CAIE IGCSE Geography PDF

ZNOTES.ORG UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS Prepared for DENIS for personal use only. CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY Overpopulation Under population 1. The...

ZNOTES.ORG UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS Prepared for DENIS for personal use only. CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY Overpopulation Under population 1. Theme 1: Population and Causes/reasons. High birthrate and low Low birthrate and death rate high death rate Settlement High fertility rate Low fertility rate Increased family Lack of family planning planning and access to contraception. 1.1. Population Dynamics High level of Low level of education education for women The world population is increasing day by day. for women, hence to have careers and An area can be either: married early. marry late. High infant mortality Low infant mortality 1. Overpopulation occurs when more people live in an area than there are resources available. Limited religious Religious beliefs beliefs relating to a 2. Underpopulation occurs when fewer people live in number of children the area than there are resources available. Greater life expectancy Low life expectancy. 3. Optimum population: This occurs when there is a More ageing balance between the number of people and the Lack of water, population, hence resources available. Impacts sanitization, housing, more people in and food. retirement age. Keywords: High crime rate and Low crime rate Birth rate: average number of live births in a year for poverty. every 1000 people Unemployment Shortage of workers Death rate: average number of deaths for every 1000 There is no pressure people Increased pressure on on health and health, education, education; hence, Natural increase of a country: Birth rate minus death water, and sanitization. costs increase as the rate population ages. Soil erosion, Few people pay deforestation. taxes. Resources are not Lack of resources \n exploited fully, Inflation reducing the potential More air and water, Lack of services due noise pollution, and to low demand, shortage of housing. particularly in rural Traffic congestions. areas and innovation There are two ways in which a population can change: Migration: the action of moving from one place to another. Natural population change: deducting death rate from birth rate. 1.2. Migration WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by DENIS at Homeschooled on 13/12/24. CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY Origin: Push factors Destination: Pull factors Keywords: Unemployment More job opportunities Migration: Movement of people from one place to War Better salary another good health and education Immigrants: People who arrive in a country to live Pollution and congestion services there permanently Bad weather Peaceful and safe Emigrants: People who leave the country to live in Friends and family may already another country permanently High crime rates live there. Net migration: Number of immigrants minus the Poor education and healthcare Citizenship number of emigrants Poor housing A higher standard of living Types of migration: Famine Closer to relatives Internal migration: When people move from one place to another within the country. Drought Freedom of speech International migration: When people move from Inaccessibility Better lifestyle one country to another; involving the crossing a Pollution Fewer hazards country’s border. Temporary migration: When people stay in an area Impacts of Migration on Country of Origin: for a limited time. Advantages Disadvantages Permanent migration: When people move and Less pressure on healthcare Labour force reduced. never return home. Brain drains more Involuntary (forced) migration: When people are skilful/educated labour leave forced to move. Decline in birth rate. the country - fewer Voluntary migration: When people choose to move. innovations. Refugees: A person who has been forced to leave Migrants bring back new skills. Division of families their home and their country due to a natural Money is sent back Left with elderly population - disaster, war, religious or political persecution (remittances) less income. Asylum Seekers: Someone seeking refuge more job opportunities hence (residency) in a foreign country because their life is in the unemployment rate Tax increase danger in their home country. decrease Reasons for population migration: Decrease traffic congestion More ageing population Push factors: Reasons for people to move away from and pollution. (retirement age) their home country. Increased quality of education Depopulation in rural areas Pull factors: Factors that attract migrants to their and healthcare affects agriculture. destination. Country of Destination WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by DENIS at Homeschooled on 13/12/24. CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY Advantages Disadvantages Overcomes labour shortage. Competition for jobs More pressure on healthcare, Dirty unskilled jobs done. education and public services Brings expertise to the country. Traffic congestion Skilled migrants bring Less religious amenities for innovations. immigrants Cultural diversity and Discrimination and racial enrichment problems Will work long hours for a low Increased pollution salary. Boosts local economy. Impacts on Migrants Themselves Implication of Dependents: Positive Negative Too few Too Many Culture shocks, racism and Taxes for public schools More job opportunities Closure of child- discrimination. Young from the government related services; Better salary & access to a Difficulty in finding houses to dependents: and more child-related fewer jobs. wider variety of good stay services are needed. Better access to education & Fewer consumers and Language barriers healthcare taxpayers in the More people in the Different cultures may be future and fewer working population in Safer & peaceful people to take over future hence difficult to integrate. Separated from friends and the working unemployment. Higher pay population. family. A higher standard of living Higher cost of living. An increase in the age Increased dependency of the population ratio Send remittances to family Not used to weather back home. conditions. Pressure on healthcare Less labour in future and education Better quality of life Visa and weather conditions The strain on pension More pensions to be Old systems; decrease in paid, increased dependents: 1.3. Population Structure retirement age. retirement age. Population structure More pressure on Keywords: changes. public transportation Ageing population: Old dependents (people above Expensive medical pressure on healthcare 60 years old) and health care. Dependent population: People who don’t work; are Not enough labour Loneliness retired and have young children. force Difficult to evacuate old Increased residential Population Pyramid: a type of graph that shows the age dependents during costs. and sex structure of the country; the distribution of age, sex, natural disasters. and population of different countries is known as population structure and is represented on a population pyramid. Different Types of Population Pyramids WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by DENIS at Homeschooled on 13/12/24. CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY Sparse Population Dense Population Harsh areas; Physical mountainous or uneven Flat relief Factors relief Extreme/harsh climates Favourable climates and bad weather and good weather Availability of natural High risk of flooding resources for industry and manufacturing. Infertile soil Fertile land for crops Locations with frequent No or few natural natural disasters disasters. Good water supply i.e. a No water supplies. river. 1.4. Population Density & Distribution Economic No economic Many jobs factors opportunities opportunities Keywords: No infrastructure Good infrastructures Population density: number of people per unit of No transport routes. Many transport routes area (typically per kilometre square) to travel easily. Sparsely populated: an area with low population Bad communication Good communication density Social factors High crime rates Low crime rates Densely populated: an area with high population No Cultural and Cultural and religious density beliefs of having big religious beliefs. Factors influencing: family. Political Reliable and stable Government corruption factors government Poor public services such as healthcare and Good public services education Civil war No threats or wars. Low birth rate and high High birth rate and low death rate. death rate. 1.5. Settlements (Rural & Urban) and Service Provision Settlement Patterns WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by DENIS at Homeschooled on 13/12/24. CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY \n \n 1.6. Urban Settlements Urban Settlements tend to have several land uses The Central Business District (CBD): Centre point of the city and has the highest land prices The most accessible point in the city High-rise buildings and skyscrapers An isolated, Buildings are strung Functions: retail, entertainment, financial services, and building or a group along a line of Buildings are of two or three communication, for grouped, initially other professional services buildings, example, a main road, for defence or a Land uses: separated from the a river valley, or a common resource. Leisure and recreation - may include open land next by 2 or 3 km. canal Residential - High/multi-storey buildings. Transport - road and rail networks, train stations and Site: describes the physical nature of where a settlement airports is located – the actual piece of land Business and commerce - offices, shops, and banks Situation: describes settlement about other settlements Industry - factories, warehouses, and small and physical features around it – this determines production centres whether the situation will grow into a large city or remain The CBD is in the centre because it is: a small town or village A central location for roads/railways to converge Factors influencing settlements: The most accessible location for workers Wet point site: this has a good water supply Accessible to most people for shops and businesses Drypoint site: this has less risk of flooding Problems that CBD face: congestion, pollution, and lack Building material: availability of stone, wood, clay, etc. of space Defensive site: in a river meander or on a hill with Old inner-city area: steep-sided and commanding views Typically found next to CBD Fuel supply: for heating and cooking It has mainly terraced houses in a grid-like pattern Food supplies: land suitable for farming Suburbia: Nodal points: where routes converge Urban sprawl and owning cars led to the construction Bridging point: river shallow enough to build a bridge of well-planned and spacious houses Aspect: settlements often on the sunny side of a Larger than inner city terraces & most have a garden valley Typically, detached or semi-detached Shelter: from cold prevailing winds and rain Roads are arranged in cul-de-sacs and wide avenues Climate: A good climate attracts more people. Land prices are cheaper than in CBD and inner city Fertile land: brings in more farmers. Demand can make some areas expensive Location: access to trades and raw materials. Outer-city estate: Located on the fringes of cities with varied housing Hierarchy of Settlements People relocated here when the inner city was being redeveloped A hierarchy is when settlements are ordered and classified Rural-urban fringe: based on: This is found at the edge of a town or city A mixture of land uses, e.g. housing, golf courses, allotments, businesses, parks and airports. WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by DENIS at Homeschooled on 13/12/24. CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY Industrial Areas Push factors from a rural Pull factors from urban areas area Factories were built: No/poorly paid jobs More jobs As close as possible to the CBD but with enough Mechanisation of farming Good schools/healthcare space Agricultural products have low Next to canals and railways to transport materials Good transport/comms prices Next to rivers for cooling, power source or waste Poor schools/healthcare Reliable supply of resources disposal Lack of entertainment Better entertainment Next to land where lots of workers could live Better quality & quantity of Poor housing quality houses Urban Growth in Urban Areas Drought/famine pace and excitement Urban Growth/Sprawl: rapid urbanisation due to Shortage of resources government support building in the rural-urban fringe and land reclamation Poor transport/comms. Problems of urban growth in urban areas: Urban Wedges: urban growth is allowed to take place in For People For Environment wedges, ensuring some green areas are protected Overcrowded Loss of vegetation throughout the city Unable to obtain jobs/low pay Loss of habitats Housing density: increasing housing density means less Pressure on schools/hospitals Impacts on food chains land will be destroyed Increased crime rates Pollution of rivers Difficulties of waste/litter Death of fish/other species Squatter Settlement Traffic congestion Pollution of groundwater Noise pollution Air/atmospheric pollution A squatter settlement is a rural residential area which Lack of sanitation Rivers dry up has developed without legal claims or permission to Poor quality of life build on the land. Food shortage It has: 1.7. Urbanisation Extremely high home density Extremely high population density Urban Growth in Rural Areas Houses built from mud for walls, iron for roofs No electricity Many rural areas seek & experience rapid urban growth No running water or sewage for several reasons: Diseases spread easily Better transport links, e.g. road, rail, river The pungent smell of human waste Better trading prospects No infrastructure or privacy Nearby natural resources, e.g. fuel Better job prospects Better schools and hospitals 2. Theme 2: The Natural Better supply of electricity, gas and water Varied entertainment Environment Rural-Urban Migration 2.1. Earthquakes and Volcanoes Movement of people from the countryside towards cities Rural-urban migration is the main cause of urbanisation Volcanoes It is caused by several push & pull factors: A volcano is formed when magma erupts onto the earth’s surface as lava through the vent in the earth's crust. Features of a Volcano WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by DENIS at Homeschooled on 13/12/24. CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY Environmental Human Pyroclastic flow Loss of life and injury lava flow collapse and destruction of buildings volcanic bombs transport network damaged Laharas Loss of jobs and businesses earthquakes Loss of crops ashfall Power and water supply damaged landslides Tsunami acid rain ash fallout Opportunities of Volcanos: Feature Characteristics The cooled lava contains minerals, Lava Magma that reaches the surface Fertile soils leading to a high yield of crops. Clouds of mixed poisonous gases and Many people want to visit the area and Pyroclastic flow Tourism ash study it. Ash Very fine-grained volcanic material Minerals and They can be sold, providing more work Snow and ice melt and combine with the precious stones and income. Lahars ash, creating lahars. the magma gives out heat, which can be Main vent Central tube through the volcano Geothermal energy used to generate geothermal energy. Eruptions from other vents lead to the Creating new land once the lava and ash cool forms new Secondary cones formation of secondary cones on the areas fertile land. sides. Bowl bowl-shaped basin at the top of the Stages of Volcanoes: Crater volcano Active: has erupted recently and is likely to erupt Magma chamber A large underground pool of magma again. Dormant: has not erupted recently but may in future How do volcanoes form? Extinct: no evidence to erupt again. Magma rises through cracks in the Earth’s crust Types of Volcanoes: Pressure builds up (inside Earth) Pressure and tension are released → Plate movement Magma explodes to the surface, causing an eruption Lava cools and forms a new crust Over time, rock builds up, and new crusts form on top, forming a volcano. Impacts of Volcanic Eruption: WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by DENIS at Homeschooled on 13/12/24. CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY Earthquakes An earthquake is a sudden violent shaking of ground followed by a series of vibrations or movements in the earth's crust. How earthquakes happen: Tectonic plates move; they strike. Pressure and tension build up as the plates try to move. Eventually, they jolt free and pressure and tension are released inside the crust as energy. Low viscosity (runny lava) - Viscous (thick) - andesitic lava The energy passes through the earth’s crust as basaltic lava waves, an earthquake. Low in height, gently sloping High in height, steep-sided sides with a broad base volcanic cones Features of earthquake: Low silica content (covers long High silica content (covers distances) short distance) Frequent eruptions but low in Rare eruptions but in high magnitude magnitude High temperature Low temperature Low gas content High gas content There is little build-up Enormous build-up pressure pressure. Causes of eruptions: At constructive margin, plates move away from each other; magma rises to fill the gap; At the destructive margin, oceanic crust melts from friction and heat from the mantle; newly formed Features of earthquakes magma is lighter, so it rises to the surface Focus: point of earthquake Epicentre: point directly above the focus, on the ground Distribution of Volcanoes: Seismic waves Shaking ground Subduction zone: occurs at a destructive margin; one plate goes under the other Magnitude: the amount of energy released. Earthquakes WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by DENIS at Homeschooled on 13/12/24. CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY Effects of earthquakes A large number of deaths Fires breaking out Water pipes burst Water contamination, diseases Corpses: human & animal Accessibility difficult Building damaged/destroyed Tsunami can follow Reconstruction costs Reduce impacts of earthquakes: Types of Plate Boundaries: Prediction Preparation Measure earth tremors, Build earthquake-proof pressure, and release of gas buildings Use maps and facts to find Train emergency services patterns in time/location Unusual animal behaviour Set up a warning system Seismometer Create evacuation plan Richter scale Emergency food supply Prepare earthquake kit Earthquake-proof buildings: Tectonic Plates WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by DENIS at Homeschooled on 13/12/24. CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY Diagram Description Plate boundary Volcanoes Earthquakes Fold mountains Constructive Gentle Gentle No Destructive Violent Violent Yes Collision: occurs when two Collision None Violent Yes continental plates move Conservative None Violent No towards each other. Structure of the Earth Example: Indo-Australian and the Eurasian Plate Constructive/divergent: occurs when two plates move away from each other. Example: North American and Eurasian Plate Crust Conservative/transform: occurs There are two types of crust: when two plates slide past each other. The oceanic crust is thinner (5-10km) but heavier and denser The continental crust is thicker (25-90km) but is older Example: North American Plate and less dense. and the Pacific Plate The oceanic crust is continually being created and destroyed due to plate movement, where it is denser and subducts under the continental crust. Destructive/subduction/converg ent: occurs when a continental 2.2. Rivers plate subducts an oceanic plate.‎ The Hydrological Cycle Example: pacific plate and the Eurasian plate The hydrological cycle is where water is constantly recycled through the system. WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by DENIS at Homeschooled on 13/12/24. CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY Drainage basin - the area of land drained by a river. Catchment area - the area within the drainage basin. Watershed - the edge of a highland surrounding a drainage basin. It marks the boundary between two drainage basins. Source - The beginning or start of a river. Confluence - the point at which two rivers or streams join. Bed: The bottom of the river channel Tributary - a stream or smaller river joins a larger Bank: The sides of the river channel stream or river. A river has two banks The mouth is where the river ends, usually when Width: The distance between the two banks of a river entering the sea. Depth: The distance from the water surface to the bed of a river Drainage basins act as a system with: Speed of flow: how fast the water in a river is moving; Inputs: precipitation different speeds arise at different parts of the river Transfers: infiltration, percolation, surface runoff, Wetted perimeter: length of the bed and banks in throughflow & groundwater flow contact with the river Stores: interception, surface storage, soil moisture Channel: The route course (between bed and banks) storage & groundwater storage that a river flows. The flow of the river is often described as channel flow. Outputs: evaporation & transpiration or evapotranspiration Thalweg: The fastest part of the river, always near the middle of the river channel, where there is the least Drainage Basin Features friction River Processes 1. Erosion 2. Transportation 3. Deposition Erosion Erosion is the wearing away of surfaces. WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by DENIS at Homeschooled on 13/12/24. CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY Traction: rolling stones along the bed Saltation: small particles bounce along the bed in a leapfrog motion Suspension: silt and clay-sized are carried within the water flow Solution: minerals dissolve in the water Deposition When a river lacks the energy to carry its load, it deposits the heaviest particles. It happens when there is less water or where the current Attrition: large particles such as boulders collide and slows down break into smaller pieces. Large boulders are deposited at the top, and very small Hydraulic action: flowing water that hits against the particles are deposited at the end, resulting in sorting riverbanks and beds. Abrasion: smaller particles rub against the riverbanks River Profiles and bed like sandpaper. Solution: acid in rivers dissolves rocks; it occurs at any Long profile: part of the river Types of Erosion Vertical erosion: dominant in the upper course of rivers. It increases the river's depth and valley as the river erodes downwards. Lateral erosion: dominant in the middle and lower course of rivers. It increases the width of the river and valley as it erodes sideways. Cross Profile Transportation River Landforms and their Formation Water Fall and Gorges: WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by DENIS at Homeschooled on 13/12/24. CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY V-shaped valley: Oxbow Lake Interlocking Spurs Floodplains and Levees Meanders Floods WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by DENIS at Homeschooled on 13/12/24. CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY Constructive Destructive Causes of flooding: Low wave height High wave height No vegetation The beach gradient is gentle The beach gradient is steep Deforestation Spill forward gently Plunge forward Urbanization Creates a strong swash Swash is weak Poor drainage Water drains through beach Rotation of water causes a Steep slopes material strong backwash Rock type (impermeable rocks do not absorb water) Backwash is weak Erodes beaches Wet soil (over saturation) Deposits material Impacts Opportunities Builds up beaches Water supply (drinking, People can be killed. Erosion: washing) Homes destroyed. Fishing industry Abrasion: larger rocks and sediments like boulders grind Spread of waterborne diseases Transportation for trading against the riverbed Shortage of clean water and food Tourism Corrosion: salts and acids slowly dissolve a cliff Attrition: smaller sediments collide with each other Infrastructure damaged Fertile soil while moving in the flow, making them rounder and Businesses destroyed. Powerplants (dams) smaller Sports/recreation Hydraulic action: the force of waves compresses air in cliffs Flood Management Techniques Transportation: Longshore Drift: 2.3. Coasts The sea forms coasts and winds working together in 3 essential tasks: erosion, transportation and deposition Components of a wave: Swash: when a wave breaks & washes up the beach Backwash: when the water drains back into the sea Types of Waves WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by DENIS at Homeschooled on 13/12/24. CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY Soft Engineering: Waves approach the coast at an angle Name Description Advantages Disadvantages Swash moves up the beach at an angle Increases Backwash drains straight back down the beach distance Gradually moving material along the beach in a zig-zag between Sand/shingle motion Beach waves and Effectiveness is added to the nourishment cliffs → Waves uncertain beach lose energy → Less erosive power. Tourism is Good barrier affected as dunes Land Protect and against coastal are marked out management rebuild dunes flooding and of bounds to the erosion general public Break up waves and reduce speed and power of waves → Effectiveness is Marshland Coastal Opportunities Coastal Threats Limits area uncertain Sports/recreation Hurricanes which waves can reach → Groundwater recharge Coastal storms Prevents Habitat for fish Tsunamis flooding Transport (shipping goods) Landslides Widen beach Tourism Flooding and reduces Planting dead Job opportunities Coastal erosion Beach wave energy, Effectiveness is trees in sand stabilization lowers the uncertain to stabilize profile of the Coastal Management beach Hard Engineering: Landforms Cliffs and wave-cut platforms: Wave erosion is concentrated at the foot of the cliff A wave-cut notch is formed The cliff is undercut & collapses Repeated collapse causes retreat of the cliff WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by DENIS at Homeschooled on 13/12/24. CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY Caves, Arches, and Stack: Bays are formed due to softer rock getting eroded easily Headlands are usually formed since they are made of A band of weaker rock extends through a headland. resistant rock and are eroded more difficultly. Erosion produces caves on both sides of the headland. More erosion produces an arch through the headland. Spits: Eventually, the roof is weak & collapses, forming a stack. Spits form when the coastline changes direction Beaches: Longshore drift carries material in the same direction Sand & shingle is built up to form a spit In bays, the waves diverge outwards. End of spit curves due to wave refraction or wind. The wave energy is dissipated, creating a low-energy environment. Hence, deposition to form beaches. Sand Dunes: Bays and Headland: Dunes form behind wide sandy beaches Onshore winds pick up the dry sand from above the high-water mark & carry it landward by saltation If they encounter an obstacle, the wind loses energy & deposits sand in the lee of the obstacle Eventually, a dune is formed Plants grow on it, which stabilizes it & traps more sand Mangrove Swamps: WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by DENIS at Homeschooled on 13/12/24. CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY Mangrove swamps are trees and shrubs that grow in saline coastal habitats in the tropics and subtropics Provide habitat and protection for many fish & other sea animals, especially when young They slow water flow, encouraging any sediment to be deposited, keeping sea water clear Protect the coast from erosion, storm surges, hurricanes, and tsunamis They are a source of food and material Conditions required for the formation of mangrove swamps: 2.4. Weather Weather: The mix of events that occur in our atmosphere, including changes in temp., rainfall and humidity It can vary from day to day and from place to place Protip: essential to know the features of Stevenson’s screen Stevenson’s Screen: contains the thermometers Painted white to reflect the sun with a double lid for insulation Coral Reefs: Slatted sides to let the air circulate, but slanted Coral reefs support a great diversity of life downwards to prevent light from getting in Built from the limestone remains of coral skeletons & Legs 1m long to prevent heating from the ground On short grass for the same amount of reflection coralline algae Conditions required for the growth of coral reef: Warm water/seas; temperatures 20 - 30C Shallow water; not more than 60 meters deep Water free from sediment/clear/availability of light A plentiful supply of oxygen in water/unpolluted A plentiful supply of plankton Lack of strong current Salt Marshes: Protip: important to know what weather instruments look like and have brief knowledge of how to use Rain Gauge: has a fixed diameter so that they collect the same amount of water & so comparisons can be made WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by DENIS at Homeschooled on 13/12/24. CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY Made of a hollow cylinder (C) containing: Burns a timeline Funnel (A) to collect the water. Trace sunshine not the hours of daylight Container to collect water, which may be graduated The glass ball focuses the light Emptied once every 24hrs This burns a line onto the card Rain is measured in millimetres. Sunk into the ground, but not level, so splashes or Max-min thermometer: Records max. & min. Temp. over surface water can’t get in. 24hr period Anemometer: Measures wind speed Max thermometer contains mercury & min contains alcohol Three light rotating cups (mounted on a high pole) are As temp. rises, mercury expands & pushes up a metal blown around by the wind the revolutions are counted & index, and when it cools, mercury contracts, and the converted into m/s, km/h or knots index is left in place at highest temp As temp. falls, alcohol contracts & pulls metal index with Sunshine Recorder (Heliograph): records the amount of it; but as alcohol expands, it flows past index, leaving it at sunshine at a given location its lowest temp Both indexes read from the bottom once every 24hrs Wet & dry bulb thermometer (hygrometer): Used to calculate the humidity of the air WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by DENIS at Homeschooled on 13/12/24. CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY A dry bulb is a normal mercury thermometer, and it The wind blows the fletching so that the arrowhead measures actual air temperature points into the wind. The wet bulb is the same but is covered with a fine cloth Mounted on high places (rooftops) connected to a water reservoir. Make sure no trees are blocking Water evaporates from the cloth & cools temperature so it reads a few degrees lower than air temp. 2.5. Climate & Natural Vegetation Both wet & dry bulb temperatures read. Barometer: Measures air pressure Weather Protip - Unit used: mb/millibars (was asked in 2021 Describes the condition of the atmosphere, e.g. sunny, hot, windy Geography paper 4) Climate This is the average condition over a longer period, usually a few years. Factors Influencing Climate Characteristics: An aneroid barometer has a vacuum chamber As air pressure rises & falls, the chamber contracts & expands Levers conduct this movement to a spindle, which moves the pointer on the dial, which records the air pressure in mmHg Wind Vane: Records wind direction WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by DENIS at Homeschooled on 13/12/24. CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY Latitude: closer to the equator = higher temperature They are close to the equator, so they have very similar Distance from the sea: coastal area = warmer winters climates all year around and cooler summers Temp. is constant between 25-30°C Prevailing winds: The seasonal difference in heating Rainfall all year around, monthly amounts vary slightly between land and the sea affects the temperature of the Days start warm & then temp. and humidity build-up prevailing wind. Warm prevailing wind = rise in Hot air rises, causing low pressure. temperature Ocean currents: warm currents raise winter Adaptations: temperatures in coastal areas; cold currents cool them Plants Animals down in summer Drip tips - plants have leaves Altitude: higher altitude = lower temperature (1° per with pointy tips. This allows The sloth uses camouflage and water to run off the leaves moves very slowly, making it 100m) quickly without damaging or difficult for predators to spot. breaking them. Tropical Rainforest Drip tips - plants have leaves with pointy tips. This allows The spider monkey has long, Distribution: water to run off the leaves strong limbs to help it to climb quickly without damaging or through the rainforest trees. breaking them. Epiphytes are plants that live The flying frog has fully on the branches of trees high webbed hands and feet and a up in the canopy. They get flap of loose skin that stretches their nutrients from the air and between its limbs, which allows water, not the soil. it to glide from plant to plant. Lianas - vines which use the tall trees as support to reach the The toucan has a long, large bill to allow it to reach and cut sunlight fruit from branches too weak to support its weight. Structure: Hot Deserts Distribution: Climate: Vegetation & Animal Adaptations: WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by DENIS at Homeschooled on 13/12/24. CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY Vegetation Animal Local environment Global environment People Camel have humps to store Death of local Seeds remain dormant Loss of vegetation Melting ice water tribes people Waxy leaves to reduce Foxes have big ears to reduce Global More carbon transpiration heat Causes floods warming/increase dioxide Thorns to protect from Shelter in underground to temperatures predators avoid heat Threatens species Rising sea levels Less oxygen Only comes out at night to with extinction Long roots to search for water hunt Reduction of Thick stem to store water Changes in climate materials Loss of habitat Light colours to reflect sunlight patterns e.g. drought available to build buildings Reduction of food Loss of species such as Climate: supply polar bears Deserts are extremely dry (arid) places Soil erosion Have less than 250mm of rainfall per year Food chain Air is dry because: disrupted Most of the moisture has precipitated over the equator Air travelling to the desert travels over land, not the 3. Theme 3: Economic sea No moisture leads to very few clouds, exposing them to Development high levels of incoming radiation from the sun Causes day-time temps. to be very high 3.1. Development The lack of cloud cover allows outgoing radiation to escape Development is the process of a country where it Causes night-time temps to be low improves its quality of life for its people, making its place The annual temperature range is very low more independent. Daily temperature range is very high Stages of development: Least developed countries → developing countries → Deforestation of Tropical Rainforests newly developed countries → Developed countries. Causes: Quality of life is the person’s well-being in terms of Population growth environment, security, health and happiness. Economic growth Mining Indicators of Development Road building Agriculture Urbanisation Exploitation of land by TNCs Effects: WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by DENIS at Homeschooled on 13/12/24. CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY Gross National Product (GNP) per capita: wealth of a country averaged per person. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capital: the total value of goods and services produced within a country in a year divided by the country's population. Birth Rate: number of births in a year per 1000 of the total population Death Rate: number of deaths in a year per 1000 of the total population Literacy rate: the percentage of people who can read and write. Life expectancy: the amount of time one is expected to Comparing Nations: live Infant Mortality: average number of deaths of infants under 1 per 1000 live births per year. Composite indices like the Human Development Index (HDI): measure the disparities between countries. Economic Sectors Economic activity involves making, providing, purchasing, or selling goods or services. Economic activity can be divided into 4 categories: Primary. Secondary. Tertiary. Quaternary. An LEDC, e.g. Ghana The majority are in the primary sector. Few in the secondary sector. Tertiary may be larger than secondary. Sectors of the Industry: A NIC, e.g. Brazil WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by DENIS at Homeschooled on 13/12/24. CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY Majority tertiary. Companies that operate in more than 1 country, usually Few in the secondary sector primary. in foreign countries or overseas. Primary is larger than secondary. Advantages Disadvantages Job opportunities Labour drain. Improvement in skills and Damage to the environment - communication. factories create air pollution. Good education, healthcare Cultural dilution or loss of and good quality of life. cultural identity. Social mobility is limited to Invest in infrastructure. urban areas. Cheaper products Profits going overseas. Natural resources are being Greater choice of goods over-exploited. Movement of people, transport High level of income from ownership and loss of tourism, exports, imports biodiversity increases globally. An MEDC, e.g. UK Access to vast levels of skills Daily living costs increased. and resources. Low proportion in the primary sector. Numbers are falling in the secondary sector. The tertiary sector is the primary growth area. 3.2. Food Production Globalisation Agriculture Process in which the world is becoming increasingly Farming types: interconnected through economic, cultural, political and tourism processes. Commercial and subsistence Causes of globalisation: Arable, Pastoral and mixed Improvements in transportation Intensive and extensive Freedom of trade Factors influencing the type of agriculture: Improvements of communications Labour availability and skills Impacts of globalisation: Positive Negative Economic growth Economic Inequality Job Displacement and Labor Job Creation and Employment Exploitation Access to Goods and Services Environmental Degradation Cultural Exchange and Cultural Homogenization Diversity Exploitation of Developing Technological Advancements Countries Access to Information and Social Disruption and Communication Inequality Environmental Awareness and Public Health Risks Sustainability TNCs (Transnational Corporations WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by DENIS at Homeschooled on 13/12/24. CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY Human Causes Physical Causes Increasing population- supply Too hot or cool temperatures cannot keep up with demand. can kill crops and animals. Overgrazing reduces the integrity of the soil and can Shortage of rainfall kills most cause topsoil erosion and soil crops or requires irrigation. degradation. Too much rain can flood & kill Over cultivating causes soil crops or wash away topsoil, degradation, using up and not reducing soil fertility and giving nutrients recovery time. leading to low yield. Deforestation of woodland Natural disasters can destroy damages the integrity of the large areas of agricultural land soil and its source of nutrients. and kill or injure farmers. If soil is infertile because the Farming and industrial bedrock contains few minerals, pollution can both degrade cultivating land can be hard, land and reduce crop yields. leading to low yields. Diseases: these reduce yields Corruption of government, war and can result in livestock and conflict. deaths/ Food Shortages & Famine When demand for food exceeds the supply of food, leading to undernourishment Prolonged undernourishment can damage people's health and eventually lead to starvation WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by DENIS at Homeschooled on 13/12/24. CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY Effects: Input: resources that need to start the process can be Hunger and rising food prices. physical. Susceptible to infectious diseases. Processes: turning raw materials into usable things. Impair physical and mental development. Outputs: product + profit or loss + waste materials Reduce labour productivity, Types of Industry: Undernutrition and malnutrition. Manufacturing: produces goods that are physically Wasting. used by consumers, e.g. toys Soil erosion and desertification. Processing: turns raw materials into other materials Migration. used in manufacturing, e.g. metal production Solutions: Assembly: using materials and a design scheme to put together a finished product, e.g. electronics Hi-Tech: specialized industries that mostly do research but often have small sections dedicated to each of the 3 standard types of industry Industry Input Processes Output Impact Electric Steel, Noise, dust, Alloy: furnace, sheets, Steel smell and chromium oxygen, waste, production water and cobalt rolling, slag, pollution. cutting. gases. Iron ore, Iron, slag, Blast Noise, air, Iron coke, gases, furnace, ore, smell, water production limestone, heat and coke. and waste. water, iron. water. Factors influencing location of an Industry 3.3. Industry Industrial systems have inputs, processes and outputs. 3.4. Tourism Tourism: when a person travels to another destination for more than 24 hours but less than one year. It is a leisure activity done for enjoyment in free time. Reasons for Growth of Tourism WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by DENIS at Homeschooled on 13/12/24. CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY Increased income of money and leave allowance. Ecotourism: holidays that involve eco-related activities & Easier travel. are sustainable, e.g. hiking, bird-watching, horse riding Faster and easier transport. Sustainable Tourism: tourist activities that are socially, Improved communication. environmentally & economically sustainable Increased natural attractions. How? Increased manmade human attractions. Built National Parks with entrance fees → Money More advertisement of places. raised can be spent on conservation/improvement of parks Factors that Change Tourist Patterns Ban hunting/fishing Transport & accessibility. Fence-prohibited or protected areas Scenery: landscape & visual appearance of places Put up signs such as “no littering” Impose fines for littering or breaking any rules Weather: Climate is important, e.g. cold place for a ski trip Vehicles prohibited in certain areas Accommodation: quality/price of hotels, camps, resorts Create paths for people to walk on Amenities: various recreational, historical, and leisure facilities & sites offered. 3.5. Energy Advantages and Disadvantages of Tourism The demand for energy across the globe is rising. Advantages Disadvantages Population growth and development are the two leading Increased in skills Loss of land causes of the increase in energy demand. Increased diversity of culture Illegal behaviour of tourists Creates job opportunities Often low-paid seasonal work. Congestion and pollution is New infrastructure is built caused Money is brought to the Money often goes to big country’s economy businesses Tax revenues are provided Economic leakage Foreign language skills are Local language and traditional promoted values can erode Nature conservation areas Nature can be destroyed for awareness can be increased land use Money from tourism can be Tourism leads to more used to protect the pollution environment Increased greenhouse gas Renewable Energy is energy which comes from natural Improves sustainable practices resources: emissions from travelling The activity of tourists disturbs Solar energy: energy derived from the sun through Preserve area or species and damages the habitat and solar radiation. wildlife Wind energy: conversion of wind energy into a Electricity and water supply useful form of energy. Racism and discrimination improves Hydro energy: the power derived from the force or Improved roads, healthcare energy of moving water. Shortage of supplies and education Geothermal energy: energy obtained by tapping the heat of the earth itself. Managing Tourism Biomass: is a renewable energy source, biological material from living. WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by DENIS at Homeschooled on 13/12/24. CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY Non-Renewable energy: Fossil fuels are formed from Agriculture: to water plants living organisms' remains (plants/animals). These are Industrial: non-renewable as they cannot be replaced at a speed Heated to make steam to turn turbines which keeps up with consumption. Cooling down re