICIANS AND PROFESSION o Politicians and lawyers utilize language and persuasive language in their careers. They are required to persuade their clients through logical argument and not mere rhetoric. o Logical argumentation is a mode of reasoning which is viewed as good or bad according to conformity or want of conformity to logical pertinence and propriety. Hence politicians and lawyers worthy of their names should engage themselves in logical argument which is conformity with the laws of correct reasoning in order to arrive at truthful and fair conclusion. This is the only way in which they can maintain their integrity by validly convincing and empowering people or in case of lawyer validly winning a case. o Logic will enable especially a lawyer to show the necessary connection between the tangible evidence and deductive or inductive argumentation and conclusion. o No wonder that both professionals in normal circumstances study philosophy so that it can open up their minds and engage themselves in valid reasoning. o In this also to be noted that both Lawyers and politicians may use fallacious reasoning in order to win a case or votes. And in some instances, this illogical argumentation has worked in their favor. Page 13 of 74 D. ETHICS AND MORALITY Etymological definition The term Ethics 1. Ethics is a general term for what is often described as the "science (study) of morality". In philosophy, ethical behaviour is that which is "good" or "right." The Western tradition of ethics is sometimes called moral philosophy. This is one part of value theory (axiology) – the other part is aesthetics – of the four major branches of philosophy, alongside metaphysics, epistemology, and logic. 2. The Term Moral: The English word moral is derived from Latin words Mores and Moralis. Both of them are translated from Greek by the famous Roman Orator Cicero. The Greek word from which the term Moral is derived from is Ethikos which means Custom or pertaining to Character.  Both ethics and morals also referes to the standard of behavior which is driven to certain values such as honesty, trust and integrity. General Understanding of Ethics and Moral i) Ethics in General  When most people think of ethics (or morals), they think of rules for distinguishing between right and wrong, such as the Golden Rule ("Do unto others as you would have them do unto you"), a code of professional conduct like the Hippocratic Oath ("First of all, do no harm"), a religious creed like the Ten Commandments ("Thou Shall not kill..."), or a wise aphorisms like the sayings of Confucius. This is the most common way of defining "ethics": norms for conduct that distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable behaviour.  Most people learn ethical norms at home, at school, in church, or in other social settings. Although most people acquire their sense of right and wrong during childhood, moral development occurs throughout life and human beings pass through different stages of growth as they mature. Ethical norms are so ubiquitous that one might be tempted to regard them as simple common-sense. On the other hand, if morality were nothing more than common-sense, then why are there so many ethical disputes and issues in our society?  One plausible explanation of these disagreements is that all people recognize some common ethical norms but different individuals interpret, apply, and balance these norms in different ways in light of their own values and life experiences.  Most societies also have legal rules that govern behaviour, but ethical norms tend to be broader and more informal than laws. Page 14 of 74  Although most societies use laws to enforce widely accepted moral standards and ethical and legal rules use similar concepts, it is important to remember that ethics and law are not the same. An action may be legal but unethical or illegal but ethical.  We can also use ethical concepts and principles to criticize, evaluate, propose, or interpret laws. Indeed, in the last century, many social reformers urged citizens to disobey laws in order to protest what they regarded as immoral or unjust laws. Peaceful civil disobedience is an ethical way of expressing political viewpoints.  Another way of defining 'ethics' focuses on the disciplines that study standards of conduct, such as philosophy, theology, law, psychology, or sociology. For example, a "medical ethicist" is someone who studies ethical standards in medicine. One may also define ethics as a method, procedure, or perspective for deciding how to act and for analyzing complex problems and issues.  For instance, in considering a complex issue like global warming, one may take an economic, ecological, political, or ethical perspective on the problem.  While an economist might examine the cost and benefits of various policies related to global warming, an environmental ethicist could examine the ethical values and principles at stake.  Many different disciplines, institutions, and professions have norms for behaviour that suit their particular aims and goals. These norms also help members of the discipline to coordinate their actions or activities and to establish the public's trust of the discipline. For instance, ethical norms govern conduct in medicine, law, engineering, and business.  Ethical norms also serve the aims or goals of research and apply to people who conduct scientific research or other scholarly or creative activities. There is even a specialized discipline, research ethics, which studies these norms. What does Ethics/Morals Study? o Ethics and morals study Human acts and not Acts of man i) Human acts; Good actions are praiseworthy. Bad actions are blamable or blameworthy) ii) Acts of men (reflex actions); these are acts which man is not the originator. They are also called reflex action. Man cannot control them e.g. breathing, blood circulation etc. Man cannot be praised or blamed because of them. Page 15 of 74  c) Moral Agent and Non-Moral Agent Moral Agent o For a person to be praised or blamed for an action he/she must be a responsible moral agent. Moral agent must have knowledge, freedom and intention and in order to be responsible of the action done Non moral Agent The people whom we have to excuse from the blame in their actions are non- responsible moral agents, e.g. the infant, mad people and the senile. Such person does not have the three qualifiers of a moral agent namely; Knowledge, freedom and intentionality of doing an action. o Inanimate beings are not moral agents. Summarizing Ethics, human acts, moral Agent and responsibility Human Moral Agent Responsible Moral or Praiseworthy Beings Freedom, of his/her immoral or capable of knowledge actions blameworthy a human intention (free act/moral will) act Human Non moral agents Not Amoral Not beings why? No freedom, responsible (neutral) praiseworthy incapable knowledge of their or of a moral intention actions blameworthy act Infants, senile, insane Source: Githui 2012 Behaviour and Character  Behavior is external; that is the response one makes with interaction with others. the behavior reflects the character of an individual. The character is within or interior of a person whereas behavior is external.  Behavior is short term while character is long.  People have different shades of characters, weak to strong levels. Similarly, the behaviors exhibited by individual differ from weak to strong. d) Free Will and Free Choice 1. Free will is the ability of rational agents to exercise control over their actions, decisions, or choices.  Free Choice consists of the mental process of judging the merits of multiple options and selecting one of them. Without freedom of choice, one is not a moral Page 16 of 74  agent and is therefore not morally responsible of his action. He cannot be blamed or praised for them. e) Conscience  Is the inner voice that speaks to a person, praising or blaming him for the action done.  In religion, conscience is seen as the voice of God in a person.  It is an aptitude, faculty, intuition, or judgment of the intellect, that distinguishes whether one's prospective actions are right or wrong by reference to norms (principles and rules) or values. Ethical/Moral Value a) What does the term value mean in Ethics? The word value comes from a Latin varele, which means, to have worth, to be strong.  Worth; is the quality of a thing which makes it desirable, desired, useful or an object of interest? Of excellence; that which is esteemed, priced or regarded highly, or as a good? The opposite of value is disvalue. The opposite of good is negative good, which is evil.  Objective value- the view that values are objective in the sense that they can be supported by careful and consistent rational argumentation as being the best under the circumstances. Universal Core Ethical Values, Vices and their Implication in Business Using core ethical values as the basis for ethical thinking can help detect situations where we focus so hard on upholding one value that we sacrifice another — e.g. we are loyal to friends and so do not always tell the truth about their actions. 1. Trustworthiness; 7. Respect 13. Self-Restraint 2. Honesty 8. Responsibility 14. Fairness 3. Integrity 9. Accountability 15. Caring 4. Reliability 10.Transparency 16. Citizenship 5. Loyalty 11. Diligence 6. Truthfulness 12. Perseverance VIRTUES i) What is a virtue?  Virtue is a positive/good action which has been repeated for a long time by a community or has come through a particular tradition.  It has stood the test of time in human life and practice.  Virtues are cross-cutting values, regardless of race, religion or age. The virtues do not go out of fashion as might happen to blue jeans. Page 17 of 74   Good human habits are indispensable to a person who wants self-fulfillment and that of others.  Human maturity therefore is a state of virtues. It is a situation of a person who has acquired good habits, is trying to develop them by exercising them as well as to acquire those that he is lacking. A virtue as power/faculty  Virtues can be said to be a power or faculty which has been brought to perfection. Such a capacity enables a person to do good acts easily, promptly, gladly and naturally in a habitual or stable Manner.  The word virtue is related to Latin Vis which means strength; it empowers a person to carry out proper acts effectively. Virtues are important in leadership VICES i) What is a Vice?  Absence of due disposition. A human act which is repeated several vices and becomes like second nature/habit in a person  Under each cardinal virtue, there is a vice. A vice leads a person away from the goal of human life. A vice destroys a person and society. According to the Greek philosopher Aristotle, virtue is in the middle of the two extremes (as illustrated in the following chart) VIRTUES AND CORRESPONDING VICES Anger Meekness, Lack of energy of will Rashness/boldness Courage, Cowardice Shamelessness Modesty Timidity Licentiousness Temperance Drunkenness Profit (Crematistica) The just Loss Wastefulness Liberality Miserliness Boastfulness Sincerity Self depreciation Flattery Friendship Brusqueness Servility Dignity Obstinacy Vanity Self-respect Humility Extravagance Magnificence Meanness Buffoonery (mockery) Wittiness Boorishness iii) List of vices according to Dante (Italian thinker and literary Artist They are the ones commonly known in traditional Christianity; 1. Pride or vanity 5. Gluttony 2. Avarice (covetousness, greed) 6. Envy or jealousy 3. Lust 7. Sloth or laziness 4. Wrath or anger Moral agent should choose the life of values and virtues and not life of the vices Page 18 of 74 Samples Debate topics 1. “God or Darwin, creation or evolution” debate; oppose or propose as you divide yourselves in groups 2. “My dress my Choice……………………………..” 3. “Quack doctors in Kenya should be caught and take to court and jailed with immediate effect” debate REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Define and Explain the etymological definiation of the term philosophy 2. What is ethics and what does it study? 3. Distinguish the moral agent from a non moral agent 4. Compare and contrast deductive and inductive logic 5. Distinguish between character and behaviour 6. Discuss the importance of ethical valuesand virtues in the life of a student and society 7. Discuss the disvalues of Vices at the individual and community level as well as leadership 8. Explain the ingredients of making an ethical university as well as an ethical Kenya today where each individual is driven by ethical values and virtues in order to achieve success and avoid moral decay. 9. “Philosophy is irrerevant in today’s world”. Discuss this statement as you defend the relevance of Philosophy today to a university student. 10.Demonstrate the relevance of ethical values, virtues and vices in the life of a student, lecturer and leaders in any organisation today. NB: Practical session of the topic to be conducted by tutorial fellows The tutorial fellow should also give Case study Scenario e.g. debate between Obama and Romney this will spur discussions and full participation Presentation 1. The presenter should use 4-5 minutes 2. The tutorial fellow should give marks to presenter any one participating in terms of presentation, questions and comments 3. Check mastery of language/ proficiency of English language 4. Confidence and ability to convince the listeners/body language 5. The tutorial fellow should give marks/scores to each learner who are present in the class 6. Make sure the students have signed the attendance sheet 7. Punctuality at entry and exit point is also to be awarded Page 19 of 74  8. If a student does not attend, he/she must produce medical card else be deducted a mark. Page 20 of 74 TOPIC TWO; INTRODUCTION TO CRITICAL THINKING Learning Outcomes By the end of this topic the learners should;  Distinguish between critical thinking, critical reasoning and casual reasoning  Identify the obstacles to critical thinking  Learn how to think critically thus deal competently with issues.  To utilise the critical thinking skills in their research work  Use the critical thinking skills in their debates; group Discussions and presentations  Know the transformation role of critical thinking to a student mindset. A. CRITICAL THINKING AND ANALYTICAL THINKING i) What is Critical thinking?  Critical thinking; is the study of clear and unclear thinking.  One sense of the term critical means "crucial" or "highly important"; a second sense derives from (kritikos), which means "able to discern".  Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action.  Critical thinking clarifies goals, examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, accomplishes actions, and assesses conclusions. Page 21 of 74  List of Critical Skills 1st. Interpretation; having the ability to understand the information you are being presented with and being able to communicate the meaning of that information to others. 2nd. Analysis; Having the ability to connect pieces of information together in order to determine what the intended meaning of the information was meant to represent. 3rd. Inference; Having the ability to understand and recognize what elements you will need in order to determine an accurate conclusion or hypothesis from the information you have at your disposal. 4th. Evaluation; Being able to evaluate the credibility of statements or descriptions of a person’s experience, judgment or opinion in order to measure the validity of the information being presented. 5th. Explanation; Having the ability to not only restate information, but add clarity and perspective to the information, so it can be fully understood by anyone you are sharing it with. 6th. Self-Regulation; having the awareness of your own thinking abilities and the elements that you are using to find results. Procedure of Critical Thinking Critical thinking calls for the ability to: 1st. Recognize problems, to find workable means for meeting those problems 2nd. Understand the importance of prioritization and order of precedence in problem solving 3rd. Gather and marshal pertinent (relevant) information 4th. Recognize unstated assumptions and values 5th. Comprehend and use language with accuracy, clarity, and discernment 6th. Interpret data, to appraise evidence and evaluate arguments 7th. Recognize the existence (or non-existence) of logical relationships between propositions 8th. Draw warranted conclusions and generalizations 9th. Put to test the conclusions and generalizations at which one arrives 10th. Reconstruct one's patterns of beliefs on the basis of wider experience 11th. Render accurate judgments about specific things and qualities in everyday life ii) What is analytical thinking  Analytical thinking is a critical component of visual thinking that gives one the ability to solve problems quickly and effectively.  It involves a methodical step-by-step approach to thinking that allows you to break down complex problems into single and manageable components. Page 22 of 74  Analytical thinking involves the process of gathering relevant information and identifying key issues related to this information.  This type of thinking also requires you to compare sets of data from different sources; identify possible cause and effect patterns, and draw appropriate conclusions from these datasets in order to arrive at appropriate solutions. Analytical thinking can be broken down into three main steps: 1. Gather Information  Gathering information requires that you ask appropriate questions of yourself and of others in order to gain the necessary insights that will enable you to make more effective decisions about the problems you are facing.  However, you also need to consider the relevance of your sources and the means by which you will gather this information.  Here you must gather all the necessary information that will be required to help you solve your problems.  You also need to recognize whether you need to obtain more or higher quality information in order to collect all the relevant data you will need to arrive at an appropriate solution. 2. Identify Issues and Problems When it comes to analytical thinking, it’s important to develop your ability to recognize underlying issues or problems based on trends, associations and cause- effect relationships between datasets. 3. Organize Information  Once all relevant information has been collected successfully, you must now organize and integrate all the pieces in a way that will provide you with insights and ideas that can be used to draw appropriate conclusions.  This in turn will lay down the foundations for potential solutions to the problem or problems you are facing. Analytical Skills  Analytical skill is the ability to visualize, that articulate, conceptualize or solve both complex and uncomplicated problems by making decisions that are sensible given the available information. Such skills include demonstration of the ability to apply logical thinking to gathering and analyzing information, designing and testing solutions to problems, and formulating plans. Analytical Skills include; 1st. Analyzing abilities: The ability to take a large volume of data and then analyze trends and produce a result 2nd. Dealing with problems: Give examples of problem solving at work Page 23 of 74 3rd.Programming: Write a systems program with accurate results output 4th. Reporting: A written report on the effectiveness of a particular event such as a political campaign 5th. Handling assignments effectively: Discovering a more efficient and productive way to complete a particular job task. 6th. Process: Creating a set of steps to implement a process that could have a yes or no outcome. 7th. Problem handler: Identifying a problem and then creating a repair to avoid it becoming a major problem. 8th. Collect information, analyze the data from the information collected, and come up with a solution to a problem.  To test for analytical skills, one might be asked to look for inconsistencies in an advertisement, put a series of events in the proper order, or critically read an essay.  Usually standardized tests and interviews include an analytical section that requires the examiner to use their logic to pick apart a problem and come up with a solution. B. CRITICAL THINKING TOOLS OF ANALYSIS Critical thinking Tools of Analysis i. All reasoning has a purpose o Take time to state your purpose clearly o Distinguish your purpose from related purposes o Check periodically to be sure you are still on target o Choose significant and realistic purposes ii) All reasoning is an attempt to figure out something, to settle question, to and solve problems o Take time to clearly and precisely state the question at issue o Express the question in several ways to clarify its meaning and scope o Break the question in sub questions o Identify if the question has one right answer, is it a matter of opinion, or requires reasoning from more than one point of view. iii) All reasoning is based on Assumptions o Clearly identify your assumption and determine whether they are justifiable o Consider how your assumptions are shaping your point of view iv) All reasoning is done from some point of view o Identify your point of view o Seek other points of view and identify their strengths as well as their weaknesses o Strive to be fair-minded in evaluating all point of view Page 24 of 74 v) All reasoning is based on Data, information and evidence o Restrict your claims to those supported by the data you have o Search for information that opposes your position as well as information that support it o Make sure that all information used is clear, accurate and relevant to the question at issue o Make sure you have gathered sufficient information vi) All reasoning expressed through, and shaped by concepts and ideas o Identify key concepts and explain them clearly o Consider alternatives concepts or alternatives definitions to concepts o Make sure you are using concepts with care and precision vii) All reasoning contains inference or interpretations by which we draw conclusions and give meaning to data o Infer only what the evidence implies o Check inferences for their consistency with each other o Identify assumption which lead to your inferences viii) All reasoning leads somewhere or has implications and consequences o Trace the implications and consequences that follow from your reasoning o Search for negative as well as positive implications o Consider all possible consequences C. TRANSFORMATION ROLE OF CRITICAL THINKING IN A STUDENT MINDSET. i) Key areas to consider in the process of transformation of the mind to research work 1. Critical thinking is also referred to as higher-order thinking. Critical thinking is a purposeful, structured and disciplined mode of seeking out and processing information. 2. It is important in research applications because it allows a researcher to identify, acquire and analyze the information necessary to resolve a research question. A lack of critical thinking skills leaves a scholar with a mountain of indecipherable information. 3. Critical thinking in applications means becoming information literate. Critical thinkers know where to look for information, how to synthesize it and use it to solve problems. Becoming information literate means becoming an informed consumer of information. 4. Critical thinking is crucial to all stages of research applications. The first step in research is identifying the question. Without using critical thinking to develop a research question on crime, a scholar would be directionless in where to start looking for information. Page 25 of 74  5. Disciplined and purposeful thinking guides the researcher to useful information sources. 6. Critical thinking allows a researcher to compile information into a report presenting his unique answer to the question using the research information to support the answer. If the scholar concludes the decline was related to a decrease in gang activity, he would provide statistical data and other research in a logical and informed fashion so the reader concludes there is a relationship. ii) Advantage of A critical Thinking Student in the generation of ideas and considering options 1. A good critical thinker knows how to separate facts from opinions, how to examine an issue from all sides, how to make rational inferences and how to withhold personal judgment or biases. 2. The critical thinker remains calm and knows when he is right. Critical thinkers are less likely to fall for scams or tricks because they approach everything with a healthy amount of scepticism. Those who lack critical thinking skills often assume that everything they hear is true, regardless of the source. 3. Critical thinkers consider all options before they act. If time is an important factor, they consider the fastest method of achieving a goal. They may even discover a shortcut. Critical thinkers embody the phrase "work smarter, not harder." They are masters of efficiency. 4. Many of the highest paying jobs require critical thinking skills, such as generating effective ideas and making important decisions. Job interviewers often ask applicants questions that test their ability to think critically. Critical thinking skills may also be a deciding factor when an employee seeks a promotion. 5. A critical thinker has the self-awareness to know the difference between a rational thought based on careful consideration and an emotional response based on personal bias. Emotion is the enemy of reason. By understanding your own perspective, you can also consider the perspective of others and come to a conclusion based on fact, not feelings. Page 26 of 74  D. USE OF CRITICAL THINKING IN DEBATES; GROUP DISCUSSIONS AND PRESENTATIONS A. DEBATE i) What is a Debate? o Debate is contention in argument; dispute, controversy; discussion; especially the discussion of questions of public interest in Parliament or in any assembly. o Debate is a method of interactive and representational argument. Debate is a broader form of argument than deductive reasoning, which only examines whether a conclusion is a consequence of premises, and factual argument, which only examines what is or isn't the case, or rhetoric, which is a technique of persuasion. o Though logical consistency, factual accuracy and some degree of emotional appeal to the audience are important elements of the art of persuasion, in debating, one side often prevails over the other side by presenting a superior "context" and/or framework of the issue, which is far more subtle and strategic. o The outcome of a debate depends upon consensus or some formal way of reaching a resolution, rather than the objective facts as such. In a formal debating contest, there are rules for participants to discuss and decide on differences, within a framework defining how they will interact. o Debating is commonly carried out in many assemblies of various types to discuss matters and to make resolutions about action to be taken, often by a vote. Deliberative bodies such as parliaments, legislative assemblies, and meetings of all sorts engage in debates. In particular, in parliamentary democracies a legislature debates and decides on new laws. o Formal debates between candidates for elected office, such as the leaders’ debates and the U.S. presidential election debates, are sometimes held in democracies. Debating is also carried out for educational and recreational purposes, usually associated with educational establishments. o The major goal of the study of debate as a method or art is to develop the ability to debate rationally from either position with equal ease. ii) Forms of Debate i. Parliamentary Debate;  Parliamentary Debate (sometimes referred to as "parli" in the United States) is conducted under rules derived from British parliamentary procedure. It features the competition of individuals in a multi-person setting. It borrows terms such as "government" and "opposition" from the British parliament (although the term "proposition" is sometimes used rather than "government" when debating in the United Kingdom). Page 27 of 74   Throughout the world, parliamentary debate is commonly known and practised including here in Kenya where both the National and the Senate Assemblies present bills to be discussed passed.  In parliaments and other legislatures, members debate proposals regarding legislation, vote, and make resolutions which become laws. Debates are usually conducted by proposing a law, or changes to a law. Members of the parliament or congress then discuss it and eventually cast their vote for or against such a law. ii. Debate between candidates for high office;  In jurisdictions which elect holders of high political office such as president or prime minister, candidates sometimes debate in public, usually during a general election campaign. iii. Competitive debate;  In competitive debates teams compete, and one is judged the winner by some criteria. There are many different styles of competitive debate, organizations and rules.  One purpose is to train and educate young people who may in future be required to debate and resolve matters. Competitive debate is carried out at the local, national, and international level.  In schools and colleges, competitive debate often takes the form of a contest with explicit rules. It may be presided over by one or more judges. Each side seeks to win, following the rules. Each side is either in favor of ("for, 'Affirmative', Pro"), or opposed to ("against, 'Negative', Con"), a statement (proposition, moot or Resolution).  The "for" side must argue supporting the proposition; the "against" side must refute these arguments sufficiently to warrant not adopting the proposition; they are not required to propose any alternative. iv. Emergency Debate  Emergency debates are specific and limited debates requested by members on short notice (not scheduled) and granted by the Speaker. These types of debates are found in the British and Canadian parliamentary systems. v. Public Debate  The International Public Debate Association (IPDA), is a national debate league currently active in the (Texas) in San Antonio, Texas, and other states in United States. IPDA is the fastest growing debate association. Although evidence is used, the central focus of IPDA is to promote a debate format that Page 28 of 74  emphasizes public speaking and real-world persuasion skills over the predominate use of evidence and speed.  To further this goal, IPDA predominantly uses lay judges in order to encourage an audience-centered debate style. Furthermore, although the main goal of the debater is to persuade the judge, IPDA also awards the best speakers within each tournament.  IPDA offers both team debate where two teams of two debate and individual debate. In both team and individual debate, a list of topics is given to the two sides thirty minutes before the start of the round. A striking negotiation ensues to pick a topic. The sides, one affirming the resolution and one negating the resolution, then prepare an opening speech, a cross-examination of the other side, and closing remarks for the round. iii) Concepts of Debate Debating has strict rules of conduct and quite sophisticated arguing techniques and you will often be in a position where you will have to argue the opposite of what you believe in. 1. The Topic  If a debate is a form of argument then it logically follows that there must be something to argue about. This is called the TOPIC.  The topic changes from debate to debate. They are often about current issues of public importance ("That Scotland should be an independent country from the United Kingdom) or about general philosophies or ideas ("That beauty is better than brains"). All topics begin with the word "That".  When organizing a debate it is important to select a topic that is appropriate to the age and education of the debaters concerned. Often topics will cover areas that the debaters have a specific interest in or, in the case of schools’ debates that have been covered in classes or are current news items. ii) Proposers and opposers  As in other arguments there are two sides to any topic. The team that agrees with the topic is called the Proposers (AFFIRMATIVE) or the `government' in parliamentary debating) and the team that disagrees with the topic is called the Opposers (NEGATIVE) (or the `opposition' in parliamentary debating).  Proposers and opposers. In the English world and countries which are British influenced, the two sides of the debate are called the opposers and the proposers of the motion. This is what in America they call the Affirmative and the negative parts of the debate. But the aim of the debate is the same. Page 29 of 74  The procedure of the Debate; timelines, topic and groups/teams iii) Procedure  If a debate is going to take place then it must be agreed in advance what the debate is going to be about. Thus, it must be agreed what the topic means. This may seem obvious in a topic like "……." but with something like "That a cabbage is better than a rose" is might not be so clear.  Deciding and explaining what a topic means is called `defining the topic'. The job of defining begins with the AFFIRMATIVE.  The first speaker of the affirmative must explain in clear terms what they believe the topic means. In deciding this the affirmative team should always try to use the "person on the street" test. That is if this topic were presented to the average person on the street - is this what they would take it to mean.  Where the topic is too obscure to allow this test then apply the `reasonability' test. The affirmative team should ask themselves. "Is this definition reasonable? Is it something the average person might expect? Does it allow for both sides of the debate?". If you can answer yes to these questions then the definition is probably reasonable, if not search for something more reasonable.  Try to avoid the dictionary, except in cases where you don't understand a word. In your definition explain the meaning of the whole topic rather than each separate word.  The negative team may agree with or choose to challenge the definition presented. The negative team should be very careful about challenging as it is difficult to continue the debate with two definitions.  Challenges may be made if the definition given is unreasonable or if it defines the opposition out of the debate. If the negative team chooses to challenge the definition it should be done by the first speaker who should clearly outline why the negative is challenging and then propose a better definition.  Debating groups should have about 20 persons in order to achieve full participation, in-depth tackling of the topic, acquisition of debating skills thus achieving the goal of the debate in a critical thinker Timelines  Because debating is a team event it is important that the three speakers work together as a team. The TEAM LINE is the basic statement of "why the topic is true" (for the affirmative) and "why the topic is false" (for the negative). Page 30 of 74   It should be a short sentence, presented by the first speaker of each team and used by the other two speakers to enforce the idea of teamwork. iv)The Roles of the Speakers; Opposers and Proposers in Debate In a debating team each speaker has specified roles that they must fulfil to play their part in the team. They are laid out below in the order that the speakers will speak.  1st Affirmative/proposer must: o define the topic. o present the affirmative's team line. o outline briefly what each speaker in their team will talk about. o present the first half of the affirmative case.  1st negative/opposer must: o accept or reject the definition. If you don't do this it is assumed that you accept the definition. o present the negative team line. o outline briefly what each of the negative speakers will say. o rebut a few of the main points of the first affirmative speaker. o the 1st negative should spend about one quarter of their time rebutting. o present the first half of the negative team's case.  2nd affirmative/proposer must: o reaffirm the affirmative’s team line. o rebut the main points presented by the 1st negative. o the 2nd affirmative should spend about one third of their time rebutting. o present the second half of the affirmative's case.  2nd negative/opposer must: o reaffirm the negative's team line. o rebut some of the main points of the affirmative's case. o the 2nd negative should spend about one third of their time rebutting. o present the second half of the negative's case.  3rd affirmative/proposer must: o reaffirm the affirmative's team line. o rebut all the remaining points of the negative's case. o the 3rd affirmative should spend about two thirds to three quarters of their time rebutting. o present a summary of the affirmative's case. o round off the debate for the affirmative. Page 31 of 74   3rd negative must: o reaffirm the negative's team line. o rebut all the remaining points of the affirmative's case. o the 3rd negative should spend about two thirds to three quarters of their time rebutting. o present a summary of the negative's case. o round off the debate for the negative. o Neither third speaker may introduce any new parts of their team's cases. v)REBUTTAL  In debating each team will present points in favour of their case. They will also spend some time criticizing the arguments presented by the other team. This is called rebuttal. There are a few things to remember about rebuttal.  Logic - to say that the other side is wrong is not enough. You have to show why the other side is wrong. This is best done by taking a main point of the other side's argument and showing that it does not make sense. Because a lot of the thinking for this needs to be done quickly this is one of the most challenging and enjoyable aspects of debating.  Pick the important points - try to rebut the most important points of the other side's case. You will find that after a while these are easier and easier to spot. One obvious spot to find them is when the first speaker of the other team outlines briefly what the rest of the team will say. But do not rebut those points until after they have actually been presented by the other team.  `Play the ball' - do not criticize the individual speakers, criticize what they say. To call someone fat, ugly or a nerd does not make what they say wrong and it will also lose you marks. Techniques of the individual speaker. There are many techniques that each speaker can use in their speech but there are three main areas that you will be marked on and they are; A. MATTER,  Matter is what you say, it is the substance of your speech. You should divide your matter into arguments and examples.  An argument is a statement "The topic is true (or false depending on which side you are on) because of x", where the argument fills in for the x.  An example is a fact or piece of evidence which supports an argument. Any examples that you use should be relevant to the topic at hand. Examples which Page 32 of 74  have very little or nothing to do with the topic only make a speech look weak and lacking substance.  Matter cannot be just a long list of examples. You do not win a debate by creating the biggest pile of facts. Facts are like bricks in a wall, if you don't use them, cement them together properly then they are useless.  Similarly, you cannot win a debate solely by proving that some of the facts of the opposition are wrong. It may weaken their case a little, the same way that removing some of the bricks from a wall will, but you really need to attack the main arguments that the other side presents to bring the whole wall crashing down.  Many debates are on currently important issues so it is good for any debater to keep themselves informed of what is happening in the world around them and what are the issues involved. B. METHOD Where matter is what you say method is how you organize what you say. There are many delicious pieces of the method pie; i) TEAM.  Good team method involves unity and logic. Unity is created by all members being aware of the definition, what the other speakers have said and what the team line is.  Each member of the team needs to reinforce the team line and be consistent with what has already been said and what will be said by the other members of their team.  You may as well shoot yourself in the foot as change the team line mid debate just because you think it isn't working. Your team will look poorly organized and will be severely penalized by the adjudicator. ii) INDIVIDUAL.  You must structure your own speech well. The first step is to have a clear idea of your own arguments and which examples you will be using to support those arguments.  As you speak make a clear division between arguments and let the audience know when you are moving from one argument to the next, this is called sign posting and is a very important debating tool.  The key thing to remember is that although you know exactly what you are saying the audience has never heard it before and will only hear it once so you have to be very clear about it. Page 33 of 74  C. MANNER Manner is how you present what you say and there are various aspects of manner that you need to be aware of. There is no one prescribed way of presenting your argument. Here are some tips and pointers. i)Eye Contact;  If you look at the audience you will hold their attention.  If you spend your time reading from cue cards or looking at a point just above the audience's head, they will lose concentration very quickly.  When you've got them by the eyeballs their hearts and minds will follow. ii)Voice.  There are many things you can do with your voice to make it effective.  You must project so that you can be heard but 4 minutes of constant shouting will become very annoying very quickly.  Use volume, pitch and speed to emphasize important points in your speech.  A sudden loud burst will grab your audience's attention while a period of quiet speaking can draw your audience in and make them listen carefully. iii) Body.  Make hand gestures deliberately and with confidence  Move your head and upper body to maintain eye contact with all members of the audience (although automatically moving your head from side to side makes the adjudicator want to pop a ping-pong ball in there).  If you want to walk up and down do so but move with effect and deliberately, don't wear worry lines into the carpet.  If you are going to stand still, stand with confidence. Don't let your body apologize for your presence by appearing nervous. iv) Nervous Habits.  Avoid them like the plague.  Use your whole person to effect, don't let any one thing detract from your ability to persuade the audience. ix) Elocution and other big words.  This is not an exercise in grammar or elocution. Try to avoid being too informal but don't go overboard the other way.  There are no marks to be gained from trying to use big words you don't understand or can't pronounce. In the same way it is a huge mistake to let someone else write your speech.  People that do that aren't entering the spirit or developing the skills of debating and end up looking really silly getting stuck on a word they just can't say. Page 34 of 74 THE MARKING SCHEME. Every adjudicator/ Tutorial Fellow mark to a standard. You will get a mark out of ………for matter … for manner and ………... for method, a mark out of ……... total. The average for any speaker is ………. NB: Don't spend your debating life worrying about numbers, like most statistics they are meaningless unless you understand the reasons behind them. Adjudicators are friendly people who will happily speak with you after the debate and tell you about your individual performance. B. ACADEMIC WRITING i) Definition of the Academic writing Academic writing refers to a particular style of expression. Characteristics of academic writing include:  A formal tone  Use of the third-person rather than first-person perspective  Clear focus on the issue or topic rather than the author’s opinion  Precise word choice Writers employing the formal academic style avoid jargon, slang, and abbreviations.  Academic writing is formal writing. Many novice writers have trouble telling informal writing apart from formal writing.  They resort to informal writing, since it’s easier and more familiar.  Characteristics of informal writing include the use of colloquialisms and jargon, writing in the first person or making “I” statements, making direct personal statements, and imprecise word choices. In comparison, the most formal writing of all can be found in legal documents.  Informal writing is fine for diary entries, blogs, personal writing, letters or emails to friends.  However, writers working on papers for school, college application essays, scientific papers, research papers, conference presentations, and business proposals generally employ a more formal style akin to donning a suit or dress to attend a wedding. Examples of informal and formal writing. o Informal writing: I think he’s a loser.  In this example, the first statement is informal. The writer speaks in the first person, using the word “I”, and states an opinion.  The author employs the slang term “loser”, which is inappropriate in a formal context. He also uses the contraction “he’s.”  If this were in the middle of a paragraph, it may be easier to understand to whom the author is referring. Taken as a simple statement, however, it’s impossible to know whether the writer thinks his best friend, his dog, or a rock star is a loser! Page 35 of 74  o Formal writing: Macbeth’s horrific choices cause him to lose everything he holds dear: children, wife, friends, crown and king.  The second example uses an academic, formal style typical of what professors might expect at the college level. Written in the third-person, the sentence omits references to the writer and focuses on the issue.  Strong, specific adjectives like “horrific” convey the author’s view clearly without resorting to slang.  The use of the colon—sometimes discouraged by professors as an antiquated punctuation mark, but still used in formal documents—creates a strong, formal feel when properly used here to introduce a list. ii) Academic Writing Skills Writers seeking to improve their academic writing skills should focus their efforts on three key areas: 1. Strong writing:  Thinking precedes writing. Good writers spend time distilling information from their sources and reviewing major points before creating their work.  Writing detailed outlines helps many authors organize their thoughts. Strong academic writing begins with solid planning. 2. Excellentgrammar:  Learn the major and minor points of grammar. Spend time practicing writing and seek detailed feedback from teachers, professors or writers you respect.  English grammar can be detailed and complex, but strong writers command the major points after many years of study and practice.  Using a good writing reference, such as Your Dictionary, can provide advice on the more troublesome points of grammar. Proper punctuation uses and good proofreading skills improve academic writing as well. Consistent stylistic approach: 3.  Whether your school or employer requires use of the MLA, APA or Chicago Manual of Style, choose one style and stick to it.  Each of these style sheets provide guidance on how to write out numbers, references, citations, and more. All are available at your local bookseller in hard copy or online.  The MLA is commonly used in English classes, while APA is for psychology and science. Chicago Manual of Style is often the choice in the workplace. Academic writing skills encompass strong composition, excellent grammar, and a consistent stylistic approach. iii) Effective Discussion Skills  Effective discussions are necessary for effective meetings, which in turn, are necessary for effective teams. Page 36 of 74  Every team meeting should include actions that facilitate the process of discussion.  The following techniques are presented in the framework of team meetings, but they are useful whenever an effective discussion is important. Effective Discussion Skills Skill Note If you are unclear about the topic being discussed or the Ask for logic in another person's arguments, ask someone to define Clarification the purpose, focus, or limits of the discussion. Ask members to repeat ideas in different ways. Encourage more-or-less equal participation among group Act as Gatekeepers members by "throttling" dominators. Make openings for less aggressive members by asking their opinions directly or making a general request for input. Listen Actively explore one another's ideas rather than debating or defending each idea that comes up. Occasionally compile what has been said and restate it to Summarize the group in summary form. Follow a summary with a question to check for agreement. Contain Digression Do not permit overlong examples or irrelevant discussion. If portions of the agenda take longer than expected, remind Manage Time the team of deadlines and time allotments so work can be either accelerated or postponed, or time rebudgeted appropriately. End the Discussion Learn to tell when there is nothing to be gained from further discussion. Help the team close a discussion and decide the issue. Test for Consensus Summarize the group's position on an issue, state the decision that seems to have been made, and check whether the team agrees with the summary. Throughout the meeting, assess the quality of discussion. Constantly Evaluate Ask: Are we getting what we want from this discussion? If the Meeting Process not, what can we do differently in the remaining time? Page 37 of 74  C. PUBLIC SPEAKING AND PRESENTATION SKILLS Every public speaker should be able to: 1. Research a topic – Good speakers stick to what they know. Great speakers research what they need to convey their message. 2. Focus – Help your audience grasp your message by focusing on your message. Stories, humour, or other “sidebars” should connect to the core idea. Anything that doesn’t needs to be edited out. 3. Organize ideas logically – A well-organized presentation can be absorbed with minimal mental strain. Bridging is key. 4. Employ quotations, facts, and statistics – Don’t include these for the sake of including them, but do use them appropriately to complement your ideas. 5. Master metaphors – Metaphors enhance the understandability of the message in a way that direct language often cannot. 6. Tell a story – Everyone loves a story. Points wrapped up in a story are more memorable, too! 7. Start strong and close stronger – The body of your presentation should be strong too, but your audience will remember your first and last words (if, indeed, they remember anything at all). 8. Incorporate humour – Knowing when to use humour is essential. So is developing the comedic timing to deliver it with greatest effect. 9. Vary vocal pace, tone, and volume – A monotone voice is like fingernails on the chalkboard. 10.Punctuate words with gestures – Gestures should complement your words in harmony. Tell them how big the fish was, and show them with your arms. 11.Utilize 3-dimensional space – Chaining yourself to the lectern limits the energy and passion you can exhibit. Lose the notes, and lose the chain. 12.Complement words with visual aids – Visual aids should aid the message; they should not be the message. 13.Analyze your audience – Deliver the message they want (or need) to hear. 14.Connect with the audience – Eye contact is only the first step. Aim to have the audience conclude “This speaker is just like me!” The sooner, the better. 15.Interact with the audience – Ask questions (and care about the answers). Solicit volunteers. Make your presentation a dialogue. 16.Conduct a Q&A session – Not every speaking opportunity affords a Q&A session, but understand how to lead one productively. Use the Q&A to solidify the impression that you are an expert, not (just) a speaker. 17.Lead a discussion – Again, not every speaking opportunity affords time for a discussion, but know how to engage the audience productively. 18.Obey time constraints – Maybe you have 2 minutes. Maybe you have 45. Either way, customize your presentation to fit the time allowed, and respect your audience by not going over time. 19.Craft an introduction – Set the context and make sure the audience is ready to go, whether the introduction is for you or for someone else. Page 38 of 74  20.Exhibit confidence and poise – These qualities are sometimes difficult for a speaker to attain, but easy for an audience to sense. 21.Handle unexpected issues smoothly – Maybe the lights will go out. Maybe the projector is dead. Have a plan to handle every situation. 22.Be coherent when speaking off the cuff – Impromptu speaking (before, after, or during a presentation) leaves a lasting impression too. Doing it well tells the audience that you are personable, and that you are an expert who knows their stuff beyond the slides and prepared speech. 23.Seek and utilize feedback – Understand that no presentation or presenter (yes, even you!) is perfect. Aim for continuous improvement, and understand that the best way to improve is to solicit candid feedback from as many people as you can. 24.Listen critically and analyze other speakers – Study the strengths and weakness of other speakers. 25.Act and speak ethically – Since public speaking fears are so common, realize the tremendous power of influence that you hold. Use this power responsibly. Review questions 1. Compare and contrast critical thinking and analytical thinking 2. Show how you can best utilise critical thinking and analytical thinking skill in a debate/ discussion 3. Discuss how a student who has learnt critical thinking and analytical thinking should not be influenced by peer pressure or emotions in situations like involvement in strikes or alcohol na substance abuse. 4. Explain how a critical and analytical thinker should be the best in academic writing and research undertakings. 5. Give a brief summary of any book which has treated critical thinking and reasoning as a topic 6. Explain how critical and analytical thinking can influence a student from secondary studies to university studies. 7. Define and explain the meaning and importance of critical thinking 8. Discuss how skills and procedure of critical thinking can transform a 1 st year student to be an effective marketer of the university to other students and communities within and outside the university. 9. Give two reasons why critical thinking is relevant to a university student in this modern age of Information technology. 10.You are chosen to represent DeKUT to coach secondary school students on the importance of debate. Explain the key components and skills of a good debate, a good debator, the choice of the topic and the role of the opposers and proposers and the work of the adjudicator or the judge. These are the point you will be expected to the students in that secondary students. Remember that ARTICULATION and DICTION are critical in making a good and effective debator. Page 39 of 74  11.Discuss how debating can make one an effective politician, lawyer, CEO of a company and even a president of a country. 12.Formulate two topics of a good debate. The topic should be relevant to the Kenyan people or students in the year 2014-2015. This means that it should focus on current issues which can bring solutions to current problems. 13.In your considered view what are barriers of Debating which makes one a bad or ineffective debator. 14.Explain the importance of the following in academic life of a student  Effective discussion  Academic writing skills  Public speaking skills Practical Application Debate Title i. “Married women should never fight their husbands at all cost in kenya today” Propose or oppose. ii. “University students should never be engaged in strikes” Propose or oppose iii. etc Page 40 of 74 TOPIC THREE; ESSENTIALS OF CRITICAL THINKING AND VALUES OF ARGUMENTATION Learning Outcomes By the end of this topic the learners should;  Distinguish between critical thinking and critical reasoning  Distinguish Intellectual Quotient, Emotional Intelligence and artificial intelligence  Discuss the analysis and evaluation of arguments  Identify the Obstacles and barriers critical thinking  Explain what Judgment is in critical thinking a) CREATIVE AND CRITICAL REASONING  Critical thinking is a way of deciding whether a claim is true, partially true, or false. Critical thinking is a process that leads to skills that can be learned, mastered and used.  Critical thinking is a tool by which one can come about reasoned conclusions based on a reasoned process. This process incorporates passion and creativity, but guides it with discipline, practicality and common sense.  Critical thinking is a decision-making process. Specifically, critical thinking means carefully considering a problem, claim, question, or situation in order to determine the best solution.  That is, when you think critically, you take the time to consider all sides of an issue, evaluate evidence, and imagine different scenarios and possible outcomes. It sounds like a lot of work, but the same basic critical thinking skills can be applied to all types of situations. Reasoning Skills  Reasoning skills, on the other hand, deal more with the process of getting from point A, the problem, to point B, the solution. You can get there haphazardly, or you can get there by reason.  A reason is a motive or cause for something—a justification for thoughts, actions, or opinions. In other words, it's why you do, say, or think what you do. But your reasons for doing things aren't always reasonable—as you know if you've ever done or said something in the heat of the moment.  Reasoning skills ask you to use good sense and base your reasons on facts, evidence, or logical conclusions rather than just on your emotions.  When you decide on the best way to handle a situation or determine the best solution to a problem, you should have logical (rather than purely emotional) reasons for coming to that conclusion.  Logical: according to reason; according to conclusions drawn from evidence or common sense  Emotional: drawn from emotions, from intense mental feelings Page 41 of 74 The Difference between Reason and Emotion  It would be false to say that anything emotional is not reasonable. In fact, it's perfectly valid to take your emotions into consideration when you make decisions.  After all, how you feel is very important. But if there's no logic or reason behind your decisions, you're usually in for trouble.  They may have thought critically and still made the wrong choice because they let their emotions override their sense of logic and reason. Justifying Your Decision  One way to help ensure that you're using your critical thinking and reasoning skills is to always justify your decisions and actions.  Why did you do what you did?  Why did you make that decision?  Why did that seem like the best solution?  Try this with even your everyday decisions and actions. You'll get to know your current decision-making process, and you'll be able to determine where in that process you can become more effective. Why Critical Thinking and Reasoning Skills Are Important  You will face (if you don't already) situations on the job, at home, and at school that require critical thinking and reasoning skills. By improving these skills, you can improve your success in everything you do. Specifically, strong critical thinking and reasoning skills will help you:  Compose and support strong, logical arguments  Assess the validity of other people's arguments  Make more effective and logical decisions  Solve problems more efficiently  Essentially, these four skills make up problem-solving skills. For example, if someone wants to change your mind and convince you of something, you have a "problem"—you have to decide whether or not to change your beliefs, whether to accept that person's argument.  Similarly, when you have a choice to make, or a position you'd like to support, you have a different type of "problem" to solve—what choice to make, how to support your position. Thus, the term problem solving can refer to any one of these situations. Advantages of Creative and Critical Thinking/reasoning i. Enhances self-authority in an individual;  A person is able to make his own decisions.  He can be responsible for his life rather than the society controlling him,  One has better understanding of himself. Page 42 of 74  ii. Enables the individual to distinguish right from wrong or wrong from right;  Using the high level of thinking (critical thinking), he would be self- directed.  One is able to thinking before acting to prevent unfortunate consequences. iii. Enables an individual to develop innovative and creative skills;  He is able to think of new ways of developing items other than the usual ways of the society.  He can use his magic skills to transform his society for a better future. iv. Enables an individual to be logic;  He can effectively solve problems and form good plans for future.  Actions are done for the best of reason and cannot be contradicted since they are actually right. v. Enables an individual to be knowledgeable;  Due to his curiosity he would seek for information concerning troubling issues so as to be able to solve them at an instance. This knowledge power would be very helpful in future challenges. INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT (IQ) AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE (EI) i) INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT (IQ)  An intelligence quotient (IQ) is a score derived from one of several standardized tests designed to assess human intelligence.  IQ scores have been shown to be associated with such factors as morbidity and mortality parental social status, and, to a substantial degree, biological parental IQ.  While the heritability of IQ has been investigated for nearly a century, there is still debate about the significance of heritability estimates and the mechanisms of inheritance.  IQ scores are used for educational placement, assessment of intellectual disability, and evaluating job applicants. In research contexts they have been studied as predictors of job performance, and income. They are also used to study distributions of psychometric intelligence in populations and the correlations between it and other variables. ii) EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE Emotional intelligence (EI) is the ability to recognize one's own and other people's emotions, to discriminate between different feelings and label them appropriately, and to use emotional information to guide thinking and behavior. Can be described as ‘emotional literacy’; it means being aware that emotions can drive our behavior and impact people (positively and negatively), and learning how to manage those emotions – both our own and others. Page 43 of 74 Examples of high-pressure situations that require us to manage our emotions skillfully include:  giving and receiving feedback  meeting tight deadlines  dealing with challenging relationships  not having enough resources  dealing with change  dealing with setbacks and failure Emotional intelligence consists of these four attributes:  Self-awareness – You recognize your own emotions and how they affect your thoughts and behavior, know your strengths and weaknesses, and have self- confidence.  Self-management – You’re able to control impulsive feelings and behaviors, manage your emotions in healthy ways, take initiative, follow through on commitments, and adapt to changing circumstances.  Social awareness – You can understand the emotions, needs, and concerns of other people, pick up on emotional cues, feel comfortable socially, and recognize the power dynamics in a group or organization.  Relationsh