IGCSE Geography Class Notes 2016 PDF

UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL EXAMINATIONS International General Certificate of Secondary Education(IGCSE) IGCSE GEOGRAPHY CLASS NOTE For Private Circulation only Copyright©storing in any form and photocopying without the prior permission from the compiler is strictly pr...

UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL EXAMINATIONS International General Certificate of Secondary Education(IGCSE) IGCSE GEOGRAPHY CLASS NOTE For Private Circulation only Copyright©storing in any form and photocopying without the prior permission from the compiler is strictly prohibited Compiled and Edited by ©Dr. R. B. Thohe Pou HoD, Dept. of Geography 2016 © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 1  Contents Topic Page No. 1. Theme 1: Population and Settlement 1.1 Population Dynamics 3 1.2 Over-population and under-population 1.3: Migration 13 1.4: Population Distribution and Density 1.5: Population structure 18 1.6: Rural Settlements 25 1.7: Urban Settlements 1.8: Urbanisation 32 1.9: Urban Problems 1.10: Urban Sprawl 37 Theme 2: The Natural Environment 2.1: Plate tectonic movement 41 2.2. Volcanoes 2.3 Earthquake 47 2.4 River system 51 2.5 Coastal system 58 2.6 Coral reef 65 2.7 Weather Instruments and measurements 67 2.8 Climate and natural vegetation 69 2.9 Tropical Rainforest 72 2.10 Tropical Hot desert 78 Theme 3: Economic development 3.1 Development 80 3.2 Food production – Agricultural system 88 3.3 Food Shortages 92 3.4 Industry 96 3.5 Hi-tech Industry 102 3.6 Tourism 103 3.7 Energy 106 3.8 Water Resources 113 3.9 Environmental risks of economic development 120 Syllabus IGCSE © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 2  Paper 1: Theme 1 Population and Settlement Topic 1.1: Population dynamics Key Term: 1. The World population in 2011 was 7.0 Billion 2. Population: the number of people living in a particular geographical areas 3. Population explosion – the rapid growth of world population is known as population explosion. There was a sudden increase of world population is 1950s. 4. Population density: the average number of people in a given area per square kilometer. Or the total number of people living in a square kilometer of land. 5. Birth rate: the number of live births per 1000 people in a year 6. Death rate: the number of deaths per 1000 people in a year 7. Natural increase: the difference between birth and death rate is known as natural increase. Natural increase = Birth rate – Death rate 8. Census: an official count of the population at a regular interval. 9. Infant mortality rate: the number of death in a year per 1000 children below the age of one 10. Life expectancy: the average number of year of a person is expected to live 11. Demography: the study of human population, their size, distribution and composition. 12. Population structure: Age and sex composition of a country population 13. Population Pyramid: Is a diagram that shows the proportion of the total population of sex (male and female) and their age group. The population Pyramid helps us to judge and predict about the future population. 14. Old age group: the age group of 60 years and above is considered as Old 15. Young age group: the age group between 14 year and under is considered as young 16. Working population: the age group between 15 years and 64 year is the working population 17. Ageing population: A population is considered ‘ageing’ when the proportion of ‘young’ people is less than 30% and the proportion of Old people is greater than 6% 18. Young population: a population is considered as ‘young’ when the proportion of ‘young’ people is more than 30% and the proportion of ‘Old’ people is less than 6% © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 3  19. Over population: when the total number of people living in a country is more than the available resources in a country is considered as over population. Eg: Nigeria 20. Under population: when the total number of people living in a country is less than the available resources in a country is considered as under population. Eg: Australia. 21. Optimum population: the size of population that permits the full utilization of the natural resources of an area, giving maximum per capita output and standard of living. (the availability of resources are enough for the total population living in a country) Growth of World population The world population refers to the number of people living on earth. There are about 7 billion people on the earth in 2011. In 1 AD, the world population was about 200 million. 1000 AD a thousand years later, it was 275 million. By 1800 AD, the world population had reached 900 million. From then on, it increased very rapidly. The population explosion refers to the sharp increase in the world population since 1950, causing concern over the ability of the earth to provide enough resources for humans. From 1960 to 2000, the world population has increased from 3 billion to 6 billion. If this trend continues, the world population is expected to reach 11 billion by 2050. World population in 2007 and 2050 2007 2050 Country Population in (millions) Country Populations in (millions) China 1318 India 1747 India 1132 China 1437 USA 302 USA 420 Indonesia 232 Indonesia 297 Brazil 189 Pakistan 295 Factors influencing population growth Population change or growth in a country is affected by  the difference between birth rates and death (natural change) and  the balance between immigration and emigration (net migration). Factors that encourages high birth rate  Early marriages – in some countries, people marry when they are as young as 15 years old. Women who marry young are likely to have more children than those who marry later.  Children are seen as wealth – in some Asian countries, children are regarded as assets because they can help in the farms and bring in additional income for their families  High number of death among children – in some LEDCs where health care services are lacking, children die at a very young age. So they have more children in case some die early.  Lack of knowledge on birth control – people who are ignorant of birth control methods may have more children than they really want. People may be ignorant because they are illiterate or not well- informed if information on birth control is not readily available.  Preference of male child – some families prefer boys to girls and in their quest to have baby boys, they end up having more children than necessary. © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 4   Religious beliefs – some of the religions do not allow use of contraceptives and abortion. Like the Roman Catholic do not allowed doing abortion and the Muslims allowed to practice polygamy. Demographic Transition Model The historical shift of birth and death rate from high to low levels in a population known as Demographic Transition. The Demographic Transtional Model is a simplification of reality to help us understand the most important aspects of process. It is a broad generalization about population growth since the middle of the eighteenth century.  No country as a whole retains the characteristics of Stage 1  The poorest of the less developed countries are in Stage 2  Most less developed countries which have undergone significant social and economical changes are in Stage 3  Some of the newly industralised countries (NIC) such as South Korea and Taiwan are in Stage 4.  Some of the countries in Eastern and Southern Europe experience or pass through Stage 5. Stage 1: High Birth Rate and High Death Rate High birth rate  No birth control or family planning  Religious beliefs encourage growth of families (for example: Roman Catholicism does not allow for abortions  Early marriage and polygamy – for example the Muslim polygamy  Traditional societies encourage large families  Considering children as wealth to work High Death Rate  Diseases like cholera and plague – lack of life saving medicine  Famine and poor diet – lack of food crops  Poor hygiene, no clean water  No sewage disposal – poor infrastructures  Lack of medical care – few doctors, hospital and medicine  Natural disasters like flood and droughts – lack of disaster management systems. © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 5 Stage 2: High Birth Rate and Falling Death Rate High birth rate  No birth control or family planning  Religious beliefs encourage growth of families (for example: Roman Catholicism does not allow for abortions  Early marriage and polygamy – for example the Muslim polygamy  Traditional societies encourage large families  Considering children as wealth to work Falling death rate  Improved medical care through vaccination, hospitals and doctors  Improved sanitation and water supply  Improvement of food production  Improved transportation facility to move  Decreasing child mortality  Services of charity organization like Red Cross and UN Stage 3: Falling Birth Rate and Falling Death Rate Falling Birth Rate  Family planning techniques (contraception, sterilisation, abortion)  Government population policies (for example: One-child policy of China)  Lower infant mortality rate  Increasing industralisation and mechanization  Improvement in social status for women through education  Improvement in prenatal and postnatal care in health centres, reducing infant mortality rate Falling Death Rate  Improved medical care through vaccination, hospitals and doctors  Improved sanitation and water supply  Improvement of food production  Improved transportation facility to move  Decreasing child mortality  Services of charity organization like Red Cross and UN Stage 4 and 5: Low Birth Rate and High Death Rate Low Birth Rate  Changing lifestyles (for example, less marriages and cohabitation)  Career-oriented women (not ready to spend more time on family)  Late marriages decrease fertility period  Good health and family planning  Increasing incidents of same-sex relationship  Availability of birth control techniques High Death Rate  High rates of crimes and spread of viruses  Respiratory diseases – like air pollution causes allergies, asthma etc  Lifestyle – related diseases such as cancer, obesity, heart problems etc  Old age diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease  Increasing suicides rates  Traffic accidents  Clashes, riots, wars etc © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 6  Case Study (anti-natal policy) – One Child Policy in China The ‘One Child’ Policy is a population control policy of the People’s Republic of China. It officially restricts married couples to having more than one c hild. The Special Administrative Regions of Hong Kong and Macau and the foreigners living in China are completely exempted. This policy was introduced in 1978 and initially to first born children from 1979. Background: During the period of Mao Zedong’s leadership in China, infant mortality declined from 227/1000 births in 1949 to 53/1000 in 1981, and life expectancy dramatically increased from around 35 years in 1949 to 65 years in 1976. Until the 1960s, the Government encouraged families to have as many children as possible. So the population grew from around 540 million in 1949 to 940 million in 1976. Beginning in 1970, citizens were encouraged to marry late and have only two children. The policy:  To address overpopulation, the policy had been planned in 1977, although it was not mandated until 1979.  The policy was introduced to promote one child families and forbids couples having more children in urban areas.  Parents with multiple children are not given the same benefits as parents of one child  In most cases, wealthy families pay a fee to the government in order to have a second child or more children.  The limit has been strongly enforced in urban areas, but the actual implementation varies in locations  In most rural areas, families are allowed to apply to have a second child if their first-born is a daughter or suffers from physically disability, mental illness, or mental retardation  Families violating the policy are required to pay penalties and may possibly be denied bonuses at their workplace.  Children born in overseas countries are not counted under the policy if they do not obtain Chinese citizenship  Chinese citizens returning from abroad are allowed to have a second child. Positive Impacts:  The authorities claim that the policy has prevented more than 400 million births from about 1979 to 2011.  The individuals saving rate has increased since the one-child policy was introduced  The fertility rate in China fell from 2.63 birth per woman in 1980 to 1.61 in 2009  The focus on population control provided better health service for women and reduction in risks associated with pregnancy.  At family planning offices, women received free contraception and pre-natal classes © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 7 Negative Impacts:  The policy has been implicated in an increase in forced abortions, infanticide, and underreporting of female births  The sex-ratio at birth in China reached 1170:1000 in the year 2000, substantially higher than the natural baseline, which ranges between 1030:1000 and 107:100 due to the preference for a boy child  Little Emperor syndrome – as some parents over-indulge their only child he may become unadjusted to the society  Resulted into Gender-selected abortion, abandonment, and infanticide  Since there are no penalties for multiples births, couples turned to fertility medicine to have twins. According to a 2006 China Daily report, the number of twins born per year in China had doubled.  Government officials and especially wealthy persons have often been able to violate the policy in spite of fines. According to a 1968 proclamation of the International Conference on Human Rights, “Parents have a basic human rights to determine freely and responsibly the number and the spacing of their children. Nonetheless, a 2008 survey undertaken by the Pew Research Center reported that 76% of the Chinese population supports the policy. …………………………………………………………………………………………………. REVISION QUESTIONS 1. What is meant by birth rate? The average number of births per 1000 of the population in a year 2. Explain why there are high birth rates in many LEDCs. Ideas such as: little availability of/lack of/can’t afford contraception/birth control/family planning/or examples; not educated re: contraception/family planning; likely to want children to work on the land/on farms/free labour for the family; likely to want children to send out to earn money/work; likely to want children to help around the house/look after younger children/collect water; likely to want children to look after parents in old age; not likely to be affected by government policy to reduce family size; likely to have large families due to tradition/wealth/to get a son; likely to have large families due to religious influences/ religion does not allow contraception; no access to abortion; high infant mortality rates/people have more children in the hope that some will survive; women stay in the home/don’t work; early marriage; lack of emancipation for women; etc. 3. Describe the problems caused by high natural population growth in LEDCs. Ideas such as: poverty; people do not have enough resources/pressure on resources; pressure on energy supplies (or example); lack of work/high unemployment; inadequate food supplies/food shortages/malnutrition/starvation; poor access to education/government spend more on education/not enough schools; poor access to health care/government spend more on healthcare/not enough hospitals; overcrowded housing/homeless/growth of shanty towns/lack of living space; inadequate water supply/sanitation; overuse of agricultural land/overgrazing/lack of land to farm; deforestation/loss of natural vegetation; impact on economy/GDP falls, slows; specified pollution problems; increased traffic congestion; etc. © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 8 4. Describe policies which governments can use to reduce birth rates. Ideas such as; introduce anti-natalist policies; one child policy/limit number of babies/restrict number of children; advertise the benefits of small families; educate people about contraception; legalise abortion; make (free) contraceptives available; examples of specific incentives (e.g. free education, free health care); introduce pensions for elderly; examples of disincentives if have a 2nd child e.g. fines, lose jobs; reduce benefits for people having children e.g. reduced maternity leave/child benefit/child tax credits; forced sterilization; free goods e.g. radios in India; educate women to encourage them to take jobs or careers; marriage regulations e.g. late marriage/seek permission; gender equality acts; etc. 5. Explain why there are low death rates in MEDCs Ideas such as: good health care/enough hospitals/doctors/nurses/clinics; good sanitation/more hygienic; good access to safe/clean water sufficient food supplies innoculation against many disease/drugs/medicines/cures for diseases; education re healthcare/life style issues availability of pensions; specific provision for elderly (or examples) Case study: Niger: A country with high growth rate of population The Republic of Niger is a land-locked country in West Africa named after the Niger River. Its climate is mainly very hot and dry with many desert areas. It is an LEDC, and is one of the poorest countries in the world. The population of Niger has grown from 1.7 millions in 1960 to over 13 millions in 2008. With a high population growth rate of 2.9% it is expected to reach 56 millions by 2050. Niger has the highest fertility rate in the world with 7.1 births per woman. Literacy rate is only 28.7% and the population below the poverty line is 63%. About 90% of the total workforce is engaged in agriculture; industry 6% and services 4%. The birth rate is 49.6 and the death rate is 20.3. If the people of Niger remain uninformed about the family planning, by 2050, it will be impossible for the government to provide adequate health, education, jobs and water. For poor families, children are a s source of wealth. Consequences of high rate of population growth  Overcrowding – high rate of population growth may cause overcrowding. In some cities, people live in a congested shanty towns or squatters due to inadequate housing. When people live in such a condition, diseases can spread easily due to lack of infrastructures.  Shortage of food – despite technological advancements in agricultural production, local food supply cannot meet the increasing demand. Due to high pressure on farmland, many fields become over cultivated.  Pressure on social services – in most of the LEDCs there is a great pressure in providing medical services and education to meet the growing population. © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 9   Unemployment and other social problems – the farmers earn a low income in the LEDCs due to lack of land availability and infrastructures. As the population grows, the farmland will be over cultivated resulting to decline in production. There is also no enough job opportunities in the cities. When some people cannot support themselves with proper jobs, some may turn to crime. Topic 1.2 Over-population and under-population 1. Over population: when the total number of people living in a country is more than the available resources in a country is considered as over population. Eg: Nigeria 2. Under population: when the total number of people living in a country is less than the available resources in a country is considered as under population. Eg: Australia. 3. Optimum population: the size of population that permits the full utilization of the natural resources of an area, giving maximum per capita output and standard of living. (the availability of resources are enough for the total population living in a country) Case study 1: Niger: Over-populated country The Republic of Niger is a land-locked country in West Africa named after the Niger River. Its climate is mainly very hot and dry with many desert areas. It is an LEDC, and is one of the poorest countries in the world. The population of Niger has grown from 1.7 millions in 1960 to over 13 millions in 2008. With a high population growth rate of 2.9% it is expected to reach 56 millions by 2050. Niger has the highest fertility rate in the world with 7.1 births per woman. About 90% of the total workforce is engaged in agriculture; industry 6% and services 4%. The birth rate is 49.6 and the death rate is 20.3. The problems faced by people in the country. (Or the problems faced by people in countries which are overpopulated)  People do not have enough natural resources or raw materials  There will be lack of fuel/power (or example such as electricity)  Lack of work and poverty prevails  There is not enough food supplies and people suffer from starvation and famine  There is poor access to education  There is poor access to health care; only a few hospitals  High levels of disease and high death rates prevails  Housing are overcrowded and not enough space for housing © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 10   Many squatter settlements are found  There is traffic congestion  There is atmospheric and water pollution causing health problems  There is inadequate water supply; lack of sanitation  The agricultural land are overused  There is overgrazing and disputes over agricultural land or places to live. Case study 2: Australia: The consequences of under-population Australia has only 20 million people with an area of 7.7 million sq.km. The population density of Australia is only 0.4% per sq.km. Many areas of Australia are empty and the resources are not being used fully. The successive Australian governments have tried to increase its population, to develop the country economically and to protect it from foreign influences. The consequences of under-population  There will be less working people in the country.  The economic growth will be stagnant due to lack of working people.  The available resources will be unexploited fully.  There will be lack of people in the defence.  There will be huge expenses on old age people for old age home and other maintenances.  One of the positive aspects of under-population could be no unemployment like in those over-population countries.  There will be no pressure on social services and everyone will get proper infrastructures and other facilities.  There will be no overcrowding and the environment of the country will be more peaceful and cleaner. Indonesia: Rapid growth of population Indonesia is the 4th largest population in the world, and the Government of Indonesia is worried and concern about its rapid population growth. The government of Indonesia had introduced family planning and taken up other measures to reduce its rapid population growth. However, due to many other reasons, the population is alarmingly growing its population. Some of the reasons that caused problems due to rapid growth of population may be mentioned as: i) Lack of job opportunities - Indonesia is not a well-developed country and the majority of the population is depending on primary sector. The total number of workforce in secondary sector and tertiary sectors are comparatively less. Indonesia has a large © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 11 population but the job opportunities is quite less, and may people do not have sustainable job for their daily life. The lack of availability of work leads to poverty. ii) Inadequate food supplies – Many people are very poor due to lack of job opportunities in the industries and other sectors. Many people lived in shanty houses where there is not any proper drainage and safe drinking water. Due to lack of job opportunities, people do not get enough food supplies which cause death by malnutrition. iii) Poor access to education – poor access to education is making people remain unqualified and finding to find job in MNC and TNC. Due to lack of proper education, there is less skill and expert workforce and the resources are also unexploited. iv) Poor access to health care – there is no enough Doctors and hospital to meet the high annual population and its rapid growth of population. The poor access o health care leads to high death rates. v) Traffic congestion – the traffic congestion is becoming one of the serious problems especially in Jakarta. Every the number of population added due to the natural growth of population and due to lots of migration from rural areas to Jakarta city. The number of vehicles are increasing every, which is leading to traffic congestion. vi) Inadequate water – as the city Jakarta is located on the Island, the drinking water is difficult to tap from the ground due to high present of salt. People have to buy drinking water and the poor people cannot afford to buy drinking water. Drinking water is another rare commodity for the people living in the Island. vii) Overcrowded housing – there is no enough housing for the immigrants from the other Island to Jakarta and thus squatter settlements are found in many parts of the city. There is no enough basic amenities due to overcrowded housing in the city. In addition to above mentioned problems, there are also some other problems like air pollution, drainage problem etc. Whenever there is heavy rainfall in the city like Jakarta, floods occur in many parts of the city. …………………………………………………………………………………………………… REVISION QUESTIONS 1. The population has grown so much in some countries that they are now overpopulated. Describe four problems caused by overpopulation. (2015) Ideas such as: Poverty; people do not have enough resources; pressure on energy supplies (or example)/strain on utilities e.g. gas or electricity; lack of work; inadequate food supplies/ malnourished/ starvation; poor access to education/government spend more on education; poor access to health care/government spend more on healthcare; overcrowded housing/ homeless/ shanty towns develop; inadequate water supply/ sanitation/government spend more on water supply or sanitation; overuse of agricultural land/ overgrazing; deforestation/loss of natural vegetation /habitats; increase in specified pollution type. © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 12  Topic 1. 5: Migration Migration Key Terms: Migration – the movement of people across a specify boundary – national or international and live there for a year or more. Voluntary migration is the movement of people usually voluntary and often involves looking, and hoping for, a better quality of life and standard of living at the new destination. Involuntary migration is the forced migration of the people or individuals usually do not know where their destination will be what their quality and standard of living will be like. Internal migration – the movement of people within a country which may be from rural to urban or from urban to rural. International migration – the movement of the people from a country to another country to live and work for a year or more. Immigration – moving in to a country from another country Emigration – leaving (moving out) one’s own country Net migration – the difference between the immigration and emigration is known as net migration Asylum seeker – a person who has left their country of origin for fear of persecution. They have asked for permission to stay in another country and are waiting for a decision on this. Example: people leaving conflict in South-East Asia arriving by boat from Indonesia to seek asylum in Australia. Refugee – a person who has been forced to leave their country of origin in fear of their lives. They run away often with no idea where they will end up and with no permission to stay in another country. Example: Palestine- Israel, Sri Lankan LTTE, Iraq civil war, Afghanistan terrorism. International migrant – a person who moves to live and work in a different country for at least a year. If they move for better work they are called economic migrants. National migrant – a person who move to live and work in another place within the same country Illegal migrant – a person who enters a country to live and work there without permission Push and Pull factors: Push factors are negative conditions at the point of origin which encourage or force people to move. © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 13 Pull factors are positive condition at the point of destination which encourage people to migrate. The nature of pull and push factors varies from country to country (and from person to person) and changes over time. Forced migration and voluntary migration – In voluntary migration the individual has a free choice about whether to migrate or not. In forced migrations, people are made to move against their will. The abduction and transport of Africans to the Americas as slaves was the largest force migration in history. Push factors:  Adverse climatic conditions  Natural disasters (drought, famines)  Social upheaval  Poor employment  Low income  Intolerance  Housing shortages  Poor educational opportunities  War with another country  Civil war Pull factors:  Amenities  Attractive environment  High standard of living  Job prospects  High wages  Improved housing  Tolerance  Better medical facilities  Chance of better education  Family or friend may have already moved  Safety Barriers or problems in international migration  Cost of travel can be high  High cost of Visa  There are legal restrictions  Cultural differences – language, way of life Most people prefer their own country:  Existing job and work contacts  Family and friends are near  Familiar surrounding and culture  Living costs may be lower Migrants may return home:  With capital to starts a business  With new skills and qualifications  If they have difficulty in setting overseas © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 14   When they retire  If they are forced to return for legal reasons Advantage of emigration – the source (origin) country  Reduced unemployment  Benefits from the remittance (payments) sent back  Returning migrants bring new skills to the country  Returning migrants increase the social expectations  Returning migrants are with high purchasing power  Increased investments in projects like buildings Disadvantages of emigration (move out from a country)  There are disproportionate number of females left behind  The non-return migrants cause imbalance on population pyramid  Departure of youth cause a loss of cultural leadership  The loss of people with businesses and political skills Advantages of immigration (destination) (moving in to a country)  Economic migrants tend to take up less desirable jobs  Gain skilled people at low cost  Can pay low wages  Will work long hours  Cost of retirement transferred back to the home country  Creation of multi-cultured society (life style, dress, tradition, food)  Fresh ideas and intelligent people in research and development institutions  Young talents in the field of sports, culture etc Disadvantages:  The cost of education to migrants children  Fewer jobs for unskilled workers  May move back once earned money  Amenities problems – hospitals, schools etc with extra number of people  There is an overdependence of some industries on migrant labour  Discrimination against ethnic groups may lead to civil war (Indonesia – 1997-98)  The loss of aspects of cultural identity particularly among the second generation migrants  Segregated areas of similar ethnic groups are created (Singapore – little India)  Problems of illegal migration © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 15 Case study: International Migration from Mexico to California, USA California was, until the mid-nineteenth century, sparsely populated mainly by Native Americans. The first migrants did not arrive in any large numbers until the mid- nineteenth century. The first settlers came from Spain by sea in 16th and 17th centuries. The European settlers came to California in mid-19th century. In early 20th century, the people from eastern and southern Europe and Eastern Asia came to California. They are the voluntary migrants. Since 1950s, many people have immigrated to California from north and east of USA. The Mexicans (Hispanics) who were the voluntary migrants were initially seasonal migrated and increasingly permanent migrants. There is a 2000 km border between USA and Mexico. Estimates suggest that 1-2 million Mexicans try each year to cross into the USA, mainly illegally. Illegal migration is a problem for the US border patrol guard, 850000 illegal migrants were caught in 1995 and deported. Push factors in Mexico: Due to poor medical facilities (1800/doctor), low paid jobs, adult literacy rate (55%), life expectancy (72 years) and unemployed (40%). Pull factors: Excellent medical facilities (400/doctor), well paid jobs, adult literacy rate (99%), life expectancy (76yrs) and availability of many low paid jobs. Negative impact on the USA:  Illegal migration costs the US millions of dollars for border patrol and prisons  Migrants workers keep wages low which affects American workers  May move back once earned money  Problems in cities due to cultural and racial issues  Services such as hospitals and schools cannot cope with extra numbers  Mexican culture has enriched the US border states with food, language and music  Mexicans are considered as a drain of wealthy by the US  The incidents of TB has been increasing greatly due to migration Positive impacts  The migrants take the harder, dirtier, seasonal, more monotonous, more dangerous, less skilled and less well-paid jobs.  The migrants can accept low wages  They are willing to work for long hours  Increased population will spend more in local economy. Negative impact on Mexico:  The Mexican country side affects a shortage of economically active people © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 16   Woman are in trouble for finding partners  Young people migrate leaving the old and kids  Immigrants send 6 Billions dollar a year to Mexico  Certain villages like Santa Ines have lots 2/3 of its inhabitants Positive impacts:  Chance of a job  Better pay than in Mexico  Can save money and return to improve life in Mexico  The remittance send by the migrants will improve their family and standard of living. ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. Revisions Questions 1. What are the main reasons for rapid growth of population in Niger – an LEDC in West Africa? 2. What are the main reasons for population decline in Russia? 3. What are the main causes and problems of overpopulation in Nigeria? 4. What are the main causes and problems of under-population in Australia? 5. What are the main consequences of the ‘One Child’ policy of China? 6. What are the main reasons for increasing population in Singapore? 7. Explain why it will be difficult to persuade people in Niger to have smaller families? 8. Describe how birth rates and death rates changed in Russia between 1980 and 2008? 9. Suggest the possible impacts on LEDC of a large amount of emigration. Ideas such as: loss of working population/loss of young population/jobs not filled/loss of economically active/less pressure of jobs; under-population; increase in wages; shortage of skills or example/lack of innovation; decline in economy/production is lower/GNP reduced; hard to produce enough food; families split up; declining birth rate; loss of traditional culture; money /remittances sent home by migrants; less pressure on services/housing; resources wasted/less demand for resources; less taxes paid/taxes increases/less government money e.g. for pensions; ageing population/increased dependency ratio; gender imbalance; closure of businesses/businesses make less profit/less spending power; closure of amenities or services or example such as schools or hospitals; less traffic congestion; less specified pollution. 10. Explain the reasons for internal migration of a counry. Content Guide: employment, health care, education, drought, food supplies, political issues,war, wages, standard of living etc. 11. Suggest reasons why there are many high rise buildings in the city in CBD. Ideas such as: lack of space/to save space/there is not much room/little land; high demand for land/lots of government buildings /shops /businesses locate here/many people work in the CBD; expensive land/to reduce costs/it is cheaper; © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 17 12. Compare the pattern of urban land use in cities in LEDCs and MEDCs. Ideas such as: Centrally located CBD in both MEDC and LEDC; In both MEDC and LEDC there are distinct zones of housing of different cost/quality; higher cost/class/quality housing tends to be close to CBD in LEDC/further away in MEDC; lower cost/class/quality housing tends to be close to CBD in MEDC/further away in LEDC; industry is close to transport links in both LEDC and MEDC/near edge of city in both/near centre in both; areas of shanty town/squatter settlement in LEDC but not in MEDC; housing near CBD in LEDC but industry near CBD in MEDC; 13. Describe the problems caused by traffic congestion in urban areas. Ideas such as; delays/wastes time/have to allow more time/longer journeys; lateness for school/work; loss of productivity/companies lose profit; increased risk of accidents/more deaths and injuries from accidents; noise pollution; which makes concentration difficult; atmospheric pollution/exhaust fumes/smog/appropriate named gas; acid rain or named effect; global warming or named effect; reduced visibility; causes difficulty breathing/ problems for asthmatics/eye irritations; road rage/frustration; difficult for emergency services to access; difficult for firms to get deliveries; increased use of fuel/higher fuel costs. 14. Describe and explain the attempts which have been made to solve traffic problems. Content Guide: ring roads, build /improve/repair roads by pass, pedestrianisation, public transport, cycle lanes/bike hire schemes, park and ride; congestion charges; traffic lights; speed bumps etc. Topic 1.3: Population structure and control Population pyramids change significantly in shape as a country progress through demographic transition – © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 18     The wide base of Niger’s pyramid reflects extremely high fertility. The birth rate in Niger is 48/1000, one of the highest in the world.  The base of the pyramid for Bangladesh is narrower, reflecting a considerable fall in fertility after decades of government promoted birth control programmes.  The fact that the 0-4 and 5-9 bars are narrower than the two bars immediately above is evidence of recent falls in fertility.  In the pyramid of UK much lower fertility still is illustrated by narrowing of the base. The birth rate in the UK is only 12/1000.  In the case of Japan has a distinctly inverted base reflecting the lowest fertility of four countries. The birth rate is only 9/1000. Divisions of population pyramid: 1. The young dependent population : 0-14 years 2. The economically active population: 15-64 years 3. The elderly dependent population: 65 years upwards. The dependency ratio: The dependency ratio = %pop aged 0-14+%pop aged 65+ ____________________________ or dependents/working pop. %pop 15-64 The youth dependency ratio is the ratio of the number of people under 15 to those 15- 64 years of age. The elderly dependency ratio is the ratio of the number of people over 64 years to those 15-64 years of age. © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 19 The shape of the population pyramid: The shape of the population pyramid: 1. Broad base: broad base shows a large number of children – high birth rate 2. Broad shape at the top: shows a high proportion of people living longer (higher life expectancy) 3. REVISION QUESTIONS For a named country you have studied, describe and explain changes in the population structure. Name of country… (2015) Content Guide: Answers will depend on country chosen but most are likely to refer to; ageing population, reducing proportion of young dependents; increasing proportion of elderly male/female imbalance migration ideas; etc. Place specific reference is likely to consist of: named parts of the chosen country/locational detail, population data etc. Case study: Niger: A country with a high dependent population The Republic of Niger is a land-locked country in West Africa named after the Niger River. Its climate is mainly very hot and dry with many desert areas. It is an LEDC, and is one of the poorest countries in the world. Niger has the highest fertility rate in the world with 7.1 births per woman. Literacy rate is only 28.7% and the population below the poverty line is 63%. About 90% of the total workforce is engaged in agriculture; industry 6% and services 4%. The birth rate is 49.6 and the death rate is 20.3. © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 20 The Niger population under 15 years is 48 percent with 3 percent of 65 years or more, which shows that 51% of the total population is dependents. Bangladesh has 37% dependents; Japan 37% and UK has 34% dependents. Problem of high young population in Niger:  Niger has a large young population of 48%, which needs to allocate a substantial proportion of resources to look after them.  The young people require resources for health; need proper education, food, safe drinking water and housing.  The money required to cover such needs may mean there is little left to invest in agriculture, industry and other aspects of the economy.  It is difficult to meet the large demand of country’s resources, and may need to introduce family planning to reduce the birth rate. However, the parents have different views and consider their children as wealth.  They also have to rely on their children in old age because of the lack of state welfare benefits. Problem of ageing population in Niger:  An increasing amount of money is needed for residential homes for the elderly people.  More money is required for pensions to the retired people.  Need more hospital and health care for the elderly people  Increasing amount of the family doctor’s financial budget and time is taken up by the elderly.  Less money is available for younger age group for their education and other necessities Topic 1. 4: Population Distribution and Density Population density is the average number of people living in a square kilometre of land. The population density varies in different places. When the number of people living in a square kilometre of land exceeds 200, the area is densely populated. When the number of people living in a square kilometre of land is between 10 to 200, the area is described as moderately populated. When there are fewer than 10 people living in a square kilometre, it is described as sparsely populated. Population density = Total population -------------------------------------- Area /Sq.Km Population distribution – is refers to the spread of people in an area. The world population is unevenly distributed. The majority of the people in the world are living in Asia, which accounts for 60% of the total world population. Africa ranks second and Europe ranks third in world population distribution. The South America and North America rank fourth and fifth respectively. The Oceania including the Australia and New Zealand has the fewest people, while Antarctica has only scientists and explorers only. In ancient time, the main activities of the people was hunting, fishing and gathering fruits. However, with the dawn of domestication and agricultural practices, people commenced to settle down in a particular place. Some of the attributes that generally consider for human settlements in a particular area are – Relief - low-land where the © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 21 people can practice agriculture; Climate – in those places where there is no extreme climate; Availability of water for drinking and farming; Fertile soil – for agriculture etc. Factors affecting population density and distribution 1. Physical factors i) Relief (Flat land) ii) Climate (temperature) iii) Soil (soil fertility) iv) Natural vegetation (forest) v) Mineral resources (gold, iron) 2. Human and Economic factors i) Agriculture (farming) ii) Mining and industry (oil, steel) iii) Commerce (banking) iv) Transport and accessibility (rail, road) v) Politics and religion (stable government) Reasons (factors) of people attracted to live in some areas i) Flat land ii) Employment (job opportunities) iii) Fertile soil iv) Reliable water supplies v) Natural resources vi) Good Transportation and communications vii) Suitable climate viii) Stable Government Reasons of people not living (not attracted) in some areas i) Steep relief (mountainous regions) ii) Arid climate (deserts) iii) Infertile soils iv) Marshy land v) Extremely cold climate (polar regions) vi) Dense forest Reasons for low-density in rural areas  Not enough flat land for agriculture (farming)  Infertile soil (acidic or thin)  Isolation and Inaccessibility (poor road transportation)  Little work except forestry  Relief (mountainous) Reasons for high-density in rural areas  Fertile soil (gently sloping land) © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 22   Suitable climate  Accessible (road transportation)  Farming (machinery on flat land) Reasons for high-density in the urban areas  Transportation and communication  Medical facilities  Safe drinking water  Educational institutions  Job opportunities  Industries  Offices (administration and others)  Commerce (banking, import and exports)  Entertainment and Recreational facilities Case study: Java and North Indonesia Java is an Island of Indonesia and the site of its capital city. The population density of Java is 1040 per Km2, and it covers 6.9% of total land in Indonesia. Causes of High Density  Physiography – Java is a volcanic Island. Merapi is its most important active volcano. The mountains help to split the interior into a series of relatively flat and suitable land for rice cultivation and agriculture.  Fertile soil – the volcanic soil of Java is considered as the most fertile soil. The volcanic ashes of the active Merapi make the soil fertile. Certain regions are covered by alluvial soil  Early agriculture development – ideal agricultural conditions and wet field rice cultivation started in the 8th century. This allowed villages and kingdoms to flourish in this regions.  Tropical climate – the natural climate of Java Island is not extreme like in deserts or Polar regions. Its moderate climate is one of the most important reasons for its high population density. The demands maded on clothing and housing by the population are not much. The average temperature of Java is 280C and the annual rainfall is 200 cm. The rainfall is distributed throughout the year. Consequences of High population density:  Overcrowding – Java covers only 6.9% of land in Indonesia when 60% of the total population resides here. The population density of Jakarta is 4383 per KM 2  Low living standards – Jakarta is a city of 10 million people. There are many fishing villages like the one in Muara Angke. Less than 50% of Jakarta’s residents have access by water. © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 23   Pollution – the cities are polluted with industrial and residential waste. Jakarta produces …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. Revision Questions 1. Explain how physical factors can influence population distribution. (2015) Ideas such as: more likely to live on flat land; people are more likely to live in lowland areas/avoid living in mountains/live in a valley; people live in areas of temperate climates/where it is wet/warm; people avoid areas which are too hot/too dry/too cold/areas with extreme climate conditions; flood plains are avoided; swampy areas are not built on; in tropical areas higher land is attractive to live in as temperatures are lower; large areas of rainforest are sparsely populated; people live near a water source/rivers/nodal points for rivers/where rivers meet; people live near fertile soil; defensive sites e.g. surrounded by mountains/meander/on a hill; dry desert areas are avoided/have few people; near to natural resources/fossil fuels/minerals; 2. For a named country you have studied, describe and explain changes in the population structure. Content Guide: ageing population, reducing proportion of young dependents; increasing proportion of elderly; male/female imbalance; migration ideas; etc. 3. For a named area you have studied, explain why it has a low population density. Content Guide:relief; accessibility / isolation; climate / low or high temperatures depending upon location / rainfall / desert; water supply / desert / drought;employment / lack of jobs; natural resources / resource availability; inability to grow food / soil fertility / inadequate food supply; areas of dense vegetation/type of natural vegetation;etc. 4. For a country which you have studied, show the relief of the country and suggest the reasons unevenly distribution of population. Reasons such as: explain using the reasons given below: differences in relief; high lands are not densely populated; difficult to build (dev);for communications (dev); less than 200 metres sparsely populated; possible flood risks (dev); differences in precipitation; areas above 2000 mm rain sparsely populated; as this creates rainforest © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 24 (dev); difficult to penetrate (dev); coastal location encourages trade; thus development of industry/settlement/tourism (dev) etc 5. Referring to physical factors, explain why some highland regions are sparsely populated. Ideas such as: communications are difficult/roads hard to build; difficult to build on (steeply sloping land); isolation/far away from CBD/cities/towns; agriculture is poor in mountains/food hard to produce/shortage of food; climate often cold/snow/icy/or implications; poor soils/infertile; wet/windy; 6. Referring to economic and human factors, explain why many coastal regions are densely populated. Ideas such as: Settlements developed around ports/harbours/easier to travel abroad; trade opportunities/imports/exports; much industrial development/factories; employment/job opportunities; coastal areas have good communications/roads/rail links/transportation; growth of tourism/examples of jobs in tourism; fishing industry/food from sea; first regions to be settled idea; Topic 1.6: Rural Settlements Any form of human dwelling from a single house to largest city is a settlement. In other word, a settlement is a place in which people live and where they carry out a variety of activities, such as residence, trade, agriculture, manufacturing etc. 1.Types of settlements: There are types of settlements such as: Rural and Urban settlement. Most of the rural settlements are hamlets and villages, although not all are. 2. Pattern or shape of settlement: i). Dispersed settlement: Is a dispersed settlement pattern is one in which individual houses and farms are widely scattered throughout the countryside. They are common in sparsely populated areas. This happen because it became more convenient to build farmhouse out in the fields of the newly established farms. ii). Nucleated settlement: Nucleated settlements are those in which houses and buildings are tightly clustered around a central feature such as a church, village green or crossroad. iii) Linear settlement: In linear settlement houses are spread out along a road, railway track, or a river. Linear settlement is also found where poor drainage prohibits growth in a certain direction. iv) Cruciform settlement: is found at intersections of roads and usually consist of lines of building radiating out from the crossroad. Some of the factors that favours nucleation are: i) Joint and co-operative working of the land ii) Defence, for example hilltop locations to protect from other people iii) Shortage of water causing people to locate in areas lose to springs iv) Near important junctions and crossroad as these favour trade and communications © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 25 4. Site and situation: The site of a settlement is the actual land on which a settlement is built, whereas the situation is the location of the settlement in relation to the area around it. Example of site: on flat land, on fertile soil, on a hilltop etc. example of situation: close to a reliable water supply, close to a main route etc. Some of the favourable sites for settlement includes: i) Availability of water ii) Free from flooding iii) Availability of resources iv) Availability of good soil for agriculture v) A potential for trade and commerce vi) Climatic condition A dry point is an elevated site in an area of otherwise poor natural drainage. It includes small hill or islands. Water supply and fertile alluvial soils and the use of a valley as line of communication are all positive advantages. A wet point site is a site with a reliable supply of water from springs or wells in an otherwise dry area. Spring line villages at the foot of chalk and limestone ridges are good example. Spring line settlement occurs when there is a line of sites where water is available. 5. Functions: The function of a settlement relates to its economic and social development, and refers to its main activities. Generally the larger settlement will have more functions than smaller settlements. Larger settlement tends to be multifunction. Functions: Agriculture, Mining town, Fishing, Lumbering (logging), Cattle rearing, Quarrrying, Ports, Weaving, Pottery, commercial, administrative, residential etc. 6. Amenities: Market, Post office, unmetalled road, Primary school, Primary health center, electricity, drinking water etc. ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. REVISION QUESTIONS: 1. Suggest three possible reasons for the growth of large settlements Ideas such as: flat land/room for expansion; industry/factories/businesses; markets for surrounding area/trade from surrounding area; migration (from surrounding rural area); commercial/retail development; mining/raw materials/extraction of resources; meeting of roads/route centre/transport links meet together; central location; etc. 2. Explain why some people in MEDCs (More Economically Developed Countries) are choosing to live in rural areas rather than living in towns and cities. Ideas such as: some people like tranquility/quiet/more peaceful/lack of noise; lack of specified pollution air/water; retirement; less stressful living environment/too crowded in cities; lower crime rates/less vandalism/graffiti/safer to raise a family or examples; people working from home; improvement in ommunications/transport/people have greater personal mobility; work in tourist industry; work in farming/they are farmers; scenic beauty/no visual pollution; more land available/larger houses with gardens (or vice versa for cities); less traffic congestion/less traffic; etc. © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 26 3. Explain why different rural settlement patterns develop in different areas. Ideas such as: influenced by relief/large area of flat land; land use influences pattern; influenced by communications/along roads; ideas linked to specific settlement patterns: linear settlements develop in valleys /next to rivers (dev); nucleated settlements grow up at junctions/where roads meet/rivers meet (dev); nucleated along bridging points; nucleated wet points/dry points; in farming areas population will be dispersed/spread across the farmland; on coalfields population will be nucleated/grow up close to mines; where settlements have developed at/as defensive sites would be nucleated; etc. Case study: Service provision in a city or an area Osaka- Kobe, Japan The twin cities of Osaka –Kobe are located in the Kansai region of the Japanese Island of Honshu. Kansai with a population of over 9 Million, has become a world leader in education, science, business, technology, industry etc.  Osaka and Kobe provide lots of services to the people in the city which lead to attract many people to migrate here. There is a good port and around 1400 ships a day enter the dock at Osaka. It is also known well-known for imports and exports raw materials and manufactured goods.  Kansai is a major industrial region. The port area has large oil refineries, steelworks and other industries processing imported raw materials.  Osaka and Kobe has a very good transportation link with bullet train, which provides the most reliable rail service in the world. One of the three bullet train lines passes through Osaka and Kobe. The trains carry 275 million people per year, run at 7 minutes interval, are computer controlled, arrive prompt to the second and  In addition to the present road transportation, a new road has been built linking Osaka and Kobe with the Islands of Awaji and Shikoku.  Kansai International Airport, built on an artificial Island in Osaka Bay, opened in 1994. The terminal, the world’s largest, can handle over 30 million passengers a year.  The cities also provide good educational institutions and many people from different parts of Japan and abroad come to these cities for education and research purposes.  Science and technology become another important center in these cities. Many people are involved in science and technology and research projects. © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 27   Osaka-Kobe became the business center. Many business people across the globe come to visit here.  In addition to some of the mentioned above services, there are also many other services like hospitals, housing facilities, safe drinking water, communications, power station and many other services. Topic 1.7: Urban Settlements Settlement hierarchy The term hierarchy refers to the arrangement of settlements within a given area in an ‘order of importance’. The ‘order of importance’ in the hierarchy is determined based on: i) the population size of a settlement ii) the range and number of services provided by a settlement iii) the sphere of influence, or market area, of a settlement. Isolated home/farmstead (1family) → Hamlet (5-6 buildings) → Village (upto several hundred people) → small town (10,000-20,000 people) → large town (upto 100,000 people) city (upto a million people) → Conurbation (1-2 million people) → Primate city or capital (several million people) Sphere of influence: The sphere of influence or market area is the area served by a particular settlement. The area of sphere of influence depends upon the size and services of a settlement. Hamlets and villages generally have low spheres influence. Range of a good: The maximum distance that a person is prepared to travel to buy an item (good) is known as the range of a good. Low order goods have a small range whereas high order goods have a large range. Threshold population: The number of people needed to support a good or service is known as the threshold population. Low order goods may only need a small number of people to support a small shop, whereas a large department store might require larger number of people in order for it to survive and make a profit. Factors affecting the size, growth and function of settlements A number of factors affect settlement size, growth and function. In extreme environments settlement are generally small. 1. In those low land where farming can be practiced are more suitable for human settlement © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 28  2. Climatic condition also affect the growth and function of the settlement 3. Easy transportation and communication attract more settlement. 4. Settlement in the more favoured areas had greater potential growth, and a greater range of services and functions Functions of urban settlement  Market town where the famers buy and sell goods. There are many services e.g. shops and offices, have good transport links, a market place.  Port where goods loaded and unloaded by ship. There are sheltered harbours, building or storage  Industrial town where many people work in factories, processing raw materials or assembling products. It is found near coalfields.  Resort a place where tourists visit to enjoy themselves. It is located on the coast with beaches or scenic inland areas, may be large historical cities. Urban land use models: Urbanization means an increase in the proportion of people living in towns and cities. Although towns were important even in the early civilization of Mesopotamia and the valley of the Nile, Indus and Huang-He (China), most people tend to live in rural areas. However, due to rapid of industry in nineteenth century that large-scale urbanization began in Europe and US. Urban land use models: A model is a theoretical framework which may not actually exist, but which helps to explain the reality. Burgess’s concentric model (1925) Assumptions:  Burgess assumed that new migrants to a city moved into inner city areas where housing was cheapest and it was closes to the source of employment.  Over time residents move out of the inner city area as they become wealthier Features / characteristics:  Model based on Chicago in the 1920s  The city is growing spatially due to immigration and natural increase  The areas around the CBD has the lowest status and highest density housing  Residents move outwards with increasing social class and their homes are taken by new migrants  Heart of the city  Commercial and shopping facilities, intensive land development, sky scrappers  Concentration of main offices, shop, financial institutes, entertainment centres  Chief focus of traffic such as road junctions, bus stations  Large number of pedestrians © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 29  b. Burgess’s concentric model and c. Hoyt’s Sector model 1. Central Business District (CBD) 2. Factories/Industries 3. Working Class housing 4. Middle Class housing 5. a) A commuter zone b) high class housing In his model, housing quality and social class increase with distance from the city centre. Land in the centre is dominated by commerce as it is best able to afford the high land prices, and requires highly accessible sites. In the early twentieth century, public transport made the central city the most accessible part of town. Beyond the CBD is a manufacturing zone that also includes high density, low quality housing to accommodate the workers. As the city grows and the CBD expands, the concentric rings of land use are pushed further out. The area of immediate change adjacent to the expanding CDD is known as the zone in transition. Hoyt’s sector model (1939) Homer Hoyt emphasized the importance of transport routes and the incompatibility of certain land uses. Sectors develop along important routeways, while certain land uses, such s high-class residential and manufacturing industry deter each other and are separated by buffer zones or physical features. REVISION QUESTIONS 1. What do you understand by typical of a settlement hierarchy? © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 30 In a typical settlement of hierarchy – there are more small settlements/low order than large ones/high order; larger settlements are further away from each other than small ones/smaller ones are closer together; 2. Explain why people are prepared to travel further for some shops and services than others. Ideas such as; travel further for high order goods; it depends on the availability of the services; e.g. there are lots of shops selling bread (dev); so people will be able to buy it locally (dev); main leisure facilities may only be found in large urban areas; so have to travel to a nearby city to go to cinema (dev); for some goods people go further so they have a better choice/a wider variety of goods in some shops; travel further for a better quality product; General frequency of use idea e.g. don’t go there very often so will travel further; travel further for a specialized shop not found near where they live; travel further for cheaper prices; travel further for expensive goods e.g. car; etc 3. For a shop or service in a named settlement you have studied, describe its location and sphere of influence. Name of settlement…Shop or service… Content Guide: Answers will depend on example chosen, however reference may refer to location: within CBD, on specific street, road network, proximity other services etc. 4. Describe and explain the main functions of an urban settlement Content Guide: industry, commercial development, market town, education, administration/government, tourism port; etc. 5. Describe the types of land use which occur at the edges of cities. Ideas such as: housing estates/new housing/detached housing/high quality housing; retail parks/shopping centres/supermarkets/hypermarkets; large areas for parking; ring roads/motorways/by passes; leisure centres/specific type of leisure provision; industrial estates/new factories/science parks/footloose industries; parks/state parks/theme parks/country parks; farmland/plantation/fields/crops/pasture/grazing land/forestry; squatter settlements; power stations; airports; sewage works; refuse tips/landfill sites; quarries; game reserves; botanical gardens; commuter/suburbanised villages; reservoirs. 6. For a shop or service in a named settlement you have studied, describe its location and sphere of influence. Content Guide: © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 31  within CBD, on specific street, road network, proximity other services etc. 7. Explain why shops and services in the CBD of a capital city may have a large sphere of influence. Ideas such as: they are high order services/goods; they are specialist/they sell comparison goods; people travel a long way to use them/large range; as there are none available where they live/villages do not have these services; they may use them infrequently/goods are high cost; they are easily accessible/centrally located; other high order services or tourist sites or work places are available nearby; they use advertising; wide variety of goods/large in size;services are more advanced/sophisticated/high quality goods, etc. 8. Explain why any attempts to reduce traffic congestion in urban areas are likely to create conflicts. Conflicts/problems such as: Disruption during construction phase; e.g. noise from machinery (dev), dust (dev), traffic congestion (dev); Use of land for building of transport facilities; loss of cultivable land in suburbs; may need to demolish properties to build new transport facilities; shanty towns cleared/people become homeless(dev); potential loss of business for petrol stations/CBD car parks/shops; because people not using cars as much (dev)/ therefore loss of passing trade (dev). Prefer tax money to be used for something else/leads to tax increases; etc. 9. Describe the impacts of rapidly growing city on the natural environment. Ideas such as: Deforestation/loss of woodland/forest/greenery/open spaces; loss of farmland/hedgerows; habitats destroyed/animals killed/scared away; species under threat/extinction/examples of species (dev); filling in of water courses; reclamation of wetlands/swamps/flooding (dev); air pollution; water pollution etc. 10. 4. Explain why high order services have a large threshold population. Ideas such as: High order services need more customers to make a profit/use or operate the service; They are often expensive; High order services are likely to be used less frequently than others; High order services may be only used by a small proportion of the population; They are often specialist; Topic 1.8: Urbanisation Urbanisation is the increase in the population of people living in towns and cities. Urbanization occurs because people move from rural areas to urban areas. This usually happens when a country is still developing. © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 32 In 1950s, urbanisation has slowed down in MEDCs, and now some of the biggest cities are losing population as people move away from the city to rural environments. This is known as counter-urbanisation. The main causes of urbanisation in LEDCs;  Rural to urban migration is happening on a massive scale due to population pressure and a lack of resources in rural areas. (this is known as push factors)  People living in rural areas believe that the standard of living in urban areas will be much better than in rural areas. They for well-paid jobs, greater opportunities to find ‘informal’ work, and better health care and education. Main features/characteristics of Central Business District (CBD)  Commercial and shopping facilities, Intensive land development – skycrappers  Concentration of main offices – shops – financial institutions – entertainment centres  Chief focus of traffic (junctions, bust stations)  Large number of pedestrians  Vertical zoning – shops occupy ground floors because of accessibility while offices occupy upper floors  Functional grouping – similar shops and similar functions tend to locate together – increasing their threshold  Traffic restrictions are greatest in the CBD – pedestrianisation has reduced access for cars.  Concentration of retailing – high levels of accessibility attract shops with high range and threshold characteristics  Low residential population – high bed rents can only be met by luxury apartments Benefits – basic facilities are available (road, water, electricity), city centre location, cheaper goods are available. Migration from Rural Peru to Lima Factors influencing migration from villages in Andes to Lima  Not enough agricultural land because it is shared between sons  Drought and other natural hazards  Low prices for agricultural products  Cannot afford clothes and food for children  Not much opportunity for children to go to school  No running water, electricity or sewage disposal in many villages. What migrants experience when they get to Lima  Racial discrimination  Separation from family  Better quality services, e.g. water, electricity  Better schools for migrants children  Low pay and long working hours  Forced to live in self-built houses or on the streets © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 33  A case study on squatter settlement in Dharavi, Mumbai Dharavi is a slum and administrative ward, suburbs of Mumbai, India. Dharavi is one of the largest slums in the world. It used to be the largest slum in Mumbai at one time, but as of 2011, there are four slums in Mumbai larger than Dharavi. In 1986 the population was 530,225, but modern Dharavi has a population near 1 million. The facts: 1. Dharavi covers an area of 535 acres (217 ha), it is situated near to the Mithi River, 2. Migrants from Gujarat established a potters' colony. 3. Migrant tanners from Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra set up the leather tanning industry. 4. The embroidery workers from Uttar Pradesh, started the ready-made garments trade. 5. Dharavi's first school was constructed in 1924. 6. There is an increasingly large recycling industry, processing recyclable waste from other parts of Mumbai. 7. The district has an estimated 5000 businesses and 15,000 single-room factories Positive Conditions: 1. Dharavi provides a cheap housing where rents are as low as US$4 per month. 2. Dharavi exports goods around the world. The total turnover is estimated to be over US$650 million/year. 3. Informal shopping areas exist where it is possible to buy anything needed. 4. 85% of people have a job in the slum and work LOCALLY, and some have even managed to become millionaires. 5. Everything is recycled (23% of plastic waste recycled in the UK, in Mumbai it is 80%) 6. These areas have strong safe neighbourhoods that have low crime and communal riots. Negative Conditions: 1. Poor drainage systems make Dharavi particularly vulnerable to floods during the wet season. 2. Dharavi has severe problems with public health, due to the scarcity of toilet facilities. As of November 2006 there was only one toilet per 1,440 residents. 3. The area also suffers from problems with inadequate drinking water supply. 4. The doctors deal with 4,000 cases a day of diphtheria and typhoid. 5. People live in very small dwellings (12X12ft), often with many members of their extended families (5 people per room). 6. The houses often have no windows and safe doors. 7. They have to work under the hot sun in dangerous conditions with toxic substances without protective clothing to earn around a £1 a day, this could affect life expectancy. Redevelopment; 1. There have been many plans since 1997 to redevelop Dharavi. In 2004, the cost of redevelopment was estimated to be US$770 million. © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 34  2. The Dharavi co-operative housing society, by the initiative of Shri. M.V. Duraiswamy, promoted 338 flats and 97 shops and was named "Dr. Baliga Nagar." The latest urban redevelopment plan proposed by architect Mukesh Mehta, involves the construction of 30,000,000 square feet of housing, schools, parks and roads to serve the 57,000 families residing. The slum dwellers face 14 story apartments as accommodation as proposed by the cities Slum Rehabilitation Authority. Redevelopment problems; 1. There has been significant local opposition to the plans, largely because existing residents are due to receive only 269 square feet of land each. 2. Furthermore, only those families who lived in the area before 2000 are slated for resettlement. 3. Concerns have also been raised that some of their small businesses in the "informal" sector may not be relocated under the redevelopment plan as the government will only legalize industries that are not "polluting." 4. The locals would prefer small improvements to the existing slum such as improvements in drainage. 5. The value of land is so high that redevelopment is now a real threat. The alternative accommodation is very small. 6. This will separate communities and make people work away from where they live. ……………………………………………………………………………….. REVISION QUESTIONS 1. Explain why many new shopping and entertainment centres are being built in suburban areas rather than in the centre of cities. Ideas such as: Low land costs; More space to built large mall ; and for parking (dev); Away from congestion in CBD ; makes deliveries/access for customers easier (dev); easy access from motorway (dev); Away from noise/atmospheric pollution ; more pleasant shopping environment (dev); large market/lots of customers etc 2. Describe the problems in its rural-urban fringe which are being caused by its growth. Traffic congestion as many people who live in new developments commute to work in CBD, loss of farmland due to new housing developments/road construction, atmospheric pollution from increased traffic etc Topic 1.9: Urban Problems Urban decay – urban decay occurs when parts of the city become run-down and undersirable to live in. Examples of urban decays are:  slum housing, with outside toilets, overcrowding, no hot water or central heating  buildings in disrepair with leaking roofs, draughty windows and crumbling brickwork  empty buildings boarded up or vandalized  areas where buildings have been knocked down and which turn into derelict land. © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 35 Comprehensive redevelopment: There have been a number of schemes to reduce the problems of urban decay. Comprehensive redevelopment occurs when all the building are knocked down and the area is completely rebuilt, for example old housing and factories demolished and replaced by new flats and multi-storey high-rise building. This approach has been criticized as people have to move from their established communities and workplaces – they no longer know their neighbours and they have moved away from their friends and relations. Urban regeneration: urban regeneration is the renovation of existing housing and improvement of the environment and economy including:  rewiring the houses and fitting central heating  fitting double glazing  cleaning the outsides of old buildings by sand-blasting  improving the environment by landscaping  building or improving the social facilities such as clubs and medical centres  encouraging new businesses and industry to set up in the areas with grants and loans This has proved more popular as people have been able to stay in their own area. Factors influencing CBD decline/ decay - Investment in city centres often lack a co-ordinated plan - Congestion reduces accessibility of CBDs - Investors and businesses are attracted to peripheral sites that have better environments - Cost of development is high – business rates, rents and land costs - Rise in care ownership leads to increased personal mobility - Planning policies can encourage urban expansion and provide ‘out of town’ developments - Companies find peripheral locations cheaper, and nearer to customers and staff who live in the suburbs. - City centres are perceived as dirty, unsafe, with an ageing environment and poor infrastructures - Progressive suburbanization leads to urban sprawl Problems associated with urban growth:  Lack of housing; Very high land values and rent in the city centre  Congestion in the CBD; Traffic congestion – time delay, accidents  Unemployment; Crime – robbery, theft; Racial conflict ; Pollution – air, noise, water etc; Lack of open space- parks, brown field sites; Urban decay and dereliction; Overcrowding – congestion, pickpockets Solutions to urban problems  Government support for low-income self-built housing  Provision of enough quality housing; Subsidies for home building; Flexible loans to help shanty-town dwellers; Construction of health and educational services  Improve sanitary facilities; Increase access to electricity and potable water  Slum upgrading in central areas; Improved private and public rental housing  Site and service schemes; Encouragement of community schemes Case study: Urban problems and solutions – Cairo in Egypt Cairo is located around the banks and Island of the river Nile in the north of Egypt. There has been rapid growth of population since 1950s. The growth has been too rapid © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 36 for the city to cope, with increasing demands for services such as piped water, schools, paved roads and electricity. Traffic congestion, along with noise, air and water pollution, adds to the problems. Problems in Cairo city: 1. Lack of housing: Self built brick houses are built illegally on farmland by the river Nile. These informal houses cover 80% of Cairo. Half a million people live in homemade of huts on roof spaces of office blocks and flats in the city centre. 2. Traffic congestion: Between 1970 and 2000, the number of cars has increased from 100000 to over a million. Many drivers are aggressive and do not keep to the rules of the road, causing danger for road users and pedestrians. 3. Lack of jobs: Jobs for unskilled workers are hard to find. Many poor people are forced to work in the informal sector, selling things on the streets to earn a meager living. 4. Pollution: The air is heavily polluted by a cocktail of vehicle exhausts and fumes from fuels used in homes and workplaces. Ground water is polluted by waste illegally dumped by factories and workshops. Solutions to Cairo city problems: 1. New satellite and dormitory towns built around the city 2. Ring road built, encircling the city 3. People with donkey carts were lincensed to collect and recycle garbage 4. Homes and public services were upgraded in the most run-down part of the city. 5. A modern metro system was built 6. There greater Cairo waste water project, extended and repaired the sewage system. REVISION QUESTIONS 1. For a named urban area you have studied, describe the attempts taken to reduce the problems caused by traffic. Content Guide:pedestrianisation; road improvement / widening; ring roads; by-passes; public transport systems / trams / tube / guided bus routes; congestion charging; park & ride; number plate usage; lanes for car sharing; bus lanes; catalytic convertors / reduce air pollution; etc. Topic 1.10: Urban Sprawl The expansion of the city into its surrounding rural areas is the urban sprawl. As population increases in towns and cities, urban sprawl takes places. This happens in both MEDCs and LEDCs, but the causes are different. Urban sprawl tends to be unplanned in LEDC cities and planned in MEDC cities – but the outcome is similar. In both cases the urban area expands into the countryside, affecting people and changing the environment at the rural-urban fringe. Rural –Urban Fringe (zone of transition / green field) features It is the transition zone where urban and rural mixture of land uses. The Rural-Urban fringe is the name given to the land at the edge of an urban area, where there is often a © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 37 huge mixture of land uses. Often science parks, business parks and industrial estates locate in the rural-urban fringe as the land is cheaper, there is room for expansion and they are closer to transport links to allow export and import of goods. Recreational land-uses such as golf courses and leisure parks have been established in the rural-urban fringe. Out-of-town shopping centres also find that the space available, good transport connections and cheap land encourage them to establish in the rural- urban fringe. Farming still occurs in the rural-urban fringe, although the farmers often come under great pressure to sell their land for development. A farmer will make far more money from a sale if there is already planning permission for building to occur on the land. Greenbelts Greenbelts were established to prevent the continued growth of cities. They are rings of heavily protected open land circling an urban area. They aim to protect the surrounding countryside from development, and in some cases stop two large cities from merging. Planning permission is not usually granted for schemes on green belt land, although there is often great pressure to allow some proposals through. Main features of rural-urban fringe  Constantly changing pattern of land occupancy and or ownership.  Small farms in which intensive forms of agriculture,including market gardening are carried out.  Rapid residential expansion and predominance of speculative buildings.  Incomplete provision of public utilities and services.  Out of town shopping centers.  Socially, the residents tend to be segregated into distinctive groups;the older rural groups,the new tenants and owner occupier of new private housing.  Roads – National highways, by-pass, low street density  There is also garden, gym, swimming pool, lifts, helipads, low housing density, outer city council estate-large buildings for the poor.  Developments of high tech industries  Development of shopping complex, hyper markets, out of town shopping centres (occupy large space and variety of goods, parking, high demand for goods)  Recreational areas – amusement parks, playground, sports stadium, country parks,  Science parks, hotels and conference centres (large area)  Sewage works and landfill sites for urban waste. Advantages in the rural-urban fringe:  Availability of cheap land  Enough space for expansion  Good quality environment  Fresh land area  Good road transportation  Better security. Disadvantages in the rural-urban fringe  Loss of farming land and jobs;  Increase in population results in suburbanisation of villages;  Increasing competition for land between industrial and agricultural purpose; © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 38   Loss of natural reserves for wild life;  Increase in traffic leads to accidents,  Sewage works and disposal causes land, water pollution. The growth of out-of-town shopping centres Shopping in MEDCs (more economically developed country) and NICs (newly industrialised country) has changed from an industry dominated by small firms to one being led by large companies. The retailing revolution has focussed on superstores, hypermarkets and out-of-town shopping centres. These are located on Greenfield suburban sites with good accessibility and plenty of space for parking and future expansion. The initial out-of-town developments came in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Now more than 20% of shopping expenditure in MEDCs takes place in out-of- town stores. Advantages:  Plenty of free parking  Lots of space so shops are not cramped  New developments so usually quite attractive  Easily accessible by car  The shops can sell large volumes of goods and often at slightly lower prices  Having a large shop means that individual shops can offer a greater range of goods than smaller shops  Developments on the edge of the town reduce the environmental pressures and problems in city centres  Many new jobs can be created both in the short term and in the long term. Disadvantages  They destroy large amount of undeveloped Greenfield sites  They destroy valuable habitats  They lead to pollution and environmental problems at the edge of town  And increase in impermeable surfaces (shops, car parks, roads etc) may lead to an increase in flooding and a decrease in water quality  They only help those with cars – people who do not benefit might include the elderly, those without a car, those who cannot drive.  Successful out-of-town developments may take trade away from city centres and lead to a decline in sales in the CBD  Small businesses and family firms may not be able to compete with the vast multinational companies that dominate out-of-town developments – there may be a loss of the personal touch  They cause congestion in out-of-town areas  Many of the jobs created are unskilled. A case study: Urban sprawl in Atlanta Atlanta is the capital of Georgia state. Its population has grown from 1.4 million in 1970 to 5.1 million in 2006. Between 2000 to 2006 it has added 1 million population which is becoming the fastest-growing metropolitan city in the USA. Growth creates problems © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 39   Population growth – Atlanta is the largest metropolitan area in south-east USA. With 5.1 million populations in 2006, urban sprawl was inevitable.  Traffic congestion – plus air and noise pollution is the fourth worst in the USA. 90% of residents drive to work experiencing 68 hours of delays year year.  Air quality – traffic congestion causes increases in respiratory illnesses such bronchitis, asthma etc. air stagnates here so fumes from vehicles are rarely blown away.  Water quality and quantity – sanitation systems cannot cope. Increased water demand for industry and irrigation uses up supplies, affecting fishing habitats.  Agricultural land – expansion has meant that farmland has been bought and covered with shopping malls and other developments.  Loss of green space – the city losses an average of 125 hectares of trees per day by deforestation. Ecosystems suffer a wildlife dies or migrate away.  Cultural loss – civil war battlefields surrounding Atlanta, such as the Kennesaw mountain national battlefields to the north, are under threat from suburban homes.  Socio-economic division – most sprawl is to the north where white middle- class suburbs have developed. The inner city has less investments; this is where the poorer black population has stayed. REVISION QUESTIONS 1. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of creating areas of green belt land around cities. Ideas such as: Advantages: Retains rural/peaceful environment/stops excessive urban growth/prevents sprawl/ prevents unsightly buildings being built; people can easily access land for walking dog/cycling/amenity; lead to increased property prices; Provides clean air for city/stops/reduces air pollution; May contain water sources for city/no water pollution e.g. reservoir/river; Can be used for producing food/farming; etc. Disadvantages: Makes expansion of urban area more difficult; less land to build services e.g. schools; Therefore building of new housing is difficult/not enough homes for people; encourages upward growth/high rise; Have to live further away from city/development has to be at other side of green belt; leads to more traffic movement/congestion/more fumes/air pollution from traffic; makes construction of ring roads/by passes difficult/rail/airport; increased property prices; 2. Describe the hierarchy of settlements More small villages than large cities, one big city which is the capital, several large cities within each part of the country etc. 3. Describe the effects of rapid urban growth on the natural environment. Ideas such as: loss of vegetation/deforestation; loss of habitats; © R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 40 impacts on food chains; pollution of rivers; death of fish/other species; pollution of ground water/seepage of toxins from dumps; air/atmospheric pollution; rivers dry up due to water extraction/water table lowered etc. 4. Man