Human History Timeline PDF

https://youtu.be/__BaaMfiD0Q?si=RppW9Pwwcm7PARzx Today I'm going to give you a very broad overview of human history. I'll be using the latest version of my Timeline of World History chart, which is available as a poster from my website usefulcharts.com. In particular, I’m going to be showing you ho...

https://youtu.be/__BaaMfiD0Q?si=RppW9Pwwcm7PARzx Today I'm going to give you a very broad overview of human history. I'll be using the latest version of my Timeline of World History chart, which is available as a poster from my website usefulcharts.com. In particular, I’m going to be showing you how history can be divided into various time periods – or ages – and I’ll be explaining how these divisions end up highlighting some of the most important turning points in world history. Let me start by explaining the basics of how this chart works. The vertical scale represents the flow of time, with time moving forward as you move down the page. Every white line represents 100 years, and the scale is equidistant, which means that the distance between two lines near the top of the chart is exactly the same as it is near the bottom. This is important because it allows for accurate comparisons to be made and thus gives the viewer a proper perspective on time. Horizontally, the various sections of the chart represent different parts of the world. So, on the far left, we have the Americas, followed by Africa, Europe, Asia, and finally the Pacific islands. Every line on the chart represents a specific culture, civilization, or empire, and the width of the line represents the relative importance of that culture when compared to other cultures from the same time period or region. The next thing we need to talk about are the terms AD and BC and their equivalents CE and BCE. AD means Anno Domini, which is Latin for "in the year of the Lord." Basically, it's meant to measure the years from the birth of Jesus. Anything before that point is called BC, which stands for "Before Christ." Now, most scholars today have actually concluded that Jesus was probably born in 4 BC, so keep in mind that the scale is a bit off. As we move backwards through time, the AD dates go down, but once we get to BC, the dates start going back up. I should point out that there is no year zero, so the year 1 BC was followed immediately by the year 1 AD. Nowadays, it’s becoming more standard for historians to use the terms CE and BCE instead. CE stands for Common Era and BCE stands for Before the Common Era. The reason for the change is simply an attempt to use a more neutral term, which makes sense considering that 75% of the world is not Christian. Now that we've got that under our belt, the next question we need to address is: What is the starting point for history? In other words, where do we draw the line between history and pre-history? Well, on this chart, I've used the year 3300 BCE as my starting point. The reason for this is that this is approximately when writing first appeared. The basic idea is that without written records, we can't have history. Therefore, everything before the emergence of the first writing systems is best categorized as pre-history. And of course, pre-history goes back much farther than 5,300 years. If we’re talking about the pre-history of our species, Homo sapiens, it goes back about another 200,000 years (a time period also known as the Stone Age), and if we’re talking about the pre-history of the planet Earth, that goes back about 4.5 billion years. But this chart doesn’t cover prehistory. Instead, it starts with the emergence of written records and goes from there. On this chart, history is divided into six main time periods: the Early Bronze Age, the Bronze Age, the Iron Age, Classical Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Let’s now take a look at each, one by one. The Bronze Age gets its name based on the fact that humans first started to make things out of bronze around the same time that they first developed writing. This occurred in three main areas: Egypt, Sumer (which is modern-day Iraq), and the Indus Valley (modern-day Pakistan). Unfortunately, the writing system used in the Indus Valley is yet to be deciphered, so we can only read the records from Egypt and Sumer. But we do know that these three civilizations did trade with one another and that throughout the early Bronze Age, each grew in terms of both size and technology. At the start of this period, the Sumerians had already invented the wheel, the plough, and the sail. But during the early Bronze Age, they also went on to develop astronomy and mathematics. Over in Egypt, it was during the early Bronze Age that the Great Pyramids of Giza were built. Besides these three civilizations, the only other place in the world to have large cities was over in what is today Peru. There, a culture known as the Norte Chico civilization was thriving. But strangely, although they built large stone structures, they appear to have had no writing system and no pottery. Stone structures dating from the early Bronze Age can also be found at Stonehenge in England and on the island of Malta. But neither of these places had large populations. Okay, so that was the early Bronze Age. Now let’s look at the Bronze Age proper. Dividing these two time periods is a very important event known as the 4.2 kiloyear event, named because it occurred approximately 4.2 thousand years ago. The exact cause of the event is still debated, but we do know that it resulted in approximately 100 years of extremely dry conditions worldwide. Because of this, the Egyptian Old Kingdom, the Akkadian Empire (which had conquered Sumer), and the Indus Valley Civilization all declined rapidly, and in the time period that followed, we get a new set of cultures. Egypt was revived as the Middle & New Kingdoms, and the Sumerian civilization eventually evolved into the Babylonian civilization. But in South Asia, we get a more dramatic change. The Indus Valley cities disappear altogether, and we get a new set of people arriving, the Indo-Aryans, who were part of the larger Indo-European group. During the Bronze Age proper, we also get civilizations arising in other parts of the world for the first time, including in China, Sub-Saharan Africa, and unbeknownst to many people, North America. There we get the Poverty Point culture, where large mounds and complex settlements were built. Finally, we also get the first civilization in Europe – the Minoans on the island of Crete. Midway through the period, though, there was a volcanic eruption nearby which led to the downfall of the Minoans and the rise of the Mycenaean Greeks instead. This catastrophe could very well have been the event that birthed the Atlantis myth. The next big turning point in history occurred around 1200 BCE and is known as the Bronze Age collapse. For reasons that are still somewhat unclear, the major civilizations in Greece, Anatolia, and Egypt all disappeared almost instantaneously. What followed is often called the Greek Dark Ages – a period in which the historical record for the region goes somewhat silent. Interestingly, it is during this silent period that many of the world’s most famous legendary tales supposedly took place, such as those found in the Jewish Torah, the Greek Iliad, and the Hindu Mahabharata. The Bronze Age collapse also coincided with the first use of iron in the Middle East. Therefore, the period in which the Greek Dark Ages took place is also aptly called the Iron Age. This is the third and final period in what is known as the three-age system, consisting of the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age. The next period is not actually part of the three-age system. This is because, after approximately 600 BCE, we no longer have to rely entirely on archaeology to get information. As I mentioned earlier, humans have been writing since 3300 BCE. But there is nothing surviving from the Bronze Age or Iron Age that could really be considered a history book. Sure, we have the names of kings, lists of battles, and other details carved into rock and metal, but we don’t have anything that starts with "In this treatise, I am going to record the complete history of X." But around this time, we do start to get such writings, for example, from a Greek guy named Herodotus, who is often called the “father of history.” So, in other words, we know a lot more information about this next period, called Classical Antiquity, than we know about the previous periods. Classical Antiquity is when the Greeks and the Romans laid the foundations for what would become known as Western civilization, mostly by borrowing and building upon information gained from the earlier Bronze Age civilizations. But there was a lot going on in other parts of the world as well. For example, in Mesoamerica, Olmec culture would go on to influence classical Mayan culture, with its intricate calendar and writing system, and in North America, there was an extensive trade network where lots of different types of art were being exchanged. In Africa, the long-standing Kingdom of Kush eventually gave way to the Kingdom of Aksum in Ethiopia. There were also the three mighty Persian empires, the Maurya & Gupta Empires in India, and the first imperial dynasty in China. Eventually, a trade route between all these areas opened up, known as the Silk Road, and thus the Western parts of Eurasia and the Eastern parts of Eurasia were connected for the first time. But perhaps even more importantly, it was during Classical Antiquity that humanity’s current moral and philosophical foundations were laid. Simultaneously yet independently, we got Greek philosophy, the Bible, the Hindu & Buddhist scriptures, and the writings of Confucius. We also saw the first experiments with democracy and the first evidence of truly scientific thinking. But this golden age of human development did not last forever. It came to an end around the year 500 CE with the fall of the Western Roman Empire. In other areas, the classical period ended a little earlier (such as in China) or a little later (like in the Byzantine Empire), but they all ended up ushering in what is known as the Middle Ages, a time period often characterized by feudalism, where society was structured like a pyramid. While the Middle Ages in Europe are the most widely studied, it is also important to recognize that this was a global phenomenon. In Asia, we had the Tang and Song dynasties in China and the Golden Age of Islam, with the establishment of the caliphates and advancements in mathematics and science. In Africa, the kingdom of Mali became wealthy through its control of trade routes across the Sahara Desert. Around the year 1500, the Middle Ages finally came to an end, and we entered into what is known as the Modern Period. This period is characterized by rapid advancements in technology, science, and exploration, beginning with the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment in Europe. The Protestant Reformation radically transformed religious life in Europe, and the Age of Exploration led to contact between Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Americas. This has been described as a time of unprecedented global interaction. But this interaction has not been without consequences. The impact of European colonialism in the Americas, Africa, and Asia brought about widespread change and upheaval. The Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries transformed societies in Europe and North America, leading to the rise of capitalism and modern nation-states. And finally, the Modern Period brought us two World Wars, the Cold War, the rise of global terrorism, and more recently, advancements in technology that have reshaped the way we communicate and interact with each other. Today, we stand at a crossroads, facing both incredible opportunities and daunting challenges as we move forward into the 21st century. So, to recap, history can be divided into six main periods: the Early Bronze Age, the Bronze Age, the Iron Age, Classical Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Each of these periods is characterized by its own significant developments, cultural advancements, and pivotal events that have shaped the world we live in today. https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&si=P4ktDd6GlufZvXY8&v=fWEuz6rrfcY&feature =youtu.be&fbclid=IwZXh0bgNhZW0CMTEAAR2ebLVCNTIEzoRVXTMuqWarowvgqIRDVD-7OD MGaSNUBvMcG_1toBHbY1M_aem_EtNWSZEsyJctQXlyBqKxWg Millennia ago, before the advent of writing, humans roamed the earth. At first, there was nothing to separate them from the animal world—until they began to create tools. These early tools were made out of stone, giving rise to the Paleolithic Age, meaning "Old Stone Age" in Greek. During this period, early humans were hunter-gatherers. With repetition, they became better hunters and foragers. There was no agriculture and no domestication of animals. This simple life was dangerous but met their needs. They foraged for nuts, berries, and other plant life while hunters stalked mammoths, bison, fish, and other sources of meat. This lifestyle led to small societies of 20 to 30 people and a nomadic way of life, migrating with the animals and following seasonal plant growth. Hunting became a group effort, and those who worked together were more likely to survive. The tools they used were mainly for this activity; spears and harpoons were widely used. Generally, men went on the hunt, leading to greater camaraderie in the face of a challenge, while women stayed near camp, foraging and taking care of the children. Neither role was viewed as inherently better. Apart from tools, the other factor that set humans apart was fire. After discovering fire, early humans could cook their food, making it easier to digest. Fire also allowed them to brighten caves, which became their shelters. They would adorn some of these caves with art. Around 10,000 to 12,000 years ago, the last glacial period ended, allowing more of the globe to be inhabited. It was around this time that humans began to shift from food gathering and hunting to food production, transitioning into the Mesolithic age neolithic Age, or New Stone Age, followed the Paleolithic Age. Stone tools became more polished during this period, but more importantly, the Neolithic marked an agricultural revolution. Humans began planting seeds, tilling the land, and producing their own food. They domesticated sheep, pigs, and cattle, increasing their food stores. By around 5000 BCE, many areas of the old world had been practicing agriculture to some extent, but the majority still hunted and gathered. Those living in the Middle East had begun agriculture around 8000 BCE, and from there, farming techniques spread into southern and central Europe by 4000 BCE. The farming of wheat and barley also moved west to Egypt and east to India. In West Africa, different agricultural techniques were used to yield yams. In southern China, early Chinese people produced rice, while in the north, they grew millet. In Mesoamerica, the natives farmed beans, squash, and maize. What truly made this a revolution was that farming allowed humans to remain sedentary through generations, creating the first Neolithic farming villages. The oldest were found in the Middle East. Jericho, near the Dead Sea in Palestine, was built by at least 8000 BCE, over ten thousand years ago. Çatalhöyük in Turkey wasn't as old but was larger at around 32 acres and could have housed up to six thousand inhabitants. Houses were mud brick and fairly crammed together. Residents domesticated many different kinds of food, from fruits to various types of wheat, and were able to store it in special areas of their houses. The food surpluses led to a division of labor; more people could tend to crafts other than food production. Some produced jewelry and other crafts, while others created weapons. Religious statues have been found at this settlement, seemingly representing mothers or fertility. The sedentary lifestyle had long-lasting consequences for humans. The surplus of food and the ability to store it led to exchange between different settlements. Sometimes food could be traded for crafts created by the new artisan class. Pottery was important as it could be used to cook or store grain. Other tools were made to make gathering food easier, like blades for creating sickles for use on the farms. Obsidian, a type of volcanic glass, was used to make sharp blades. Flax and cotton were grown to create cloth for clothing. Men's relationships with women also shifted during the Neolithic, as men became the main food producers, working the farms and domesticating animals. They became more valued in society. Women played their part as well, grinding flour, making cheese from milk, and raising children. Our sedentary existence today and our stockpiling of food are direct results of the Neolithic Revolution. Prior to 4000 BCE, it’s thought that people of the Near East figured out how to improve their stone tools and learned to liquefy and then cool certain ores and elements to create more durable metals. This gave way to a transitional stage called the Copper Age, and by around 3000 BCE, the beginning of the Bronze Age. Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, was more durable. The start of the Bronze Age is generally where prehistory ends and history begins. With more settlements being built, more stockpiling, and more artisans, wealth became concentrated within cities, making them targets. Protection walls needed to be built, and communities banded together, eventually turning into the first civilizations. What defines a civilization? There is no set definition, but historians often consider several characteristics. A civilization should have cities or urban centers, which are larger, more populated areas used for political, religious, and economic affairs, larger than the villages of the Neolithic. Farmers in rural areas provided food for the centralized governments located in these cities. Civilizations should also have an organized political structure or military. There was often a division of class: kings, priests, or warriors were generally at the top, while artisans formed a middle class, often alongside farmers. The lowest class was usually made up of slaves. Religion was also a staple of civilization, and the use of writing, especially for keeping records, was significant. Using these guidelines, scholars have identified six main areas of the world where civilizations developed independently, all around rivers or major water sources. Located in the old world, the oldest of these early civilizations are in Mesopotamia and Egypt. This land between the Tigris and Euphrates was called Mesopotamia by later Greeks, meaning "land between the rivers." In late spring, the rivers overflow, depositing silt on the soil and making it fertile, though the flooding can be chaotic and unpredictable. Early Mesopotamians learned to control the flooding with irrigation, making this land abundant in food. The first civilization to emerge here were the Sumerians. We know little of their origins, but by 3000 BCE, they were living in major urban centers in southern Mesopotamia like Uruk and Lagash. Scholars have named this the Early Dynastic Period. These cities were built with walls for defense, and with little stone or wood in the region, their structures were made of mud bricks dried in the sun. Some of the most impressive buildings were temples dedicated to their city's respective god or goddess. These temples were called ziggurats. The priests that ran these buildings often played a large role in governing, but it was the king who truly had the power, as kingship was seen as divine in origin that oversaw the military and organized food production, including taming the rivers. High-ranked army generals and priests helped the king govern. Though the Sumerian economy was agricultural, it eventually began to rely on trade as well. They produced pottery, textiles, and metalworks for export and imported copper and tin to make bronze and timber. The increased usage of the wheel made trade with the nomads to the north easier. Society was separated into four distinct classes. Elites were at the top and included the king, priest class, and their families. Under them were the dependent commoners, usually those employed to work in the palaces or ziggurats. Below those three commoners were farmers, artisans, merchants, and scribes. At the bottom were the slaves. These slaves worked for the palace, the temples, and for rich landowners. Male slaves were used for building projects and farming, while females were used to make clothing. As the Sumerian city-states grew, there would eventually be conflict between them, often over water sources. Though the Sumerians fought amongst each other, just to the north were the Akkadians. They were a Semitic people different from the Sumerians but often mixed. Around 2340 BCE, one of these Akkadians, Sargon, led an army of over 5,000 down into Sumer and overran the city-states. This ended Sumer's early dynastic period and marked the start of the Akkadian Empire under Sargon of Akkad. He and his descendants would rule until around 2200 BCE when attacks by mountain barbarians dissolved the Akkadian Empire. This made it possible for the Sumerians to regain control of their region, and by 2112, under Unamu, a new Sumerian empire called the Neo-Sumerian Empire was founded and extended to the north. Once the capital city of Ur fell to outsiders in 2004 BCE, the city-states entered another state of conflict and instability. This would be the last time the Sumerians would hold power in Mesopotamia. By the 1800s BCE, a new empire would rise, ruled by another Semitic people, the semi-nomadic Amorites. Ruling from Babylon, Hammurabi conquered both the Sumerian and Akkadian regions, establishing what would be known as the Babylonian Empire. Taking a major role in governance, Hammurabi saw himself as a shepherd of his people, not their subjugator. He had defensive walls built for them, along with temples and irrigation networks. Increased trade also brought wealth to his empire. The Code of Hammurabi was used as a law code and as a means to portray himself as righteous and just. Comprising just under 300 laws, the code gives us insight into the empire's views on justice. Social classes were highly respected, and crimes committed by the lower classes against elites were punished more severely than vice versa. An eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth wasn't exactly literal; it simply meant that punishment should be equal to the crime committed, with classes being equal, of course. These retributive elements could have influenced law codes all over the Near East for centuries afterward. Divorce was prohibited, but a man could divorce his wife if she was unable to bear children. If a man's wife was acting in a humiliating fashion, she could be prosecuted as well. Women were entitled to their husband's property once he died, and if a man divorced her without good reason, her family could be entitled to the return of their dowry. While husbands were allowed to pursue sexual relations outside of their marriage, a woman was not allowed to do so, and if she did, she would be thrown into the nearest river to drown along with the other adulterer. In cases of incest, a father could be banished if he was caught having relations with his daughter, while relations between a mother and son would see them both burned alive. As is evident, hierarchies were well respected and a major part of life in Mesopotamia. The priest class was revered because religion was such an important aspect of Mesopotamian life. The chaotic flooding of their rivers, along with the humidity and otherwise harsh climate, forced Mesopotamians to turn to the supernatural. They were polytheistic, believing in many different gods. The most important were Anu, god of the sky; Enlil, god of the wind; Enki, god of the earth and rivers; and Inanna, the mother goddess of the mountains and fertility. Mesopotamians believed these gods created them to do their manual labor for them, so they viewed themselves as their servants. To figure out a god's desires or plans, priests would practice divination. The most common form was sacrificing a goat or sheep and then examining their organs. Priests and kings would attempt to predict military campaigns or the weather using divination. By far, Mesopotamia's greatest legacy, though, was their writing system. Dating back to at least 3000 BCE, the Sumerians began using wedge-shaped impressions on clay tablets, which were then hardened in the sun. This writing system was called cuneiform and evolved from earlier pictograms. Cuneiform was used mainly for governmental records and was usually taught to males of the upper classes. Writing was important as it created new ways for people to communicate. The most famous piece of literature from Mesopotamia was the Epic of Gilgamesh, a story we only know of because it was written down. Gilgamesh was a semi-legendary king of the Sumerian city of Uruk. Along with his friend Enkidu, the pair went on an adventure together. Spoiler warning for the oldest story ever: after Enkidu dies, Gilgamesh is overcome with the pain of loss and searches for the secret to immortality. He meets Utnapishtim, a man the gods let live after the great flood, who was granted immortality. After trying to help Gilgamesh in his quest, the mighty king fails and returns to Uruk disheartened. Immortality was to be a gift only for the gods. Apart from the arts, Mesopotamian sciences were also revolutionary. The Sumerians developed a number system based on 60 and used this to chart the stars. The lunar calendar was used to calculate dates. The Mesopotamians weren't the only ones in the Near East with civilization, though. Slightly to the west were the Egyptians. Just as Mesopotamia had its Tigris and Euphrates, Egypt had the Nile. The river began in deep Africa and flowed north into the Mediterranean. Each year, the Nile would flood, leaving silt deposits and enriching the soil. Egyptians would call this the black land because of the fertile ground, in contrast with the red land, the barren Egyptian deserts. The river splits before emptying into the Mediterranean, forming more fertile areas called the Nile Delta. Corresponding to the way the Nile flows, this region was called Lower Egypt, while more upstream and further south was Upper Egypt. The miracle of the Nile was that it flooded regularly and calmly, unlike the savage Mesopotamian rivers. Because of this, less administration was needed for these floods, meaning smaller rural cities than their counterparts to the east. Another major difference was terrain. A major theme in Mesopotamia was constant invasion, resulting in instability and a constant changing of power. Egypt, on the other hand, was well protected by natural boundaries. Deserts lay to the east and west, the Mediterranean to the north, and the Nile's cataracts could be guarded to the south. This stability, mixed with the predictability of the Nile, is what caused Egyptian civilization to last for thousands of years. Historians lay out Egypt's history in three distinct periods: the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms, times of prosperity and strength. Before the Old Kingdom, Egypt was ruled by different tribal chieftains. By around 3100 BCE, a king named Narmer would unify Upper and Lower Egypt into a single kingdom, gaining both the white and red crowns and beginning Egypt's dynastic period. The Old Kingdom began around 2700-2575 BCE with the third or fourth dynasty. With its capital at Memphis, Egypt during the Old Kingdom period was a time of prosperity, constructing Egypt's longest-lasting legacy: the pyramids. Egyptian kings would eventually take the name of Pharaoh in a later period and were considered divine. Pharaohs were to rule by the principle of ma'at, a universal harmony and order of the universe. The Egyptian bureaucracy eventually grew and was governed by the king's vizier. To better administer Egypt, the land was divided up into provinces, later called gnomes by the Greeks. Each gnome was appointed a governor called a nomarch. Over time, these nomarchs gained too much power, leading to the end of the Old Kingdom and a decentralized intermediate period by 2150. By 2055, a new dynasty managed to take back power, ushering in the Middle Kingdom period, Egypt's second golden age. This period had a more centralized government, with nomarchs having to provide more duties for the king. The title of Pharaoh went from a title of divinity to that of a shepherd leading its people. The Pharaoh was still at the very top of all the social classes in both the Old and Middle Kingdoms. Below the Pharaoh was the upper class of nobles and priests, responsible for rituals involving the king and managing the wealth. Below them were artisans and merchants, who would trade with other cultures, including Mesopotamia, and travel down the Nile to other villages. Trade was opened between Crete, Nubia, and the land of Punt. Egyptian artisans were some of the best in the world and offered a wide variety of goods. Below them were the farmers, the majority of workers. As the Pharaoh and his nobles owned the land, an ancient egyptian icon and the only surviving of the seven wonders of the world. Egyptians had other artistic talents as well. Pharaohs and their nobles would commission art like statues and paintings for their palaces and temples. Writing also developed independently of the sumerians, although slightly later. The greeks would later call this writing system hieroglyphics, meaning priest writings or sacred writings. These weren't a true alphabet but signs which depicted objects, originally carved into stone. Different scripts would develop from these and would be written on papyrus, a paper made from egyptian reeds. Spoken egyptian was related to the semitic language, both a branch of the afro-asiatic language family. The middle kingdom would last until around 1650 bce when egypt was invaded by a west asian semitic people they would call the hixos. Using bronze weapons and two-wheeled chariots, the hixos were able to successfully invade lower egypt, fragmenting authority and bringing in the second intermediate period. This would only last for around 100 years. The egyptians learned to make these same bronze weapons and chariots during the occupation and used these same devices to expel the hixos by 1550 bce, establishing the 18th dynasty and the new kingdom of egypt, a third golden age. With their military advancements, egypt became more aggressive and less insular, forging an empire that became the most powerful in the near east. They were a wealthy empire and had extravagant palaces built, like under hatshepsut. This was one of the first female pharaohs and was often referred to as king and depicted with a beard. Her nephew tupmosis iii led several campaigns up into the levant and syria, expanding west into libya. The 18th dynasty continued on and ran into some self-inflicted trouble with pharaoh amman hope iv. He changed his name to akhenaten, meaning servant of artan, the supreme god. Temples were closed, and the priests of our men lost their power. Religious power was centered in thebes, but akhenaten then created another capital at amana. Akhenaten's attempts at monotheism weren't taken very well by the traditional polytheistic egyptians. They saw it not only as disrespectful but dangerous. The pharaoh's obsession with these changes also caused the empire to lose its holdings in syria and the levant. Akhenaten's successor, the boy tutankhamen, rejected arton and restored the old gods. Under the 19th dynasty, egypt went on to reclaim its status as an imperial power. Ramses is often regarded as the new kingdom's greatest pharaoh. During the late bronze age collapse, around 1200 bce, egypt was invaded by the mysterious sea peoples and was a weakened shell of their once great power. Much of the east mediterranean and middle east was affected. Egypt would then enter a period of decline, and by 1069 bce would fragment once again into a third intermediate period, falling into the hands of the libyans, nubians, assyrians, persians, greeks, and romans, and seldom to be ruled by native egyptians. Daily life in egypt was quite traditional. Marrying young and starting a family was promoted, although men could marry additional wives if the original couldn't have children or refused to. The father was usually head of the household, but wives were respected as wise women and trusted to educate the youngsters. The pharaoh himself had a queen known as the great wife but could have his pick of other women as he pleased. Generally, women were barred from public office and other high-ranking career paths, but they had property and inheritance rights. Poorer women often had to work the fields, while rich ones often became priestesses. Adultery, as in mesopotamia, was forbidden with harsh penalties mainly for women, like being burned at the stake or having her nose removed. Divorces were allowed, though, and often dealt with fairly. There is evidence that egyptian influence spread all over the mediterranean, but it also reached further south. This is nubia, present-day sudan. This civilization could have emerged around the same time as old kingdom egypt or even earlier. The nubians and egyptians shared their culture through trade for centuries. By the time new kingdom egypt began to decline, nubia was gaining power and established the kingdom of cush. By the 8th century bce, cush had expanded and taken control of egypt, establishing the 25th dynasty. They ruled for almost 100 years but were eventually expelled by the assyrians. After the discovery of iron further to the south, the nubians moved their capital to marowi. They truly flourished here through trade and built magnificent areas filled with pyramids, more than egypt ever built. While mesopotamia and egypt were the foremost civilizations of the bronze age, europe was making strides as well. They too developed agriculture by at least 6500 bce and domesticated animals even longer. Early europeans would build large stone structures, what the later greeks called megaliths. These were thought to be used for astronomical observations, like the solstices, but also tracking moon movements and phases. Apart from the dominance of the afro-asiatic language family in the near east with semitic and egyptian, another language group developed, this time around the pontic step. These were the indo-europeans. Their language would spread as they migrated all across europe, branching into greek, italic, and eventually latin, germanic, slavic, and into asia, branching into persian and sanskrit. Their use of the horse and wheel allowed them rapid expansion all across eurasia. Sticking with the near east, one of the most prominent groups were the hittites. By 1750 bce, they emerged in turkey, absorbing the natives and establishing their hittite kingdom with their capital at hattusa. By 1600, they had their own empire, becoming rivals with new kingdom egypt. They got their hands on iron weapons early still during the bronze age, which was a better alternative to bronze, which needed both copper and tin to create. The hittites adopted much of the mesopotamian culture and might have been responsible for introducing it to neighboring regions in europe. Internal struggles plagued the hittites, and they became weak enough that they couldn't survive the invasions of the late bronze age. Egypt was weakened and went into slow decline, but the hittite empire crumbled. In between both egypt and the hittites was the levant. Now that neither was present in the area, new city-states and kingdoms were able to emerge in the power vacuum. In present-day lebanon were the phoenicians. They were another semitic people residing in their three main cities of biblos, sidon, and tyre. Because of their geography, the phoenicians always looked outwards towards the sea and became a maritime trading power. Their most famous exports were the timber from their cedar trees and their famous purple dyes called murex. The name phoenician was given to them by the greeks, as it derives from the colour purple or red. They became expert seafarers, traveling west past the mediterranean, reaching western africa and north to britain. The phoenicians established colonies in the west mediterranean, like on the island of sicily and spain. Their most famous would be their north african colony of carthage. Unlike the egyptians or mesopotamians, the phoenicians developed a phonetic alphabet consisting of 22 letters. They could be used interchangeably to write out different words in their language. This alphabet would later be passed down to the greeks and then eventually the romans, which we derived and still use today. Phoenicia was never a kingdom but a group of independent cities. They would remain independent for a few hundred years before they were taken over by the assyrians, which we will see later in this video. Just to the south of where the phoenicians lived were the hebrews. They were another semitic people but were more nomadic. In truth, they were a minor group of tribes and there would have been nothing truly remarkable about them if not for their religious legacy. The hebrews viewed themselves as descendants of abraham, a man who fled the city of ur during the neo-sumerian period and settled with his family and people in the land of canaan. According to the hebrew tradition, a drought caused abraham's descendants to migrate further south, living in peace until they were enslaved by the egyptians. Used in numerous building projects, the hebrews wouldn't be saved until moses led his people out of egypt, and the tribe spent 40 years returning to canaan. Back in the levant, they would become locked in conflict with the philistines, a people who had migrated over, perhaps from europe, as part of the invasions of the bronze age collapse around 1200 bce. They could have been related to the sea peoples who weakened egypt. Just like the phoenicians, the hebrews would now be able to truly flourish as the near east was still reeling. Again, evidence is sparse, but according to the hebrew tradition, saul established a kingdom of israel around 1050 bce, whose unity helped in the struggle with the philistines. After his death, david, one of saul's men, became king. Under david, the israelites conquered the philistines, establishing themselves as rulers of canaan and making the capital of his kingdom at jerusalem. After king david, solomon became king. Israel reached a high point under his reign. He opened up trade and tradition holds him responsible for the building of the first temple of jerusalem. Tensions began to rise between the hebrew tribes of the north and south, and after solomon's death, the united kingdom These laws were often taught and encouraged by the prophets. These prophets were religious teachers said to be the voice of God. They warned of great danger if people broke the sacred covenant. The Jewish experience in ancient times strengthened their faith and over the next centuries often put them at odds with their rulers. The Phoenicians and Hebrews were only two small regions in the Levant. In Mesopotamia, larger empires began to emerge. The Assyrians had resided in northern Mesopotamia for centuries while Babylonia was in the south. With the use of iron weapons, the Assyrians embarked on a campaign of expansion and by 700 BCE had conquered Mesopotamia, the Levant, and parts of Egypt, Anatolia, and the Iranian plateau. This Neo-Assyrian Empire would become the largest ever assembled so far in history, but it risked being overextended. Revolts were common, and after the death of their great king Ashurbanipal, Babylon revolted and forged an alliance with the Medes, a conquered Iranian people. Babylon then marched on the Assyrian capital, and Nineveh fell in 612 BCE, leading to the empire's rapid decline. At its height, the Assyrian Empire was vast and built an impressive communication system using horses and donkeys to send messages across the empire with minimal delay. The Assyrian army was crucial to its success, primarily a militaristic empire with a fearsome standing army largely made up of infantry. They practiced using war chariots and constructed some of the best siege equipment in the Near East. Their most potent weapon, however, was their ruthlessness. They were notorious for cutting down fruit trees, setting farms on fire, and destroying landscapes. Captives who revolted faced brutal treatment, including mutilation or being burned alive. They also employed a policy of deportation, creating a multicultural empire. Assyrian kings were viewed as Ashur's representative on earth. Assyria was named after this god and became wealthy as a crossroads of trade in the Near East. However, while excelling as a military and economically powerful empire, Assyria was not a center of culture like Babylonia. Most of Assyrian culture was derived from the Babylonians and Sumerians that preceded them. Assyrian kings considered themselves preservers of Mesopotamian traditions. The Royal Library of Ashurbanipal was a collection of over 30,000 clay tablets, an assemblage of texts from all over Mesopotamia and beyond, including the Epic of Gilgamesh. Assyria was known for its artistic reliefs, portraying realistic scenes of war in stone, with kings depicted as strong figures. After the fall of the Assyrian Empire to Babylon, Mesopotamian dominance shifted back south. This Neo-Babylonian Empire was ruled by a Chaldean dynasty, another Semitic people likely from Arabia or the Persian Gulf. The most famous of these Babylonian kings was Nebuchadnezzar II, who made Babylon the leading city in the Near East once again. This new empire lasted less than 100 years, falling to the Persians in 539 BCE. The Persians, like the Hittites, were an Indo-European people living on the Iranian plateau. They were initially groups of nomadic tribes unified by the Achaemenid dynasty, which conquered the Medes in Iran. Under Cyrus the Great, they expanded west, conquering Libya and Anatolia, and seized the Greek city-states along the Ionian coast. After campaigns in eastern Iran and parts of the Indian subcontinent, Cyrus captured Babylon in 539 BCE, seizing the Neo-Babylonian territories. Cyrus established different provinces, called satrapies, run by governors or satraps. He portrayed himself as part of the Babylonian lineage and was greeted as a liberator. He ended the Babylonian captivity, allowing the Jews to return to Jerusalem, where they rebuilt their temple, leading to his view as the anointed king or messiah. Unlike the Assyrians, Cyrus was a kind and tolerant ruler, gaining the legitimacy of his subjects from the Medes to Babylonians and Jews. After Cyrus, his son Cambyses invaded Egypt, adding the land of the pharaohs to the empire. Next, King Darius expanded further into India and conquered Thrace, making Macedon a tribute state. In 499 BCE, aided by Athens, the Greek cities on the Ionian coast revolted, culminating in the burning of the Persian city of Sardis. After subduing these cities, Darius sent an army to invade Greece, but the Persian army was defeated by the Athenians at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BCE. By this time, the Persian Empire was the largest the world had ever seen, spanning from Thrace to the Levant, Egypt, Anatolia, Mesopotamia, Iran, and western India, divided into around 20 satrapies. To facilitate communication across this massive empire, the Persians built a series of roads, the most notable being the Royal Road. The king himself was not considered divine but was viewed as the chosen of the Persian god Ahura Mazda. Unlike the pharaohs, the Achaemenid kings kept to themselves, spending time in remote palaces. After Cyrus, Persian kings became less benevolent, increasing taxes and amassing wealth for themselves. They spent this wealth not only on palatial splendors but also on an elite military. The Persian army called upon warriors from all parts of its empire, but the most iconic units were Iranian-born infantry, always numbering 10,000, known as the "Immortals" because they were immediately replaced when one fell. Persian religion was unique, known as Zoroastrianism after its founder Zoroaster. According to Persian belief, Zoroaster was born in the 7th century BCE and experienced visions that led him to the one true religion. His teachings were eventually written down in the Avesta around 200 BCE, likely predating the Jewish shift to monotheism in Babylon. Zoroastrianism emphasized a single supreme god, Ahura Mazda, the creator of all things and the embodiment of justice and goodness, opposed by an evil spirit named Ahriman, lord of chaos and darkness. Zoroaster preached that humans had free will and needed to perform good deeds because, at the last judgment, souls would be separated based on their actions, leading to either paradise or the abyss. This dualistic nature of good versus evil, heaven and hell, and a final judgment would later influence Christianity.