Logic And Critical Thinking 2020/2021 PDF

Updated 8/23/2019 5:09:10 FACULTY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND COMMUNICATION STUDIES DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNICATION STUDIES UNDERGRADUATE COURSE OUTLINE (SYLLABUS) A. COURSE DETAILS: Course Code BGEC...

Updated 8/23/2019 5:09:10 FACULTY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND COMMUNICATION STUDIES DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNICATION STUDIES UNDERGRADUATE COURSE OUTLINE (SYLLABUS) A. COURSE DETAILS: Course Code BGEC 104 Credit Hours 3 Level 100 Course Title LOGIC AND CRITICAL THINKING Academic Year 2020/2021 Semester SECOND Programme Bachelor of Arts in Public Relations Management, Bachelor of Business Administration, Bachelor of Science in Accounting, Bachelor of Science in Accounting and Finance, Bachelor of Science in Actuarial Science, Bachelor of Science in Banking and Finance, Bachelor of Science in Business Economics, Bachelor of Science in Information Technology Management, Bachelor of Science in Marketing, Bachelor of Science in Real Estate Management and Finance Course URL: http//: B. COURSE INSTRUCTOR(S) DETAILS: Name: Course Lead JACOB ANDERSON Office Location STUDENT CENTER 605 Mobile 0543128158 Email - Course Lead [email protected] Email - Head of [email protected] Department Course Lecturer(s) Eric Ziem, Inusah Awuni, Mohammed Tahiru, Brian Akrong, Patience Anim, Nii Teiko, Angel Kongo, Patience Calyse Tagoe, Ama Gyamaa Dankwa, 1 C. COURSE DESCRIPTION This Course in Logic and Critical Thinking is intended to equip students with logical/ analytical tools with which they could function effectively in school and after school. The course focuses on the relevance of logic and critical thinking as an intellectual discipline. This is why it should be pursued in a business - oriented university such as University of Professional Studies, Accra and in a developing country like Ghana, which is mainly concerned about practical or economic matters. Acquainting students with the principles and tools of logic will assist them to identify the various ways in which logic and critical thinking can be applied to positive practical use. Thus, they would be able to deal effectively with issues at the workplace, business environment and society in general. In addition to the lectures, students are encouraged to examine issues around them; speeches, advertisements, media publications and other materials are analyzed for their logical implications. The course will also look at the role of critical thinking as an important tool in solving problems and charting a new course for Africa’s development. PREREQUISITE (IF ANY) THIS COURSE IS DESIGNED FOR ANYONE WHO ENTERS THE UNIVERSITY SO AS TO ENHANCE THEIR CRITICAL THINKING ABILITIES AND ALSO PREPARE THEM FOR THEIR RESPECTIVE SPECIALIZATIONS. NO PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE IS REQUIRED. D. COURSE OBJECTIVES At the end of the course students should be able to: Familiarize themselves with basic logical principles Explain the various logical tools studied. Construct good arguments. Identify flawed arguments. Assess the African situation and develop a critical outlook towards its development. E. COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES At the end of the course students should be able to: Understand the nature of definitions and the contexts in which they are used. Identify ambiguity in language and employ the appropriate techniques to make language clearer. Distinguish between different types/ categories of arguments and reasoning. Identify a given problem and apply the appropriate solution as prescribed by cognitive psychologists. Understand and use logical principles to think clearly, listen critically, and speak effectively. Present systematic, constructive and convincing arguments in speech and writing. Distinguish between good and flawed arguments. Appreciate the role of critical in development. 2 F. COURSE CONTENT IN A WEEKLY FORMAT The course outline is prepared on weekly format, describing the topics to be thought in each week WEEKS COURSE CONTENT WEEK 1 The Concept of logic, and Implication of Critical Thinking STUDENTS ARE INTRODUCED TO LOGIC AND CRITICAL THINKING AND ITS RELEVANCE TO THE THEIR RESPECTIVE AREAS OF SPECIALIZATION. SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF A CRITICAL THINKER WEEK 2 Language as a Vehicle of Thought (I) THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE IN COMMUNICATION AND HOW LANGUAGE SHAPES OUR THOUGHTS WEEK 3 Language as a Vehicle of Thought (I1) EXAMINING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LANGUAGE AND THE MIND THE DIFFERENT THOUGHT PROCESS WEEK 4 How to Handle Definitions HOW DEFINITIONS SHAPE OUR THINKING ABOUT THE WORLD WEEK 5 Argument in Logic and its Identifying Features IDENTIFYING THE VARIOUS FORMS OF ARGUMENTS AROUND US WEEK 6 Deductive and Inductive Arguments EXAMINING EVERYDAY EXAMPLES OF DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS WEEK 7 Interim Assessment (IA) Interim Assessment (IA) WEEK 8 Types of Fallacies (I) INTRODUCTION TO FALLACIES AND HOW THEY AFFECT OUR JUDGEMENT WEEK 9 Types of Fallacies (II) IDENTIFYING FALLACIES AROUND US 3 WEEK 10 MORALITY AND ETHICS (1) Define morality and discuss some examples of moral issues Discuss ethics and discuss some examples of ethical issues WEEK 11 MORALITY AND ETHICS (11) Distinguish between morality and ethics. Distinguish between morality and law. Understand why human beings should be moral. WEEK 12 CRITICAL THINKING AND DEVELOPMENT THE ROLE OF CRITICAL THINKING IN GHANA'S DEVELOPMENT WEEK 13 REVISION REVISION G. COURSE TOPICS CREDIT HOURS ACTIVITIES AND READINGS IN A WEEKLY FORMAT WEEK TOPIC CREDIT HRS ACTIVITIES READINGS WEEK 1 The Concept of 3 GROUPING OF Bello, A.G.A. ( logic, and STUDENTS 2000). Implication of Introduction to Critical Thinking Logic. Ibadan: University Press PLC. WEEK 2 Language as a 3 SHARING OF Bello, A.G.A. ( Vehicle of PRESENTATIO 2000). Thought (I) N TOPICS Introduction to Logic. Ibadan: University Press PLC. WEEK 3 Language as a 3 GROUP Bello, A.G.A. ( Vehicle of DISCUSSION 2000). Thought (I1) Introduction to Logic. Ibadan: University Press PLC. 4 WEEK 4 How to Handle 3 PRESENTATIO Bello, A.G.A. ( Definitions N 2000). Introduction to Logic. Ibadan: University Press PLC. WEEK 5 Argument in 3 PRESENTATIO Bello, A.G.A. ( Logic and its N 2000). Identifying Introduction to Features Logic. Ibadan: University Press PLC. Gyekye, K. (2004). The Unexamined Life: Philosophy and the African Experience. Accra: Sankofa Publishing Co. Ltd WEEK 6 Deductive and 3 PRESENTATIO Bello, A.G.A. ( Inductive N 2000). Arguments Introduction to Logic. Ibadan: University Press PLC. Gyekye, K. (2004). The Unexamined Life: Philosophy and the African Experience. Accra: Sankofa Publishing Co. Ltd 5 WEEK 7 Interim 3 Interim Bello, A.G.A. ( Assessment (IA) Assessment (IA) 2000). Introduction to Logic. Ibadan: University Press PLC. Gyekye, K. (2004). The Unexamined Life: Philosophy and the African Experience. Accra: Sankofa Publishing Co. Ltd WEEK 8 Types of 3 DISCUSSION Bello, A.G.A. ( Fallacies (I) OF INTERIM 2000). ASSESSMENT Introduction to Logic. Ibadan: University Press PLC. Gyekye, K. (2004). The Unexamined Life: Philosophy and the African Experience. Accra: Sankofa Publishing Co. Ltd WEEK 9 Types of 3 PRESENTATIO Fallacies (I) N Bello, A.G.A. ( 2000). Introduction to Logic. Ibadan: University Press PLC. Gyekye, K. (2004). The Unexamined Life: Philosophy and the African Experience. Accra: Sankofa Publishing Co. Ltd 6 WEEK 10 MORALITY 3 DEBATE AND ETHICS (1) Bello, A.G.A. ( 2000). Introduction to Logic. Ibadan: University Press PLC. Gyekye, K. (2004). The Unexamined Life: Philosophy and the African Experience. Accra: Sankofa Publishing Co. Ltd WEEK 11 MORALITY 3 PRESENTATIO AND ETHICS N Bello, A.G.A. ( (11) 2000). Introduction to Logic. Ibadan: University Press PLC. Gyekye, K. (2004). The Unexamined Life: Philosophy and the African Experience. Accra: Sankofa Publishing Co. Ltd WEEK 12 CRITICAL 3 PRESENTATIO Bello, A.G.A. ( THINKING AND N 2000). DEVELOPMEN Introduction to T Logic. Ibadan: University Press PLC. Gyekye, K. (2004). The Unexamined Life: Philosophy and the African Experience. Accra: Sankofa Publishing Co. Ltd 7  WEEK 13 REVISION 3 REVISION Bello, A.G.A. ( 2000). Introduction to Logic. Ibadan: University Press PLC. Gyekye, K. (2004). The Unexamined Life: Philosophy and the African Experience. Accra: Sankofa Publishing Co. Ltd. H. COURSE ASSIGNMENT The course will be assigned using the following methods Presentations, Research essay, Project report NEWS PAPER REVIEW I. COURSE INSTRUCTIONS The course will be delivered using the following course instruction methods Practical demonstration of concepts and processes in class, Role play, DISCUSSION METHODS, BUZZ GROUP DISCUSSION a method in which small groups of 2-3 participants are created and they all discuss a specific question or issue in order to come up with many ideas in a short time. DEBATE J. COURSE ASSESSMENT The course will be assessed using the FORMATIVE AND SUMMATIVE ASSESSMEN T K. FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT Formative assessment or assessment for learning involves a continuous way of checks and balances in the teaching learning processes (Jeri, 2018). The method allows Lecturers to check their learners' progress as well as the effectiveness of their own practice, thus allowing for self-assessment of the student. The following formative assessment methods will be used ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS WORK. In this, the lecturer assign, collect and examine student work continuously to assess student learning and to revise and improve teaching., QUESTIONING STRATEGIES TO ENGAGE ALL LEARNERS. A strategy which ensures that everyone has the opportunity to participate in discussions when a question is posed, THINK-PAIR-SHARE (TPS. This is a collaborative learning strategy in which students work together to solve a problem or answer a 8 question about an assignment. This technique requires students to (1) think individually about a topic or answer to a question; and (2) share ideas with classmates. STUDENTS TEACHING. Students will be given topics to research and they will be asked to teach the class. LEVERAGING OF TECHNOLOGY Social Media platforms will be created for the groups to ensure efficient and effective information delivery L. SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT EXAMINATION STRUCTURE The structure of examination is as shown below INTERIM EXAMINATION FINAL EXAMINATION Number of Questions 1 35 Allocated Hrs. 30 2 Compulsory Questions All Compulsory Part Compulsory Total marks is broken down as follows % Final Examination 60% Interim Examination 20% Assignments 10% Class attendance 10% TOTAL 100% Interim Examination - Additional Information Opportunities will be made for students who for genuine reasons could not be part of the presentation Final Examination - Additional Information ADDITIONAL MARKS WILL BE AWARDED TO CLARITY OF ARGUMENT 9  Assignments - Additional Information Group and individual assignments will be given Class Attendance - Additional Information Students will do extra work for being absent M. READING LISTS/REFERENCES BASIC TEXTS Bello, A.G.A. ( 2000). Introduction to Logic. Ibadan: University Press PLC. SUPPLEMENTARY TEXTS The Unexamined Life: Philosophy and the African Experience. Accra: Sankofa Publishing Co. Ltd EMPLOYABILITY SKILLS At the end of the course the students will be equipped with the following employability stills to this extent On a scale of 1-5. 1 is the lowest 5 is the highest. SKILLS SCALE Ability to work independently 4 Ability to work under pressure 4 Analytical skills 5 Communication skills/Interpersonal skills 5 Computer skills 3 Creativity/Creative thinking 5 Decision making 5 Entrepreneurial Skills 4 Leadership skills 4 Negotiating Skills 5 Organisational skills 4 Problem Solving Skills 5 Team work and team orientation 4 Time management 4 Writing Skills 4 10 REACH THE FOLLOWING IF YOU HAVE ANY FEEDBACK OR COMPLAINT POSITIONS EMAIL Lead Lecturer [email protected] Head of Department [email protected] Director - Quality Assurance [email protected] Academic Dishonesty Please remember Academic Dishonesty: Harms the good name of the University Affects your personal integrity Is a barrier to knowledge and attitude you would have acquired Decrease your value in the eyes of people Have a heavy penalty DO NOT CHEAT OR CONDONE CHEATING 11 LOGIC AND CRITICAL THINKING 2020/2021 1  COURSE DESCRIPTION As stated in the course outline, the Logic and Critical Thinking Course is intended to equip students with logical/ analytical tools with which they could function effectively in school and after school. The course focuses on the relevance of logic and critical thinking as an intellectual discipline. Students are also encouraged to examine issues around them; speeches, advertisements, media publications and other materials are analyzed for their logical implications. The course will also look at the role of critical thinking as an important tool in solving problems and charting a new course for Africa’s development 2  COURSE OBJECTIVES At the end of the course students should be able to: Familiarize themselves with basic logical principles. Explain the various logical tools studied. Construct good arguments. Identify flawed arguments. Assess the African situation and develop a critical outlook towards its development. 3  COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES At the end of the course students should be able to: Understand the nature of definitions and the contexts in which they are used. Identify ambiguity in language and employ the appropriate techniques to make language clearer. Distinguish between different types/ categories of arguments and reasoning. Identify a given problem and apply the appropriate solution as prescribed by cognitive psychologists. Understand and use logical principles to think clearly, listen critically, and speak effectively. Present systematic, constructive and convincing arguments in speech and writing. Distinguish between good and flawed arguments. Appreciate the role of critical in development. 4  OUTLINE OF LECTURE UNIT 1  THE CONCEPT OF LOGIC  CRITICAL THINKING 5  WHAT IS LOGIC? LOGIC AS A CONCEPT CAN BE LOOKED AT FROM TWO APPROACHES: LOGIC AS SOUND REASONING Logic may be defined as a reasonable manner of speaking or writing which is based on good judgment. Note that such a statement is considered reasonable because it is based on good judgement. Hence, we can say there is logic in a statement someone has made or that there is no logic in what the person said. LOGIC AS A DISCIPLINE  Logic as a subject or discipline may be defined as ‘the study of the methods and principles used to distinguish correct reasoning from incorrect reasoning’ (Copi & Cohen, 2002, p.3).Thus, the purpose of studying logic is to acquire the principles and methods which can be used in judging or testing arguments to distinguish a good argument from a bad one.When we listen to people speak, we should not allow ourselves to be carried away but rather evaluate what they say to convince ourselves that what they are saying contains logical ingredients. 7  When we reason about any matter, we produce arguments to support our conclusions. Our arguments include reasons that we think justify our beliefs. However, not all reasons are good reasons. Therefore we may always ask, when we confront an argument: Does the conclusion reached follow from the premises assumed? To answer this question there are objective criteria; in the study of logic we seek to discover and apply those criteria. 8  It should be noted that the mere study of logic does not make you a reasonable person; rather, it is in applying the principles of logic that one’s statements, which are the outcomes of one’s reasoning can be evaluated and considered as logical. Some are born with logical acumen while others must acquire it but the ‘study of logic enhances innate tendency to communicate logically  Thus the study of logic equips one to perform the tasks in logic systematically and with some confidence’ (Bello, 2000, p.3). Learning logic affords us the following advantages: i. We acquire the skill to communicate logically. ii. We are able to evaluate what others say or write to determine whether their arguments are good or bad. iii. We are able to distinguish between argumentative discourse and non argumentative discourse. 10  What is critical thinking? Our discussion of critical thinking will focus on the first chapter in “Heard, J., Scoular, C., Duckworth, D., Ramalingam, D., & Teo, I. (2020). Critical thinking: skill development framework”.  John Dewey, the American philosopher, psychologist and educator, is widely regarded as the ‘father’ of the modern critical thinking tradition. He called it ‘reflective thinking’ and defined it as: Active, persistent, and careful consideration of a belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds which support it and the further conclusions to which it tends. (Dewey, 1909, p. 9) 12 By defining critical thinking as an ‘active’ process, Dewey is contrasting it with the kind of thinking in which you just receive ideas and information from someone else – what you might reasonably call a ‘passive’ process. For Dewey, and for everyone who has worked in this tradition subsequently, critical thinking is essentially an active process – one in which you think things through for yourself, raise questions yourself, find relevant information yourself and so on, rather than learning in a largely passive way from someone else 13 In defining critical thinking as ‘persistent’ and ‘careful’ Dewey is contrasting it with the kind of unreflective thinking we all engage in sometimes, for example when we jump to a conclusion or make a ‘snap’ decision without thinking about it. Sometimes, of course, we have to do this because we need to decide quickly or the issue is not important enough to warrant careful thought, but often we do it when we ought to stop and think – when we ought to ‘persist’ a bit 14  However, the most important thing about Dewey’s definition is in what he says about the ‘grounds which support’ a belief and the ‘further conclusions to which it tends’. To express this in more familiar language, he is saying that what matters are the reasons we have for believing something and the implications of our beliefs. It is no exaggeration to say that critical thinking attaches huge importance to reasoning, to giving reasons and to evaluating reasoning as well as possible. There is more to it than that, but skillful reasoning is a key element. 15  Edward Glaser, co-author of what has become the world’s single most widely used test of critical thinking, the Watson–Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal. Glaser defined critical thinking as: (1)An attitude of being disposed to consider in a thoughtful way the problems and subjects that come within the range of one’s experience; (2) Knowledge of the methods of logical enquiry and reasoning; and (3) Some skill in applying those methods. Critical thinking calls for a persistent effort to examine any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the evidence that supports it and the further conclusions to which it tends. (Glaser, 1941, p. 5) 16  2.Robert Ennis – a widely used definition One of the most famous contributors to the development of the critical thinking tradition is Robert Ennis; his definition, which has gained wide currency in the field, is: Critical thinking is reasonable, reflective thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe or do. (Cf. Norris and Ennis, 1989) Notice the emphasis on being ‘reasonable’ and ‘reflective’, which picks up on earlier definitions, but notice also that Ennis speaks of ‘deciding what to... do’, which was not explicitly mentioned earlier; so decision-making is part of critical thinking in Ennis’s conception 17  SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF A CRITICAL THINKER i. Every critical thinker is open minded to different world views ii. Every critical thinker is flexible in considering alternatives and opinions iii. Every critical thinker is fair minded in appraising facts iv. Every critical thinker is honest in facing his own biases or prejudices v. Every critical thinker is prudent in suspending, making or altering judgments vi. Every critical thinker is diligent in seeking relevant information vii. Every critical thinker is persistent when faced with difficulties or challenges. 18  SOME CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS To be able to think critically one has to apply certain skills which include the following: 1. The ability to listen carefully or attentively. 2. Ability to read carefully. This implies taking note of the implications of what you read. 3. When someone is making a statement or a claim, you have to identify the main issue which the speaker is talking about and the position the speaker has taken on the issue. 4. Ability to determine whether there is good reasoning underlying the speaker’s claim. 5. Ability to follow an argument to its logical conclusion before making any remarks or judgement. 19  ASSIGNMENT IN WHICH FOUR WAYS IS LOGIC AND CRITICAL THINKING RELEVANT TO YOUR ACADEMIC PROGRAMME? WHICH FOUR CHARACTERISTICS OF A CRITICAL THINKER DO YOU CONSIDER SIGNIFICANT AND WHY? WHY MUST EVERY LEADER STUDY LOGIC AND CRITICAL THINKING? 20 LOGIC AND CRITICAL THINKING 2020/2021 1  Language as a vehicle of thought The relationship between language and thought has been the focus of many researchers in the past century and is still considered a subject relevant for discussion today. Many have referred to the debate as a chicken- egg situation, to point to the famous impossibility of determining which one of the two processes shapes the other. How are language and thought related? Is language shaping our cognitive processes, are we talking about a mutual influence? Is there a universal language system, or is language completely relative? 2 Language is a system for encoding and decoding information and it is considered peculiar to humankind. Thought is the idea or plan produced by mental activity. However, thought does not act alone; rather, it is through language that thoughts are generated in the mind. This means, the act of expressing a thought is part of the thinking itself. Language and thought are intimately associated. The expression of a thought is not merely a postscript to the process of thinking the thought in the first place. It is not as if our thoughts exist and grow in some pure and special place, devoid of any manifestation, until such time as we choose to pluck one out of the mist and condense it into words. 3  Language is the vehicle of thought. Human beings use words to communicate their ideas and these ideas are conceived in the mind. The mind is primarily the centre of consciousness that generates thoughts, perceptions, feelings and ideas. The mind also stores knowledge and memories. Therefore, the chief function of our brain is to help us think and direct our activities. In order to get the greatest benefit from this mental activity, we must have some way by which we express these mental conceptions to ourselves and to others. 4  Some brain teaser questions on language and thought Can we think without using Language? How about children two-three years old? Their language is certainly not adequate enough. Or those who are deaf? Are our thoughts formed in advance of the words that we utter? Are our ideas formed in terms of the words themselves? 5  Language and Thought- The Sapir–Whorf hypothesis The Sapir–Whorf hypothesis in linguistics has two versions: The first is called linguistic determinism (the strong version) The second is called linguistic relativity (the weak version) Linguistic determinism: Is the idea that language and its structures limit and determine human knowledge or thought. Whorf states that language does not only voice ideas but also shapes them. The child's knowledge is socially constructed in interaction with adults, so child logic develops only with the growth of child's social speech. 6 Linguistic relativity: Speakers of different languages perceive the world differently. Accordingly the mental universe of an English speaker may be different from that of a Chinese speaker because they happen to speak different languages. Take „rainbow‟ as an example: perception of colors come from color-naming influence of the language. All languages do not divide the colors into the same number of basic categories. Hence a speaker of a language will not describe the rainbow in the same way as English speakers do. 7  It is, therefore, worth mentioning that every language is very important because speakers use language to express their thought. Whatever language we speak, we need to get sufficient vocabulary to make our thought clear and con- vincing. Human beings have in reality three categories of vocabulary: one for reading, another for writing, and yet another for speaking. Our reading vocabulary is the largest because we read many things, yet we have a hazy knowledge of some of the words because their meaning may not be clear. 8  We choose our words much more exactly and guardedly when we put pen to paper than when we communicate orally. This implies that, the words utilized from our vocabulary in writing are much more carefully chosen than those used in speaking. The spoken word usually contains more repetition of expressions than the written; for, it is easier to weed out duplications when writing compared to oral communication. Monotony can be avoided through the use of synonyms. 9  LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT Sentence-shape thought refers to the different forms of sentences that express the different thoughts of human beings. Some sentences serve to ask questions to gain information while others issue a directive or request to get something done. Some sentences also convey information. The types of sentence-shape thought are Interrogative, imperative, and declarative sentences. The types of sentence shape thought are complete sentences. The subject and the predicate are present. 10  Statement and Sentence (Difference) A sentence is a group of words that has a subject and predicate, independent on its own and makes meaning. Examples: 1. Joan is a student. 2. Mathematics is an interesting subject. 3. You are great! 11  Statement and Sentence (Difference) A statement is a sentence that says something which is either true or false. Examples, Kwame is a man. A square has four sides Accra is the capital of Ghana. NB: NOT all sentences are statements. Examples "Where are you going?“ “Sit down!" NB: Statements are Truth Bearers. 12  Other vehicles of expressing content There are various vehicles through which a content may be expressed. This content can be in the form of subject matter, message, topic, or discussion. Depending on the content, an individual may choose any of the following vehicles: Graphs, maps, photographs, sentences etc. 13  Let us consider these analogies ‘Hohoe is in the Volta Region’, for instance, can be represented by a sentence or a map. The content is the same, the vehicle differs. Similarly, in other cases: compare a photograph of the cat asleep on the bed with the sentence ‘The cat is asleep on the bed’. Compare a linguistic representation of the fact that Ghana is experiencing ‘dumsor’ with a graph of the regions that are heavily affected. 14  Graphs, maps, photographs, sentences, and other representational systems provide different vehicles for representing content. Empiricism is of the view that the vehicles of perception, whatever they are and however they are structured, are sufficient to carry all thinkable thought contents. 15  Consider the following philosophical questions: 1.What varieties of thought require language? 2.What varieties of thought (if any) are possible without language? 3. Does thought depend on language? 16 IMAGINE A WORLD WITHOUT LANGUAGE……………….. Language plays several roles and below are some of them: Communication function: The basic function of language. Humans use language to express their basic need such as to apologize, inform, caution, request, order, or make a promise. Phatic function: it is the use of language to show solidarity in the form of greetings. This function allows us to maintained social relationships and to keep friends. Emotive / Persuasive function: it is the use of language to appeal to our emotions often with the aim of persuading the listener. It is the power of language to influence thinking. Aesthetic function: it is the ability to use language in a creative manner. This can be than by the use of metaphors and other devices. 17  A WORLD WITHOUT LANGUAGE…. Pleasure function: this is the use of language to give pleasure, joy or entertainment. Devices such as alliteration and assonance can be employed. Group maker function: Language is used to show identity. It is the use of language to set two or more people as belonging to a group. Example: Code switching. Performative: an utterance that constitutes an action. e.g., ‘I now pronounce you husband and wife', when uttered in the right circumstances. I hereby pronounce this celebration dully launched’ NB: you should have the authority before you can use performative language. Evaluative: to make a value judgement, 18 LOGIC AND CRITICAL THINKING 2020/2021 UNIT THREE 1 A quick recap of unit one:  a. Critical thinking is the active, persistent, and careful consideration of a belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds which support it and the further conclusions to which it tends. [John Dewey]  b. Logic:  (1) logic as sound reasoning, is defined as a reasonable manner of speaking or writing which is based on good judgment.  (ii) logic as a discipline (subject),t is the study of the methods and principles used to distinguish correct reasoning from incorrect reasoning. 2  This unit is in five parts: (a) THE DISPOSITION OF A CRITICAL THINKER (b) ELEMENTS OF THOUGHT (c) UNIVERSAL INTELLECTUAL STANDARDS (d) INTELLECTUAL VIRTUES (e) IMPEDIMENTS TO CRITICAL THINKING 3  (a) THE DISPOSITION OF A CRITICAL THINKER Thomas and Lok (2015, p. 95) composed a consolidated summary of the critical thinking skills identified (core critical thinking skills) across 16 different definitions… Interpretation Analysis Evaluation Inference Explanation Self-regulation Synthesis 4  Interpretation  Experts’ consensus description: Comprehend and express the meaning or significance of a wide variety of experiences, situations, data, events, judgements, conventions, beliefs, rules, procedures or criteria.  Sub-skills:  Categorisation  Decode significance  Clarify meaning 5  Analysis  Experts’ consensus description: Identify the intended and actual inferential relationships among statements, questions, concepts, descriptions or other forms of representation intended to express beliefs, judgements, experiences, reasons, information, or opinions.  Sub-skills:  Examine ideas  Identify arguments  Identify reasons and claims 6  Evaluation  Experts’ consensus description: Assess the credibility of statements or other representations that are accounts or descriptions of a person’s perception, experience, situation, judgement, belief, or opinion; and to assess the logical strength of the actual or intended inferential relationships among statements, descriptions, questions or other forms of representation.  Sub-skills:  Query evidence  Conjecture alternatives  Draw logically valid or justified conclusions 7  Inference  Experts’ consensus description: Identify and secure elements needed to draw reasonable conclusions; to form conjectures and hypotheses; to consider relevant information and to reduce the consequences flowing from data, statements, principles, evidence, judgements, beliefs, opinions, concepts, descriptions, questions, or other forms of representation.  Sub-skills:  Assess credibility of claims  Assess quality of arguments using inductive and deductive reasoning 8  Explanation  Experts’ consensus description: To state the results of one’s reasoning; to justify that reasoning in terms of the evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological and contextual considerations upon which one’s results were based; and to present one’s reasoning in the form of cogent arguments.  Sub-skills: State results Justify procedures Present arguments 9  Self-regulation Experts’ consensus description: Self-consciously to monitor one’s cognitive activities, the elements used in those activities, and the results educed, particularly by applying skills in analysis and evaluation to one’s own inferential judgements with a view toward questioning, confirming, validating, or correcting either one’s reasoning or one’s results. Sub-skills: Self-monitor Self-correct 10  Synthesis It is the direct opposite of analysis. While analysis involves breaking down information into parts to understand the parts better, synthesis involves taking individual parts from multiple sources into a whole in order to understand the shared qualities of these individual parts. Synthesis involves combining fragmented parts of information into an aggregated, coherent or connected whole. It also means combining ideas to form a theory. 11  (b)ELEMENTS OF THOUGHT  The elements of thought refer to the fundamental features of all our thinking. Just like cells are the basic unit of the human body, the elements of thought are the basic constituents of any thinking. There are eight elements of thought. They are discussed in detail below….  PURPOSE  QUESTIONS  INFORMATION  INTERPRETATION AND INFERENCE  CONCEPTS  ASSUMPTIONS  IMPLICATION AND CONSEQUENCE  POINT OF VIEW 12  PURPOSE All thought processes have a purpose. Your purpose in any thought process is your goal, objectives, or what you are trying to accomplish. Sometimes, we use terms such as “functions,” “motives” or “intention” in place of purpose or objective. When thinking, it is important that you are clear about your purpose and your purpose should be justifiable. Some questions that target purpose include:  What is my purpose in doing this?  What is the objective of this assignment?  What is the purpose of this meeting? 13  QUESTIONS When we ask questions, we want to figure out something, find answers, resolve problems, or obtain information. Questions lay out the problem or issues that guide our thinking. When you ask questions, ensure that they are not vague for clarity and distinctness.  The following is an indication that one is reflecting on questions as an elements of thought……  What questions am I trying to answer?  What important questions are in this issue?  Is there a more relevant question to ask?  Is there a better way to ask this question?  Is this question clear or complex? 14  INFORMATION  Information includes facts, data, evidence, or experiences we use in our thought processes. In a reasoning process, it is important to restrict your claims to those supported by the data you have. Again, ensure that you have not only information that supports your position but also any that opposes it. Also ensure that all information used in your research activities is clear, accurate, relevant and sufficient.  Some questions that relate to information are:  What information do I need to answer this question properly?  What data are relevant to the problem I am addressing?  Do I need to gather more information or eliminate some?  Is this information relevant to my purpose or goal?  On what information are you basing that claim? 15  INTERPRETATION AND INFERENCE Dealing with information means that you have to make sense of it and afterward draw conclusions. When you make an inference, you infer what is implied by your information. Inference needs to be checked for consistency.  Questions that could come up with regards to inference include the following:  What conclusion am I coming to?  Is my inference logical?  Are there other conclusion I should consider?  Does this interpretation make sense?  How did you reach that conclusion? 16  CONCEPTS Concepts are ideas, terms, notions, principles or hypotheses that we use to make sense of things. When thinking, we need to be clear about the concepts we are using and use them justifiably.  The following are questions you can ask about a concept:  What idea am I employing in my thinking? Is it causing problems for me or for others?  I think this is a good idea, but could you explain it better?  Could you show us the hypothesis you are using in your reasoning?  Are you using this term in keeping with established usage? 17  ASSUMPTIONS  All our reasoning is based on assumptions. Beliefs that operate at our sub-conscious level and beliefs we usually take for granted are assumptions. They are what we presume without having evidence to back them up. They are basically presuppositions, what we accept without proof but believe to be true. In thinking, we can start with assumptions and proceed to what we know for sure. This way of reasoning is called deductive reasoning.  What information am I taking for granted?  Am I assuming something I should not?  What assumption is leading me to this conclusion?  What is being presupposed in this theory? 18  IMPLICATION AND CONSEQUENCE  When we draw a conclusion, we need to consider what logically follows or what could happen if we act on the conclusion. An implication or a consequence is what logically follows an inference or an interpretation that we have made. A consequence is what usually follows an action, previous occurrence, condition or situation. Although this may not be strictly accurate, most conventions regard implications as following from thoughts (information, inference, conclusion) and consequences as following from actions, conditions, and situations. Questions that relate to implication and consequence are as following:  What conclusions would I arrive at?  Are my inferences logical?  Are there other conclusions I should consider?  Does this interpretation make sense? 19  POINT OF VIEW  Point of view simply means the angle from which you perceive or examine something. It includes what you are examining and the way you are evaluating it. In thinking, one of the essential things to do is to understand the limitation of your point of view so that you can consider other points of view that may be relevant.  Questions relating to the point of view include:  How am I looking at this situation?  Is there another way to evaluate this issue?  What exactly am I focused on?  Is my view the only reasonable view?  What does my point of view ignore? 20  (c) UNIVERSAL INTELLECTUAL STANDARDS  To engage the elements of thoughts, you are required to master the universal intellectual standards. They are as necessary as the food we eat regarding our ability to achieve reasonable judgement.  All the elements of thought we have studied should be applied with sensitivity to universal intellectual standards. These are standards that should be adhered if one intends to improve his/her thinking.  Thinking critically requires a command over these standards.  The following are some universal intellectual standards you should learn to adopt in your thought process… NOTE: CLARITY, ACCURACY, PRECISION, RELEVANCE, DEPTH, BREATH, LOGICALNESS, SIGNIFICANCE, FAIRNESS ETC.  WE WILL DISCUSS A FEW OF THE AFOREMENTIONED… 21  CLARITY  Clarity is the first universal standard for conducting our thought process. It involves putting up a statement that readers can make sense of. If the information is not clear, it is difficult to use.  Question that borders on clarity include the following:  Could you elaborate on that point?  Could you explain the point in any other way?  Could you offer an example?  Could you offer an illustration? 22  ACCURACY A question or statement can be clear but inaccurate. Accurate involves representing something as it actually is. People often describe things or events that are not in conformity with the way the things are due to their personal interest.  Question that demand accuracy in a passage include: Is this information accurate? How can we find out if this is true? Could you check your fact? 23  PRECISION A statement can be clear, accurate but imprecise. Consider the statement “John is very tall.” This statement is imprecise. We can’t tell exactly how tall John is especially within the ranges of 1 to 6 feet.  Precision involves offering details on your information for someone to be able to make sense of the specifics.  Can you provide details?  Can you offer specifics? 24  RELEVANCE  We can have situations where a statement is clear, accurate, and precise but not relevant to the issue at stake. For example, there is an investigation to determine the effect of sunlight on plant, and I respond to this investigation by providing every specific detail about the effect of sunlight on mammals.  To say that something is relevant, such a thing bears directly upon the matter being investigated.  Questions regarding relevance include the following:  How does this idea relate to the question?  How does this position bear directly upon this matter?  How does your question connect with the issue under investigation? 25  (D) INTELLECTUAL VIRTUES  When we apply the universal intellectual standards to the thought processes and the elements of thoughts, we develop certain intellectual virtues that makes us critical thinkers.  Our objectives as critical thinkers is to apply the universal intellectual standards (clarity, accuracy, precision, depth, breath and so on) to our thought processes (explanation, interpretation, analysis, synthesis, evaluation, inference, conceptualization and so on).  We also need to apply the universal intellectual standards to the elements of our thought (gathering information, asking questions, formulating concepts, and so on).  When we become good critical thinkers, we develop habits or psychological dispositions called intellectual virtues. 26 Let us look at some of them…  Intellectual curiosity: this is about being inclined to ask questions that other people take for granted.it involves pondering, wondering and asking “why” about circumstances around us, what we read, hear or see. It involves, in academia, asking questions that go beyond the content of our study.  Intellectual humility: this is the desire and willingness to identify and admit (to ourselves and to others) our intellectual deficit and mistakes. It is consciousness of the limits of our knowledge. 27  Intellectual autonomy: this is to be responsible for our opinions, values, and inferences. It means that we should have rational control over our thought processes. To become a good critical thinker, you need to do the thinking for yourself and have commend over your own thought processes instead of accepting the opinions of others wholeheartedly and without examination.  Intellectual empathy: this is the capacity to understand other people’s thoughts, feelings, and emotion in order to appreciate their perspective. It is the willingness to avoid distorting other people’s view just because they conflict with our deep-seated convictions about an issue. It is involves the capacity to listen to other people’s opinion or plight before drawing judgement. 28 NOTE: Some other intellectual virtues include… Intellectual courage Intellectual integrity Intellectual perseverance Faith in reason 29  (e) IMPEDIMENTS TO CRITICAL THINKING  We have seen that being a critical thinker demands that we develop critical thinking skills which in turn will help us recognize the various elements of thoughts and the universal intellectual standards that we apply to these elements of thought.  We saw that if we routinely follow this thinking procedure, we will eventually develop certain intellectual traits that we can use as tools to solve personal, academic and societal problems. . However, there are barriers to following this thinking procedure and as a responsible critical thinker; you should identify these barriers, admit the challenges they pose and find ways of surmounting them.  There are numerous impediments to critical thinking. 30 Egocentrism: this is also called self-centered thinking. It is the tendency to perceive the world from a narrow, self-serving perspective. When one is egocentric, the person thinks of anything in terms of how it will serve his/her self-interest. Egocentrism leads to the desire to manipulate people and situation. It prevents us from thinking widely and objectively. It also prevents us from becoming intellectually empathetic where we should. Socio-centrism: this is what we call a group, a society or a peer-centered thinking. There are many people who have internalized and accepted group beliefs without proper reflection; without a sense that what they have internalized can be question on reasonable grounds. Socio-centrism is inherently flawed with unreflective conformity, the fear of change, cultural dogmatism, peer pressure, political correctness, superstition, scapegoating, relativism, and so many other negative factors that hinder critical thinking. 31 Undue reliance on mainstream media: forming a picture of the world on the basis of the news media can sometimes interfere with critical thinking. Most people form a picture of the world from what they see or hear from the news media: TV, radios and the newspaper, whether directly or indirectly. Other times, we form opinions of the world through social media: Facebook, Twitter, WhatsApp, LinkedIn, and many others without rationally pondering over these opinion. 32 QUESTIONS 33 LOGIC AND CRITICAL THINKING 2020/2021 UNIT FOUR: DEFINITIONS 1 In this unit we are going to discuss definitions. Most of the discussions in this unit are drawn from [ Copi, I. M., Cohen, C., & McMahon, K. (2014). Introduction to Logic (the 14th Edition).] We will be discussing the following: A. Disputes and Ambiguity B. Definitions and Their Uses C. The Structure of Definitions: Extension and Intension D. Definition by Genus and Difference 2  A. Disputes and Ambiguity  When parties are in dispute, the differences between them that lead to that dispute may be disagreements in beliefs about the facts, or disagreements in attitude about facts that are actually agreed upon.  This uncertainty, and the confusion to which it can lead, may arise because the words being used in the dispute have very different emotive meanings.  Many disputes, whether about beliefs or about attitudes, are genuine.  However, some disputes are merely verbal, arising only as a result of linguistic misunderstanding.  The terms used by the disputing parties may have more than one meaning—they may be ambiguous—but such ambiguity may be unrecognized by the disputing parties.  To uncover and to resolve verbal disagreements, ambiguities must be identified, and the alternative meanings of the critical terms in the dispute must be distinguished and clarified. 3  Disputes fall into three categories  Obviously Genuine dispute: In obviously genuine disputes, the parties explicitly and unambiguously disagree, either in belief or attitude.  Merely Verbal Dispute: Merely verbal disputes arise when a key term in the disputants’ formulation of their beliefs is ambiguous, or when a phrase or word that is central in the dispute has different senses that may be equally legitimate but that ought not to be confused.  Apparently verbal but merely Genuine: A misunderstanding about the use of terms may be involved in such cases, but when that misunderstanding has been cleared up there remains a disagreement that goes beyond the meanings of the words. 4 NOTE:  when confronting a dispute that arises in discourse, we must first ask whether there is some ambiguity that can be eliminated by clarifying the alternative meanings in play.  If there is, then we must ask whether clearing up that linguistic issue will resolve the matter.  If it does, the dispute was indeed merely verbal.  If it does not, the dispute was genuine, although it may have appeared to be merely verbal.  Good definitions are plainly very helpful in eliminating verbal disputes, but there are other uses of definition that are important in logic. 5  B. Definitions and Their Uses  Definitions are definitions of symbols (not of objects), because only symbols have the meanings that definitions may explain.  To illustrate, we can define the word “chair” because it has meaning; but a chair itself we cannot define.  We can sit on a chair, or paint it, or burn it, or describe it—but we cannot define it because an actual chair is not a symbol that has a meaning to be explained.  Sometimes we say, misleadingly, that the thing is being defined; in fact, what we define are always symbols.  Two commonly used technical terms are useful in discussing definitions: definiendeum and definiens 6  The definiendum is the symbol being defined.  The definiens is the symbol (or group of symbols) used to explain the meaning of the definiendum.  Put otherwise, the definiendum is the term to be defined and the definiens is the definition of it.  However, it would be a mistake to say that the definiens is the meaning of the definiendum—rather, it is another symbol (or group of symbols) that has the same meaning as the definiendum.  With this preface, we may say that definitions [the kinds of definition by function ], depending on how they are used, are of five kinds: (1) stipulative, (2) lexical, (3) precising, (4) theoretical, and (5) persuasive. 7  Stipulative Definitions  A definition in which a new symbol is introduced to which some meaning is arbitrarily assigned; as opposed to a lexical definition.  In many cases, a discussion can be advanced when all of the parties in it agree to use a particular term in the same way throughout the discussion. .The advantage of stipulating definitions is that it reduces ambiguity.  This is especially useful when terms with many and varied meanings are at play in the discussion.  Since defining terms in this way depends on agreement, there is no way for such definitions to be mistaken or incorrect.  Just keep in mind that stipulative definitions are neither true nor false and you will not find them in a dictionary. 8  Lexical Definitions  Most often the term being defined has some established use.  When the purpose of the definition is to explain that use, or to eliminate ambiguity, the definition is called lexical. A lexical definition reports a meaning the definiendum already has.  That report may be correct or incorrect—and therefore it is clear that a lexical definition may be either true or false.  Thus the definition “the word ‘bird’ means any warm-blooded vertebrate with feathers” is true; that is a correct report of how the word “bird” is generally used by speakers of English. On the other hand, the definition “the word ‘bird’ means any two-footed mammal” is obviously false.  Here lies the central difference between lexical and stipulative definitions: Truth or falsity may apply to the former but not the latter.  In a stipulative definition the definiendum has no meaning apart from (or before) the definition that introduces it, so that the definition cannot be true or false.  But the definiendum of a lexical definition does have a prior and independent meaning, and therefore its definition may be true, or false, depending on whether that meaning is reported correctly or incorrectly. 9  Precising Definitions  Some terms are ambiguous; some terms are vague.  A term is ambiguous in a given context when it has more than one distinct meaning and the context does not make clear which meaning is intended.  A term is vague when there are borderline cases to which the term might or might not apply.  A word or a phrase—for example, “libel” or “freedom of speech”—may be both ambiguous and vague. Precising definitions are those used to eliminate ambiguity or vagueness.  Every term is vague to some degree, but excessive vagueness causes serious practical problems.  A precising definition differs from both lexical and stipulative definitions.  It differs from stipulative definitions in that its definiendum is not a new term, but one whose usage is known, although unhappily vague.  In constructing a precising definition, therefore, we are not free to assign to the definiendum any meaning we please.  Established usage must be respected as far as possible, while making the known term more precise. 10  Theoretical Definitions  Sometimes it is helpful to formulate definitions to fit theoretical discussions.  In discussions of this kind we may find it useful to define "water" as H 2 O, or "energy" as MC2.  Sometimes we will have to stipulate such theoretical definitions.  In addition, often the purpose of such a stipulation is to make a particular term more precise.  Sometimes we find theoretical definitions included in dictionaries but most often not. The quest for theoretical definitions remains compelling. What is a “right”? Is health care aright?  Theoretical definitions are the products of our comprehensive understanding in some sphere. 11  Persuasive Definitions  The four categories we have discussed so far are concerned chiefly with the informative use of language.  But definitions are also used at times to express feelings as well, so as to influence the conduct of others.  A definition put forward to resolve a dispute by influencing attitudes or stirring emotions may be called a persuasive definition.  Persuasive definitions are common in political argument.  From the left we hear socialism defined as “democracy extended to the economic sphere.” From the right we hear capitalism defined as “freedom in the economic sphere.”  The directive intent of the emotive language in these definitions is obvious—but emotive coloration may also be injected subtly into wording that purports to be a correct lexical definition, and that appears on the surface to be that.  As we seek to distinguish good reasoning from bad, we must be on guard against persuasive definitions. 12  NOTE Of course, some definitions may serve more than one of these functions. A stipulative definition may be intended to influence hearers manipulatively. A lexical definition may be used objectively to make discussion of some matter more precise, and so on. Here, as everywhere in language, context is critical. 13  C. The Structure of Definitions: Extension and Intension  A definition states the meaning of a term.  When we look closely at the literal (or descriptive) meaning of a term, however, we see that there are different senses in which that term has meaning.  With those different senses distinguished (our object just below), we will also see that definitions may be grouped and understood not only on the basis of their functions (as in the preceding section), but in view of the way those definitions are built: their structure.  We focus on general terms—terms that are applicable to more than one object—which are of critical importance in reasoning. 14  We focus on general terms—terms that are applicable to more than one object— which are of critical importance in reasoning.  The word “planet” is a typical general term; it is applicable to a number of objects, and it applies in the same sense equally to Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.  What is meant by the word “planet” is (in one sense) that set of objects.  The collection of planets constitutes the meaning of the term, its extensional meaning. If I say that all planets have elliptical orbits, part of what I assert is that Mars has an elliptical orbit, and another part is that Venus has an elliptical orbit, and so on.  The extension of the general term “planet” consists of the objects to which the term may be correctly applied.  The extensional meaning (also called the denotative meaning) of a general term is the collection of the objects that constitutes the extension (or denotation) of the term. 15  To understand the meaning of a general term is to know how to apply it correctly; however, it is not necessary to know all the objects to which it may be applied correctly in order to apply it correctly.  All the objects within the extension of a given term have some common attributes or characteristics that lead us to use the same term to denote them.  If we know these attributes, we may know the meaning of a term in a different sense, without knowing its extension. In this second sense, meaning supposes some criterion for deciding, with respect to any given object, whether it falls within the extension of that term.  This sense of meaning is called the intensional meaning (or, sometimes, connotative meaning) of the term. The set of attributes shared by all and only those objects to which a general term refers is called the intension (or connotation) of that term. 16  Every general term has both an intensional (or connotative) meaning and an extensional (or denotative) meaning.  Consider the general term “skyscraper buildings over a certain height; that is its intension.  The extension of the term “skyscraper” is the class of buildings that contains the Empire State Building in New York, the Willis Tower in Chicago, the Shanghai World Financial Center, the Petron as Twin Towers in Kuala Lumpur, and others also— that is, the collection of the objects to which the term applies.  The extension of a term (its membership) is determined by its intension.  The intension of the term “equilateral triangle” is the attribute of being a plane figure enclosed by three straight lines of equal length. The extension of “equilateral triangle” is the class of all those objects, and only those objects, that have this attribute.  Because any object that has this attribute must be a member of that class, we say that the term’s intension determines its extension. 17  However, the reverse is not true: The extension of a term does not determine its intension.  Consider “equiangular triangle,” which has an intension different from that of “equilateral triangle.”  The intension of “equiangular triangle” is the attribute of being a plane figure enclosed by three straight lines that intersect each other to form equal angles.  It is true, of course, that the extension of the term “equiangular triangle” is exactly the same as the extension of the term “equilateral triangle.”  So if we were to identify the extension of one of these terms, that would leave the intension of the class uncertain; intension is not determined by extension. Terms may have different intensions and the same extension; but terms with different extensions cannot possibly have the same intension. 18  Extension and Denotative Definitions  Denotative definitions employ techniques that identify the extension of the term being defined.  The most obvious way to explain the extension of a term is to identify the objects denoted by it.  This is one very effective technique, but it has serious limitations.  We saw in the preceding section that two terms with different intensions (e.g., “equilateral triangle” and “equiangular triangle”) may have the same extension. Therefore, even if we could enumerate all the objects denoted by a general term, that would not distinguish it from another term that has the very same extension.  Of course it is usually impossible to enumerate all the objects in a class. The objects denoted by the term “star” are literally astronomical in number; the objects denoted by the term “number” are infinitely many.  For most general terms, complete enumeration is practically out of the question. Therefore denotative definitions are restricted to partial enumerations of the objects denoted—and this limitation gives rise to serious difficulties. 19  The core of the problem is this: Partial enumeration of a class leaves the meaning of the general term very uncertain. ATTEMPTS TO DEAL WITH THE ABOVE PROBLEM: i. We may seek to overcome this problem by naming groups of members of the class as examples. This technique, definition by subclass[Definitions by example ], does sometimes make complete enumeration possible. Thus we might define “vertebrate” to mean “amphibians and birds and fishes and reptiles and mammals.” The completeness of the list gives some psychological satisfaction—but the meaning of the term “vertebrate” has not been adequately specified by such a definition. ii. Instead of naming or describing the objects denoted by the term being defined, as ordinary denotative definitions do, we might try pointing at them. Such definitions are called ostensive definitions or demonstrative definitions. An example of an ostensive definition is “the word ‘desk’ means this,” accompanied by a gesture such as pointing a finger in the direction of a desk. 20 Ostensive definitions have all the limitations mentioned earlier, as well as some limitations peculiar to themselves. Gestures have a geographic limitation; one can only indicate what is visible. We cannot ostensively define the word “ocean” in an inland valley. More seriously, gestures are invariably ambiguous. To point to a desk is also to point to a part of it, as well as to its color and its size and its shape and material, and so on—in fact, one points to every-thing that lies in the general direction of the desk, including the lamp or the wall behind it. Beyond such difficulties, all denotative definitions have this further inadequacy: They cannot define words that, although perfectly meaningful, do not denote anything at all. When we say that there are no unicorns we are asserting, meaningfully, that the term “unicorn” does not denote, that its extension is empty. Terms with no extension are very important, and this shows that techniques of definition that rely on extension cannot reach the heart of the matter. “Unicorn” has no extension, but the term is certainly not meaningless. If it were meaningless, it would also be meaningless to say, “There are no unicorns.” This statement we fully understand, and it is true. Meaning pertains more to intension than to extension; the real key to definition is intension. 21  Intension and Intensional Definitions A term that is sometimes used instead of “intension” is “connotation”; intensional definitions are connotative definitions. We avoid the use of the word “connotation” here because, in everyday English, the connotation of a term is its total significance, including especially its emotive as well as its descriptive meaning. Because we are concerned here only with informative significance, we put the term “connotation” aside; this section therefore uses the terms “intension” and “intensional.” The intension of a term, we have said, consists of the attributes shared by all the objects denoted by the term, and shared only by those objects. If the attributes that define the term “chair” are “being a single raised seat” and “having a back,” then every chair is a single raised seat with a back, and only chairs are single raised seats with a back. 22  Even within this restriction, three different senses of intension must be distinguished: the subjective, the objective, and the conventional.  The subjective intension of a word for a speaker is the set of all the attributes the speaker believes to be possessed by objects denoted by that word.  The objective intension of a word is the total set of characteristics shared by all the objects in the word’s extension. Within the objective intension of the term “circle,” therefore, is the attribute that a circle encloses a greater area than any other plane figure having an equal perimeter.  Terms have stable meanings because there is an implicit agreement to use the same criterion for deciding about any object whether it is part of a given term’s extension. What makes a thing a circle, in common discourse, is its being a closed plane curve, all points of which are equidistant from a point within called the center.  It is by convention that this criterion is established, and this meaning is the conventional intension of the term “circle.” This is the important sense of intension for purposes of definition: It is public but does not require omniscience to use.  The word “intension” is normally taken to mean conventional intension, and that is our usage here. 23  What are the techniques, using intension, for defining terms? Several methods are common. i. The simplest and most frequently used is that of providing another word, whose meaning is already understood, that has the same meaning as the word being defined. Two words with the same meaning are called synonyms, so a definition given in this way is called a synonymous definition. Dictionaries, especially smaller ones, rely heavily on this method of defining terms. Thus a dictionary may define adage as meaning “proverb”; bashful may be defined as “shy"; and so on. Synonymous definitions are particularly useful when it is the meanings of words in another language that call for explanation. The word chat means “cat” in French; amigo means “friend” in Spanish; and so on. One learns the vocabulary of a foreign language by studying definitions using synonyms. This is a good method of defining terms; it is easy, efficient, and helpful; but it has very serious limitations. Many words have no exact synonym, and therefore synonymous definitions are often not fully accurate and may mislead. 24  ii. One may seek to explain the intension of a term by tying the definiendum to some clearly describable set of actions or operations; doing that is giving the term what is called an operational definition. The term operational definition was first used by the Nobel Prize-winning physicist P. W. Bridgeman in his 1927 book, The Logic of Modern Physics. An operational definition of a term states that the term is applied correctly to a given case if and only if the performance of specified operations in that case yields a specified result. The numerical value given for length can be defined operationally by referring to the results of a specified measuring procedure, and so on. We often define terms intensively by referring to some observational effect that the term is supposed to produce. I may, for example, define “good” in the phrase “a good tennis shot” as "a shot that wins the point." While these definitions are sometimes helpful, they also suffer from being too restrictive. Of all the kinds of definition, the one that is most widely applicable is definition by genus and difference. This is the most important of all uses of the intension of general terms, and it is by far the technique that is most commonly relied upon in defining terms. We therefore devote the by genus and difference, and the rules that properly guide its use. 25  iv. Definition by Genus and Difference  Definition by genus and difference relies directly on the intension of the terms defined, and it does so in the most helpful way.  In view of their exceedingly common use, we look very closely at definitions of this type.  Definitions by genus and difference are also called analytical definitions, or by their Latin name, definitions per genus et differentia.  Earlier we referred to the attributes that define a class.  Normally these attributes are complex—that is, they can be analyzed into two or more other attributes.  This complexity and analyzability can be understood in terms of classes. 26  Any class of things having members may have its membership divided into subclasses.  For example, the class of all triangles can be divided into three nonempty subclasses: equilateral triangles, isosceles triangles, and scalene triangles.  The class whose membership is thus divided into subclasses is called the genus, and the various subclasses are its species.  As used here, the terms “genus” and “species” are relative terms, like “parent” and “offspring.”  The same persons may be parents in relation to their children, but also offspring in relation to their parents.  Likewise, a class may be a genus with respect to its own subclasses, but also a species with respect to some larger class of which it is a subclass.  Thus the class of all triangles is a genus relative to the species scalene triangle and a species relative to the genus polygon.  The logician’s use of the words “genus” and “species” as relative terms is different from the biologist’s use of them as fixed or absolute terms, and the two uses should not be confused. 27  A class is a collection of entities having some common characteristic.  Therefore all members of a given genus have some characteristic in common. All members of the genus polygon (for example) share the characteristic of being closed plane figures bounded by straight line segments. genus may be divided into different species or subclasses  This, such that all the members of each subclass have some further attribute in common that is shared by no member of any other subclass.  The genus polygon is divided into triangles, quadrilaterals, pentagons, hexagons, and so on. Each species of the genus polygon differs from all the rest.  What differentiates members of the subclass hexagon from the members of all other subclasses is having precisely six sides.  All members of all species of a given genus share some attribute that makes them members of the genus, but the members of any one species share some further attribute that differentiates them from the members of every other species of that genus.  The characteristic that serves to distinguish them is called the specific difference. Having six sides is the specific difference between the species hexagon and all other species of the genus polygon. 28  Two steps are required to define a term by genus and difference.  First, a genus must be named—the genus of which the species designated by the definiendum is the subclass.  Second, the specific difference must be named—the attribute that distinguishes the members of that species from members of all others species in that genus.  In the definition of prime number just given, the genus is the class of natural numbers greater than one: 2, 3, 4, … and so on; the specific difference is the quality of being divisible without remainder only by itself or by one: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, … and so on. Definitions by genus and difference can be very precise. 29  Two limitations of definitions by genus and difference deserve notice, although such definitions remain, nevertheless, exceedingly useful.  First, the method is applicable only to terms whose attributes are complex in the sense indicated above. If there are any attributes that are absolutely unanalyzable, then the words with those intensions cannot be defined by genus and difference.  Second, the technique is not applicable when the attributes of the term are universal. Words such as “being,” “entity,” “existent,” and “object” cannot be defined by the method of genus and difference because the class of all entities (for example) is not a species of some broader genus.  A universal class (if there is one) constitutes the very highest class, or summum genus, as it is called. The same limitation applies to words referring to ultimate metaphysical categories, such as “substance” or “attribute.” Neither of these limitations, however, is a serious handicap in most contexts in which definitions are needed. In appraising proposed definitions by genus and difference, especially when they are intended as lexical, there are five good rules that have been traditionally laid down. 30  Rule 1: A definition should state the essential attributes of the species. Earlier we distinguished the conventional intension of a term from the subjective intension and the objective intension. To define a term using, as its specific difference, some attribute that is not normally recognized as its attribute, even though it may be a part of that term’s objective intension, would be a violation of the spirit of this rule. The conventional intension of a term is not always an intrinsic characteristic of the things denoted by that term. It may concern the origin of those things, or relations of the members of the class defined to other things, or the uses to which the members of that class are normally put.  Rule 2: A definition must not be circular. If the definiendum itself appears in the definiens, the definition can explain the meaning of the term being defined only to those who already understand it. So if a definition is circular it must fail in its purpose, which is to explain the meaning of the definiendum. 31 As applied to definitions by genus and difference, avoiding circularity rules out the use, in the definiens, of any synonym of the definiendum. For example, there is no point in defining lexicon as “a compilation of words in the form of a dictionary.”  Rule 3: A definition must be neither too broad nor too narrow. This is an easy rule to understand, but it is often difficult to respect. We don’t want the definiens to denote more things than are denoted by the definiendum, or fewer things either, of course, but mistakes are often made.  Rule 4: Ambiguous, obscure, or figurative language must not be used in a definition. Ambiguous terms in the definiens obviously prevent the definition from performing its function of explaining the definiendum. Obscure terms also defeat that purpose, but obscurity is a relative matter. What is obscure to amateurs may be perfectly familiar to professionals. Another sort of obscurity arises when the language of the definiens is metaphorical. Figurative language may convey a “feel” for the term being defined, but it cannot give a clear explanation of the term. We do not learn the meaning of the word “bread” if we are told only that it is “the staff of life.” 32  Rule 5: A definition should not be negative when it can be affirmative. What a term does mean, rather than what it does not mean, is what the definition seeks to provide. There are far too many things that the vast majority of terms do not mean; we are unlikely to cover them all in a definition. “A piece of furniture that is not a bed or a chair or a stool or a bench” does not define a couch; neither does it define a dresser. We need to identify the attributes that the definiendum has, rather than those it does not have. Of course there are some terms that are essentially negative and therefore require negative definitions. The word baldness means “the state of not having hair on one’s head,” and the word orphan means “a child who does not have parents.” Sometimes affirmative and negative definitions are about equally useful; we may define a “drunkard” as “one who drinks excessively,” but also as “one who is not temperate in drinking.” In those cases in which negatives are used appropriately in specifying the essential attributes, the genus must first be mentioned affirmatively. 33  In summary, intensional definitions, and among them definitions by genus and difference especially, can serve any of the purposes for which definitions are sought.  They may help to eliminate ambiguity, to reduce vagueness, to give theoretical explanation, and even to influence attitudes.  They are also commonly used to increase and enrich the vocabulary of those to whom they are provided. For most purposes, intensional definitions are much superior to extensional definitions, and of all definitions that rely on intensions, those constructed by genus and difference are usually the most effective and most helpful.  The following table summarizes the kinds of definition by function (of which there are five), and the six techniques that depend on extension (three) and intension (three). 34  Five Types of Definition Stipulative Lexical Precising Theoretical Persuasive Six Techniques for Defining Terms A. Extensional Techniques B. Intensional Techniques 1. Definitions by example 4. Synonymous definitions 2. Ostensive definitions 5. Operational definitions 3. Quasi-ostensive definitions 6. Definitions by genus and difference 35 Explain the types of disputes and provide an example each. Explain any four types of definitions you know LOGIC AND CRITICAL THINKING 2020/2021 UNIT FIVE ARGUMENT IN LOGIC 1  A. What is an argument? B. Identifying features of an argument- premises indicators and conclusion indicators 2  Introduction  Even though in ordinary discourse a quarrel is an argument, in logic when two people are quarrelling they are not necessarily making arguments because in logic an argument is a statement which presupposes that something is right based on a previous knowledge and sound judgement.  In fact, the exchange of words may contain no arguments at all.  Thus, although the term ‘argument’ is often used in other senses, we are here concerned with argument as used in logic. Indeed, logic principally concerns arguments.  It is significant to note from the onset, however, that an argument is not a disagreement, neither is it a dispute or a quarrel. 3  Is an argument a debate?  Not exactly; as would soon be demonstrated, an argument could be presented as one of the two sides of a debate.  Thus, in a debate, one side argues for the motion and the other side argues against the motion.  An argument is a reasoned, logical way of demonstrating that the position, belief, or conclusion taken by a proponent is valid.  In short, an argument seeks to make people believe that something is true based on the evidence provided. 4  An argument in logic has been defined as ‘any group of propositions one of which is claimed to follow from the other(s), the other(s) regarded as providing the evidence of the truth of that one.’  The claim may be right or wrong, but the rightness or wrongness does not necessarily make it any less an argument.  Similarly, Copi and Cohen define an argument as ‘any group of propositions of which one is claimed to follow from the others, which are regarded as providing support or grounds for the truth of that one.  An argument thus consists of a set of propositions (statements) structured in such a way that the truth of one part is supported by the other part(s).  The proposition which is claimed to be supported by the other(s) is referred to as the conclusion, and the propositions wh