Major Crops and Cropping Patterns PDF

1. GS3: Major Crops and Cropping Patterns Websites: https://www.pmfias.com and https://store.pmfias.com YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/c/poormansfriend...

1. GS3: Major Crops and Cropping Patterns Websites: https://www.pmfias.com and https://store.pmfias.com YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/c/poormansfriend Newsletter: https://www.pmfias.com/newsletters 1. GS3: Major Crops and Cropping Patterns................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Cropping Pattern.................................................................................................................................... 4 1.1.1 Factors that influence cropping pattern........................................................................................................................ 5 Relief........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5 Climate....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5 Soil............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7 Economic Factors................................................................................................................................................................................... 7 Social factors........................................................................................................................................................................................... 8 1.1.2 Crop Classification................................................................................................................................................................. 8 Classification based on the type of crop...................................................................................................................................... 8 Classification based on suitable climatic regions................................................................................................................... 10 Classification based on growing season.................................................................................................................................... 10 Classification based on life of crops/duration of crops........................................................................................................ 10 Classification based on water availability................................................................................................................................... 10 Classification based on length of photoperiod required for floral initiation............................................................... 11 1.2 Major Food Crops of India................................................................................................................... 11 1.2.1 Rice (Oryza sativa)............................................................................................................................................................... 11 Rice Crop (Paddy) Season................................................................................................................................................................ 11 Conditions for Growth....................................................................................................................................................................... 12 Methods of Rice Cultivation............................................................................................................................................................ 13 Japanese method................................................................................................................................................................................. 14 Rice Production and Productivity.................................................................................................................................................. 14 Factors that contribute to low rice productivity in India..................................................................................................... 14 Top Rice Producing States in India............................................................................................................................................... 16 Basmati Rice........................................................................................................................................................................................... 17 Trade......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 18 1.2.2 Wheat...................................................................................................................................................................................... 18 Conditions for Growth....................................................................................................................................................................... 18 Wheat Production............................................................................................................................................................................... 19 Wheat Producing States in India................................................................................................................................................... 19 1.2.3 Maize........................................................................................................................................................................................ 22 Conditions for Growth....................................................................................................................................................................... 22 Production.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 22  1.2.4 Millets...................................................................................................................................................................................... 23 Jowar (Sorghum).................................................................................................................................................................................. 23 Bajra (bull rush millet)........................................................................................................................................................................ 24 Ragi........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 24 Barley........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 25 1.3 Pulses..................................................................................................................................................... 25 Gram......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 26 Tur or arhar (pigeon pea or recri gram)..................................................................................................................................... 26 1.4 Major Cash Crops of India................................................................................................................... 27 1.4.1 Cotton...................................................................................................................................................................................... 27 Conditions for Growth....................................................................................................................................................................... 27 Unfavourable factors.......................................................................................................................................................................... 28 Crop season........................................................................................................................................................................................... 28 Types of Cotton.................................................................................................................................................................................... 29 Cotton Crop Area................................................................................................................................................................................ 29 Bt Cotton................................................................................................................................................................................................. 31 1.4.2 Jute........................................................................................................................................................................................... 31 Jute Crop................................................................................................................................................................................................. 32 Ideal Conditions for Jute Cultivation........................................................................................................................................... 32 Cropping season.................................................................................................................................................................................. 32 Processing of Jute................................................................................................................................................................................ 32 Production.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 32 Jute industry.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 33 Schemes to support jute industry................................................................................................................................................. 34 Jute Packaging Materials Act (JPMA)........................................................................................................................................... 34 1.4.3 Sugarcane............................................................................................................................................................................... 34 Conditions for Growth....................................................................................................................................................................... 35 Sugar Crops........................................................................................................................................................................................... 36 Sugarcane Crop Area......................................................................................................................................................................... 37 Production.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 39 1.4.4 Tobacco................................................................................................................................................................................... 41 Conditions for Growth....................................................................................................................................................................... 41 Types of Tobacco................................................................................................................................................................................. 42 Production.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 42 Trade......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 43 1.5 Oilseed (Cash Crop) Crops in India..................................................................................................... 43 1.5.1 Groundnut.............................................................................................................................................................................. 44 Conditions for Growth....................................................................................................................................................................... 44 Production and Distribution............................................................................................................................................................ 44 1.5.2 Sesamum................................................................................................................................................................................ 45 Production and Distribution............................................................................................................................................................ 45 1.5.3 Rapeseed and mustard..................................................................................................................................................... 45  Conditions for Growth....................................................................................................................................................................... 46 1.5.4 Linseed.................................................................................................................................................................................... 46 Conditions for Growth....................................................................................................................................................................... 46 Castor seed............................................................................................................................................................................................ 46 Conditions for Growth....................................................................................................................................................................... 47 1.5.5 Soyabean and sunflower.................................................................................................................................................. 47 1.5.6 India’s edible oil industry................................................................................................................................................. 47 In 1970s................................................................................................................................................................................................... 47 Present..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 48 Imported Oil.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 48 Edible oil consumption...................................................................................................................................................................... 49 1.6 Plantation Crops in India..................................................................................................................... 49 1.6.1 Tea............................................................................................................................................................................................ 49 Conditions for Growth....................................................................................................................................................................... 50 Production and distribution............................................................................................................................................................ 51 Trade......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 53 1.6.2 Coffee...................................................................................................................................................................................... 53 Conditions for Growth....................................................................................................................................................................... 53 Production and Distribution............................................................................................................................................................ 53 Trade......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 55 1.6.3 Rubber..................................................................................................................................................................................... 55 Conditions for Growth....................................................................................................................................................................... 55 Production and Distribution............................................................................................................................................................ 55 1.6.4 Arecanut................................................................................................................................................................................. 55 1.6.5 Coconut................................................................................................................................................................................... 56 1.7 Spices..................................................................................................................................................... 56 1.7.1 Pepper..................................................................................................................................................................................... 56 1.7.2 Cardamom............................................................................................................................................................................. 57 1.7.3 Chillies..................................................................................................................................................................................... 57 1.7.4 Ginger...................................................................................................................................................................................... 57 1.7.5 Turmeric.................................................................................................................................................................................. 58 1.8 Horticulture........................................................................................................................................... 58 1.8.1 Vegetables............................................................................................................................................................................. 58 Onion........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 58 Onion price volatility.......................................................................................................................................................................... 59 Potato....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 60 Tomato..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 60 Carrot........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 61 1.8.2 Fruits and Nuts..................................................................................................................................................................... 61 Mango...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 61 Apple........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 61 Banana..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 62  Orange..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 63 Grape........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 63 Cashew..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 63 Peach........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 64 Pear........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 64 Apricot...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 64 Strawberry.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 64 Important Points Important points and sentences are bolded and must remember important points and sentences are bolded and coloured. Basics This section will be a cake walk if you have understood Climatology, Climatic Regions and Indian Climatology well. For understanding the concepts related to Agro-based industries, it is important to have a good understanding of the cropping patterns of the major crops. Data Statistics of various crops for the financial year 2018-19 are not released by the government (I couldn’t find them in any reports). So, I have used the data from Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2018. There is a lot of congruence between the Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2018 and the data included by various newspaper reports for FY 2018-19. Changes Same: The core concepts remain the same from the old notes. Updated: All the crop related data is updated (Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2018) New: Horticulture > Vegetables. 1.2 Cropping Pattern When plants of the same kind are cultivated at one place on a large scale, it is called a crop. Cropping pattern refers to the spatial (location, area) and temporal (time) arrangement of crops. A change in cropping pattern would indicate a spatial or temporal variation of crops. Spatial variation of cropping pattern includes the change in the spatial distribution or cropping area of crops.  ✓ E.g. Earlier, rice crop was confined to eastern coastal plains and delta regions. But now it is grown widely even in the north-western parts of the country due to expansion of irrigation. ✓ E.g. Cropping area of rice is increasing with irrigation, whereas cropping area of millets is decreasing. Temporal variation of cropping pattern refers to change in crops in a cropping area with time. ✓ E.g. Seasonal change in cropping pattern: Rice is preferred in Punjab and Haryana during the Kharif season whereas wheat is preferred in the rabi season. ✓ E.g. Change in cropping pattern due to climate change: Increasing aridity in certain parts of South India has resulted in the shift in cropping pattern from rice to millets. 1.2.1 Factors that influence cropping pattern Cropping pattern depends on many physical, social and economic factors. Physical (geographical) factors include relief, climate (temperature, rainfall), soil, irrigation, environmental degradation (rice crop is severely depleting groundwater in parts of Punjab and Haryana), etc. Economic factors include infrastructure (irrigation, power), size of land holdings, population density, credit, support price, insurance, market, etc. Social/political factors include land reforms, labour availability, historical setting, etc. Relief Rice is the main crop on the irrigated hill terraces (terraced cultivation). In well-irrigated plains, rice and sugarcane dominate. Wheat (temperate crop) grows well in plain regions with moderate temperature and rainfall. Crops like tea and coffee can be grown only on well-drained slopes that receive a good amount of rainfall. Climate The short-term change in cropping pattern mainly occurs due to change in seasons. For example, in Punjab, rice is grown during the rainy season, but wheat takes over during winter. In rainfed areas, rice is cultivated extensively when the monsoons are good. But when monsoons are weak, millets are grown instead of rice. Cotton in Maharashtra, tea in Assam and jute in West Bengal remain the dominant crops due to highly favourable climatic conditions for cultivation. Temperature  Sugarcane gives good yield in south India than in northern plains as it needs a warm climate. Some crops require a higher temperature and are sown in the summer season. Most of the growth period falls under the rainy season. These are known as Kharif crops (rice, cotton, maize, etc.). There are other crops which require lower temperature and moisture and are sown in the winter season (wheat). These are known as Rabi crops. Rainfall Areas of Heavy Rainfall More than 150 cm of annual rainfall. East India and the western coastal plains. 150 cm annual rainfall isohyets are suitable for the cultivation of rice. The animal population is fairly high due to the availability of fodder and grazing area. Crops: Rice, tea, coffee, sugarcane, jute etc. Areas of Medium Rainfall 75 to 150 cm of annual rainfall. 75 cm annual rainfall isohyets are suitable for maize, cotton and soyabean. These areas are rich in natural resources. E.g. Eastern part of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Odisha, eastern parts of Madhya Pradesh and Vidarbha region of Maharashtra. Wheat is the principal rabi crop. Millets are the natural priority. Crops: Wheat, maize, cotton, soyabean, millets, etc. Areas of Low Rainfall 25 to 75 cm of annual rainfall (Semi-arid stretches of India). Major crops in this belt are 1. millets, jowar, and bajra in the northern, 2. jowar in central and 3. ragi in the southern part. Wheat is the main rabi crop which is grown in irrigated areas. Mixed cropping is very common in which pulses are mixed with cereals. Cropping has been developed in such a way that no one crop dominates. Crops: Millets, oilseeds (Groundnut, sunflower, rapeseed and mustard etc.), pulses etc. Soil Regur soils are ideal for cotton cultivation. Cotton is the obvious choice in such soils when the climate is also favourable. Clayey soils are good at retaining soil moisture for longer duration and hence they are ideal for rice cultivation wherever irrigation is adequate. Well-drained loamy soils are best for wheat. Coarse grains such as jowar, bajra, maize, ragi, barley etc. are grown in inferior soils (light sandy soils, light black soils, red and laterite soils etc.) Delta soils of West Bengal are renewed by floods every year and are very fertile. They are ideal for jute cultivation. The farmers grow 2-3 crops in a year. Soils of the Darjeeling hills contain sufficient quantities of humus, iron, potash and phosphorus which are necessary for a tea bush to grow. Economic Factors Irrigation Water intensive crops like rice and sugarcane are profitable only if there are good irrigational facilities. Hence rice and sugarcane cropping areas are restricted to well-irrigated areas like the delta regions of Cauvery, Krishna and Godavari. North Indian plain regions are well irrigated and support 2-3 crops of rice a year. Free Power, Minimum Support Price (MSP) and other subsidies Rice and wheat which are offered MSP are preferred by farmers. Free power had led to an increase in cropping area of rice and sugarcane. This has however led to severe depletion and contamination of groundwater. E.g. Rice growing parts of Haryana and Punjab. Subsidies on fertilizers have led to farmers opting for rice and wheat over other crops. Value Millets in the hilly areas of HP and Uttarakhand are replaced by high-value horticulture crops like apple. Demand and Supply Rice is the preferred crop in the densely populated regions as there is a ready market. Diversification of crops due to surplus food grain production post-Green Revolution has led to significant changes in cropping pattern.  Other than rice and wheat, oilseeds and pulses also became more prominent. Size of Land Holdings In the case of smallholdings, the priority of the farmers would be to grow food grains for his family members (subsistence farming). Farmers with large holdings can opt for cash crops and help in crop diversification, leading to changes in the cropping pattern (commercial farming). But in spite of crop diversification potential, large holdings are used mostly for monoculture of rice, wheat etc. Social factors Historical setting Sugarcane is grown more extensively in North India even though the conditions are most favourable in South India. This is because the sugarcane cultivation was encouraged by the British as an alternative to indigo which lost its significance and market in states like Uttar Pradesh due to the introduction of artificial dyes. 1.2.2 Crop Classification Crops can be classified based on the type of crop, suitable climatic regions, growing season, the life of crops/duration of crops, etc. Classification based on the type of crop Food Crops Cereals are grass-like plants with starchy edible seeds having high nutritional value. India produces a variety of cereals, which are classified as fine grains (rice, wheat) and coarse grains (jowar, bajra, maize, ragi), etc. Major millets: Sorghum or Jowar, Pearl Millet or Bajra and Finger millet or ragi. Minor millets: Foxtail millet, Little millet, Common millet, Barnyard millet etc. Millets are the staple food of poor people.  Pulses: red gram, black gram, green gram, cowpea, bengalgram, horsegram, dewgram, soyabean, peas or gardenpea, garden bean etc. Pulses are a major source of protein. Starch Crops or Tuber Crops: Potato, cassava, sweet potato, raddish etc. Cash Crops Cotton, jute, sugarcane, tobacco, oilseeds, groundnut, linseed, sesamum, castor seed, rapeseed, mustard, etc. Oil Seeds: Groundnut or peanut, sesamum, sunflower, castor, linseed, rapeseed & mustard etc. Fiber crops: Cotton; Stem fiber: Jute, mesta, sun hemp, sisal hemp etc. Plantation Crops Tea, coffee, coconut, arecanut, rubber and spices — ginger, garlic, chili, cumin onion, coriander, cardamom, pepper, turmeric etc. Horticulture Crops Vegetables: Onion, tomato, etc.  Fruits: Apple, Orange, Mango, banana, citrus fruits, etc. Classification based on suitable climatic regions Tropical Temperate Crops grow well in warm & hot climate Crops grow well in cool climate E.g. Rice, Sugarcane, Jowar etc. E.g. Wheat, Oats, Gram, Potato, Apple etc. Classification based on growing season Kharif/Rainy/Monsoon crops Rabi/winter/cold seasons crops Summer/Zaid crops The crops grown in monsoon The crops grown in winter season Crops grown in summer months Sown before monsoon and Sown before retreating monsoon Sown and harvested in harvested at the end of the and harvested before summer. summer monsoon Cropping period: June to Oct-Nov Oct to March March to June Require warm, wet weather at Crops grow well in cold and dry Require warm dry weather major period of crop growth weather for major growth period E.g. Paddy (Rice), Cotton, Jute, E.g. Wheat, Gram, Peas, Barley, E.g. Watermelon, Jowar, Bajara (pearl millet), Oats, Linseed, Mustard, Pumpkins, Gourds, Finger millet (ragi), Maize, Sunflower etc. Vegetables etc. Sorghum, Tur, Moong, Urad, Soyabean, Groundnut etc. Classification based on the life of crops/duration of crops Seasonal crops: A crop completes its life cycle in one season (3-4 months). E.g. rice, Jowar, wheat etc. Two seasonal crops: Crops complete their life cycle in two seasons (6-8 months). E.g. Cotton, turmeric, ginger. Annual crops: Crops require one full year to complete their life cycle. E.g. sugarcane. Biennial crops: Crops requires two years to complete their life cycle E.g. Banana, Papaya. Perennial crops: crops live for several years. E.g. Fruit crops, mango, guava etc. Classification based on water availability Rainfed: Cultivation of crop mainly based on the availability of rainwater. E.g. Jowar, Bajara, Mung etc.  Irrigated crops: Crops cultivated with the help of irrigation water. E.g. Chili, sugarcane, Banana, papaya etc. Classification based on length of photoperiod required for floral initiation  Photoperiodism: Most plants are influenced by the relative length of the day & night, especially for floral initiation. Short-day plants: Flower initiation takes place when days are short less than ten hours. E.g. rice, Jowar, green gram, black gram etc. Long day's plants: require long days are more than ten hours for floral initiation. E.g. Wheat, Barley, etc. Day-neutral plants: Photoperiod does not have much influence for phase change for these plants. E.g. Cotton, sunflower, etc. 1.3 Major Food Crops of India Indian Geography, types of soils in India and Indian climatology forms the foundation for understanding cropping pattern and major crops of India. 1.3.1 Rice (Oryza sativa) Rice is a preferred staple food in Southern and North-Eastern India. Rice growing areas are well suited for mixed farming (Crops + Livestock) (Don’t get confused between mixed farming and mixed cropping – two or more crops grown simultaneously on the same piece of land). Unpolished rice is rich in Vitamin A, B and calcium. Polished rice lacks these vitamins. Rice Crop (Paddy) Season Rice is ideally a kharif crop (wet and warm climate is ideal for rice cultivation). It is grown only in well-irrigated areas in rabi season (yield is less in rabi season compared to kharif). Most of the rice-growing regions lie barren during summer (April-May). It can be grown as a summer crop in deltaic regions where water is available through the year. Three crop seasons (year-round irrigation; grown as kharif, rabi and summer or zaid crop) Crop season Sowing Harvesting Kharif crop (Rainy season) June-July Sep-Oct Rabi crop (Winter dry season) Oct-Nov Feb-Mar Summer dry Mar-Apr Jun-Jul  E.g. Deltaic regions of West Bengal, Krishna-Godavari delta, parts of UP, Bihar etc. Two crop seasons (irrigation not available in summer) Kharif crop (Rainy season) July-Aug Oct-Nov Rabi crop (Winter dry season) Dec-Jan Mar-Apr E.g. South India, Coastal plains, Assam plains, etc. Single crop season (rice not grown in dry summers and cold winters) Kharif crop July-Sep Nov E.g. North-Western states. Rabi season is dominated by wheat. Conditions for Growth Climate Rice crop needs plenty of heat, rain and labour. It can be grown between 0 to 2,500 meters above sea level. Rice cannot tolerate the cold climate that exists above 2,500 meters. Generally, cold climate is less favourable for rice cultivation (rabi yield is lower compared to kharif yield) Rice is a tropical kharif crop that requires: 1. warm climate Rice is grown throughout the year in hot and humid deltaic regions of eastern and southern India. In the northern, north-western and hilly parts of the country, the winters are too cold for rice cultivation, and only one crop is grown (in summer) in those areas. 2. semi-aquatic conditions (rainfall or irrigation throughout the season; the soil should never be dry during the growing season). The fields must be flooded under 10-12 cm deep water at the time of sowing. This requirement of rice makes it primarily a crop of plain areas. Rice grown in well-watered lowland plain areas is called wet or lowland rice (good yield). Rice can be grown in areas just below sea level like in Kuttanad region of Kerala. Terraced cultivation of rice in followed in sloped regions. E.g. Hills of NE states (shifting cultivation or jhumming). The supply of water to the hill terraces is low, and the rice grown in hilly areas is called dry or upland rice (comparatively low yield as hilly soils cannot retain moisture for long).  Average annual rainfall above 150 cm is good for the crop. The 100 cm isohyet (imaginary line joining the points of equal rainfall) forms the limit of rice in rainfed areas. Rice is grown in Punjab, Haryana and western U.P (rainfall less than 100 cm) with the help of intensive irrigation. Soil Rice is a dominant crop of river valleys, flood plains, deltas and coastal plains. Loamy soils require frequent irrigation and more water as the water holding capacity is low. E.g. Delta regions, Punjab, Haryana and North Indian plains. Clayey soils, on the other hand, have good water holding capacity — E.g. Coastal plains of south India, irrigated regions of Karnataka, Telangana etc. Rice can tolerate acidic as well as alkaline soils. Labour requirement Rice cultivation is traditionally labour intensive. Rice is primarily grown in areas of high population density (labour and ready market). E.g. West Bengal. In Punjab and Haryana, rice cultivation depends on the migrant labourers from Bihar and eastern U.P. Methods of Rice Cultivation Broadcasting method Seeds are sown (broadcast) by hand. Practiced in 1. dry and/or less fertile soils, and 2. areas with labour shortages. Easiest method requiring minimum input. Yields are minimum. Drilling method One person ploughs the land and the other person sows the seeds. Confined to dry regions of peninsular India. Yields are low. Transplantation method Advanced method of rice cultivation in India. Less scope for mechanization and is labour intensive. Practiced in areas of fertile soil with abundant rainfall or irrigation. Seeds are sown in nursery and seedlings are prepared. After a month the seedlings are uprooted and transplanted to a different field. This is a difficult method that requires heavy inputs. But it gives some of the highest yields. Japanese method Highly mechanized and most advanced rice cultivation. Mostly followed in developed countries like Japan, South Korea etc. Seedlings are transplanted in rows with the help of machines. Weeding and fertilizing are fully mechanized. Heavy dose of fertilizers is required. Very high yields are obtained. Rice Production and Productivity India produced ~113 MT of milled rice (Paddy minus husk and bran) in 2017-2018. The production of milled rice for 2018-19 is estimated to be 116.4 MT. (Paddy production is 169 MT) India is the 2nd largest producer and consumer of rice in the world after China (148 MT). The next largest rice producers are Indonesia (36 MT), Bangladesh (35 MT), Vietnam (27 MT), and Myanmar. Low productivity: The average yield of rice in India is ~2.6 tonne/ha (average yield of paddy is 3.8 tonne/ha) as against the global average of 4.374 tonne/ha. China (6.5), Australia (10), US (7.5) lead in productivity. China’s rice productivity is greater as all of China’s rice area is irrigated, whereas less than half of India’s rice area is irrigated. Egypt leads the world in rice yields — at Egypt’s yield rate, India could almost triple its rice output. Factors that contribute to low rice productivity in India 60% of the rice area is Rainfed  About 60% of the total rice area in the country is concentrated in rainfed eco-system and it is contributing about 45% to the national production of rice, but rainfed eco-system is handicapped with varied natural, socio-economic, organizational and technological constraints resulting in low productivity. Not enough HYVs for Rainfed eco-system 90% of high yielding varieties (HYV) varieties are for irrigated eco-system and very few improved varieties are available for rainfed eco-system. Wide disparity in fertilizer use High yielding varieties are fertilizer responsive/oriented. Yet, the farmers are using much less fertilizer per unit cropped area than their counterparts in South and South-East Asian Countries. There is also a wide disparity in fertilizer use within the country. The States like Tamil Nadu and Punjab use as high as 100-150 kg/ha as against 20 kg/ha in Assam, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh. In Eastern Region, rice area is about 59% but fertilizer consumption is low, resulting in poor productivity. Vagaries of monsoon Out of 43 Mha of total rice in India, upland rice occupies about 7 Mha, in Eastern India. In upland rainfed crop suffers due to soil moisture stress at critical crop growth stage due to vagaries of monsoon. Delay in monsoon onset often results in delayed and prolonged transplanting and sub-optimum plant population (mostly in rainfed lowlands). In the low rainfall regions, the crops suffer from iron and zinc deficiency in some soils. In the high rainfall regions diseases break out due to imbalance nutrients availability in the soils. Floods About 15% area of the total area under rice in the country is subjected to flooding particularly in Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, Assam, Tripura and Manipur during south-west monsoon period. Inundation In Eastern states rice is grown mostly during Kharif season and it often suffers due to high rainfall. Besides, rice crop gets inundated during early part of the crop growth stage, low light intensity due to clouds for a longer duration resulting in higher sterility and pests/diseases. Poor crop plant population in case of broadcast sowing method resulting in uneven germination (upland and direct seeded lowland). Top Rice Producing States in India Area – Million Hectares (Mha); Production in 2017-18 (in Million Tonnes); Yield – tonnes/hectare State Area Production Yield 1 West Bengal 5.1 (11.7%) 15 (13.3%) 2.9 Low productivity 2 Punjab 3.1 (7%) 13.4 (11.9%) 4.4 Highest productivity 3 Uttar Pradesh 5.8 (13.3%) 13.3 (11.8%) 2.3 Low productivity 4 Andhra Pradesh 2.2 (4.9%) 8.2 (7.2%) 3.8 High Productivity 5 Bihar 3.3 (7.5%) 7.9 (7%) 2.4 Low productivity 6 Tamil Nadu 1.9 (4.2%) 7.3 (6.5%) 3.9 High Productivity 7 Odisha 3.7 (8.5%) 6.5 (5.8%) 1.8 Low productivity 8 Telangana 2 (4.5%) 6.3 (5.5%) 3.2 Good productivity 9 Assam 2.5 (5.6%) 5.2 (4.6%) 2.1 Low productivity 10 Chhattisgarh 3.8 (8.6%) 4.7 (4.2%) 1.3 Lowest productivity 11 Haryana 1.4 (3.3%) 4.5 (4%) 3.2 Good productivity 12 Madhya Pradesh 2 (4.7%) 4.1 (3.7%) 2.0 Low productivity All India 43.8 Mha 112.9 MT 2.6 Low productivity overall 13.3% of India’s land is under rice cultivation. (The total land area of India is 328 Mha (3.28 million km2)) State +ve factors -ve factors West Bengal Large scale alluvial deposits Floods Year round irrigation Yield is low Abundant labour force Eastern India was overlooked during the 3 crops can be grown a year first Green Revolution (Poor adaptation of HYV, fertilizers and mechanization). Punjab Full use of Green Revolution Cropping pattern has undergone an Perennial irrigation by canals and tube unprecedented change due to irrigation wells Land degradation – salinity, alkalinity & HYV seeds and fertilizers desertification Highest yield Ground water depletion Wheat is preferred in Rabi season Uttar Pradesh Full use of Green Revolution Land degradation – salinity, alkalinity & Perennial irrigation by canals and tube desertification  wells Ground water depletion HYV seeds and fertilizers Wheat is preferred in Rabi season Very low yield Andhra Pradesh Fertile Godavari-Krishna Delta and the Cyclone prone area. adjoining coastal plains. Floods in the delta regions Full use of Green Revolution. High yield Bihar Same as in Uttar Pradesh Same as in Uttar Pradesh Tamil Nadu Fertile Cauvery Delta Drought and water disputes High Yield Basmati Rice Basmati is long grain aromatic rice grown for many centuries in the specific geographical area, at the Himalayan foothills of Indian sub-continent. The rice is known for its soft texture upon cooking, delicious taste, superior aroma and distinct flavour. India accounts for over 70% of the world's basmati rice production and 65% of the world’s export. The areas of basmati rice production in India are in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, J&K, Delhi, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The Agricultural & Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA – Department of Commerce) has been mandated with the export promotion of Basmati rice. APEDA has been able to register Basmati Rice as a Geographical Indication (GI) in February 2016. Trade Domestic rice production meets the domestic demand. There is very little surplus for external trade. However, India now occupies first position in rice exports. Thailand, Vietnam and Pakistan are the other major exporters of rice. India is the biggest exporter of basmati rice. Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh produce best qualities of Basmati rice. Punjab, Haryana, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh are surplus states. They supply to deficit states – West Bengal, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Kerala and Delhi. 1.3.2 Wheat Wheat is the second most important staple food for Indian population. Wheat is the preferred staple food in Northern and North-Western India. It is a rich source of calcium, thiamine, riboflavin and iron. Conditions for Growth Climate Wheat is a temperate crop which requires a cool climate with moderate rainfall. It shows great adaptability & can be grown in tropics as well (however, yields are low in tropics). It is a rabi crop (winter crop – requires cool and less moist climate). 75 cm of temporally (time) well distributed rainfall is ideal. 100 cm is the highest limit.  The isohyet of 100 cm separates wheat growing areas from rice growing areas. In the kharif season, rice replaces wheat in the ‘winter wheat belt’ region – Punjab, Haryana etc. Light drizzles and cloudiness (E.g. Weather brought by the remnants of temperate cyclones called as Western Disturbances) at the time of ripening help in increasing the yield. Frost at flowering time can cause heavy damage. Wheat Growing Regions Sowing months Harvesting months 1. Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh September-October January-February and West Bengal (central and southern agro climatic regions) 2. Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan (North- October-November February-March eastern plain and North-western plain agro climatic regions) 3. Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir November- April-May December Soil and fertilizer requirement Well drained fertile, friable barns (mostly alluvial) and clay loams (good proportion of sand) are the best for wheat cultivation. It also grows well in the black soil of the Deccan plateau. So, wheat cultivation is more flexible than rice cultivation as the limiting factors are low. The N:P:K fertilizer ratio of 4:2:1 is required for optimum productivity. Wheat Production India (99 MT) is the second largest producer of wheat in the world next only to China (134 MT in 2017). Russia (86 MT), USA (47 MT), France (37 MT) and Australia are other major producers. India has done better in wheat by achieving yields closer to the global average. It has recorded an average yield of 3.0 tonne per hectare as against the global benchmark of 3.0 tonne/ha. However, it's still far from countries like France (5.3 tonne), US (3.5 tonne) and China (5.3). Wheat Producing States in India Wheat production is mainly confined to North-Western parts of the country. Punjab, Haryana and the western parts of U.P. have earned the distinction of being called the ‘Granary of India’. Area – Million Hectares; Production in 2017-18 (in Million Tonnes); Yield – tonnes/hectare  State Area Production Yield 1 Uttar Pradesh 9.75 (33%) 31.9 (32%) 3.3 Yield decreases as rainfall increases eastwards 2 Punjab 3.51 (11.8%) 17.9 (18%) 5.0 Highest Yield due to Optimal Climate 3 Madhya Pradesh 5.32 (18%) 15.9 (16%) 3.0 Yield is low due to poor irrigation 4 Haryana 2.53 (8.6%) 11.2 (11%) 4.4 High Yield due to Optimal Climate 5 Rajasthan 2.81 (9.5%) 9.2 (9.2%) 3.2 Yield decreases as aridity increases 6 Bihar 2.04 (6.9%) 5.7 (5.8%) 2.8 Yield decreases as rainfall increases eastwards 7 Gujarat 1.06 (3.6%) 3.1 (3.1%) 2.9 Yield decreases as aridity increases 8 Maharashtra 0.92 (3.1%) 1.62 (1.6%) 1.7 Less favourable climatic conditions All India 29.58 99.7 3.3 ~9% of total land area of India is under wheat cultivation. State +ve Factors -ve Factors Uttar Fine alluvial soil deposited by the mighty Ganga and Wheat production to the east of Pradesh its tributaries Varanasi declines due to high Close network of canals, supplemented by large rainfall number of tube wells the doabs are the best wheat producing areas. E.g. Ganga-Ghagra doab and Ganga-Yamuna doab. Punjab Green Revolution was utilized to the fullest. Land degradation Excellent irrigation system provided by a close Ground water depletion network of canals and the tube wells.  Light rainfall associated with the western disturbances in winter. Fertile alluvial soil brought by the rivers. Punjab farmers are progressive and willing to adopt new farm technologies. Madhya Climate well suited for wheat cultivation in winter. Less fertile soils Pradesh Less developed irrigational facilities Haryana Same as in Punjab Same as in Punjab Rajasthan Indira Gandhi Canal has made wheat cultivation Vast stretches of sandy desert possible in many parts of Rajasthan. Scarcity of rainfall Paucity of irrigation facilities Land degradation Bihar Same as in UP Same as in UP 1.3.3 Maize Maize is often known as Indian corn. It is used as both food and fodder. (USA produces maize mainly to beef up the cattle. Very little is used as food (Climatic regions: Gulf type)) Use of modern inputs such as HYV seeds, fertilisers and irrigation have contributed to the increasing production of maize. Conditions for Growth It is a rainfed kharif crop which requires temperature between 21°C to 27°C. Maize can be grown under varied climatic and soil conditions. But the yields are highest in old alluvial soil. It is grown in semi-arid regions (25 – 75 cm) where rice and wheat production are not possible. It cannot be grown in areas of more than 100 cm rainfall. In Tamil Nadu it is a rabi crop and is sown a few weeks before the onset of winter rainy season in Sept. and Oct (because the rains occur mostly in November and December in eastern TN). Well-drained and fertile loams free from coarse materials and rich in nitrogen are ideal. The cultivation of maize in India is characterized by inter-culture i.e. along with pulses, vegetables and oil seeds. Production  USA, China and Brazil are the leading producers. In India, Maize cultivation is not concentrated in any specific region. It is sown all over India except eastern and north-eastern regions. Yield is high in southern states and declines towards central parts. Production in 2017-18 (in Million Tonnes) State Area – Million Hectares Production (MT) Yield – tonnes/hectare 1 Karnataka 1.3 (13.6%) 3.6 (12.4%) 2.8 2 Maharashtra 1.2 (12.2%) 3.5 (12.3%) 3.1 3 Madhya Pradesh 1.4 (14.3%) 3.5 (12.3%) 2.6 4 Tamil Nadu 0.3 (3.6%) 2.6 (9.2%) 7.7 5 Telangana 0.6 (6.7%) 2.6 (8.9%) 4.1 6 Bihar 0.7 (7.1%) 2.4 (8.44%) 3.6 7 Andhra Pradesh 0.3 (3.6%) 2.3 (8.02%) 6.9 All India 9.5 Mha 28.7 MT 3.0 1.3.4 Millets Jowar, bajra and ragi are the important millets grown in India. They provide food for the poor people. Though, these are known as coarse grains, they have very high nutritional value. For example, ragi is very rich in iron, calcium, other micronutrients and roughage. Millets are short duration (3-4 months;) warm weather grasses. They are grown in less fertile areas. Jowar (Sorghum) Jowar has a high nutritional value. It is main food crop in semi-arid areas of central and southern India. Jowar is the third most important food crop with respect to area and production. It is a rain-fed crop mostly grown in the moist areas which hardly needs irrigation. Jowar is grown both as kharif as well as a rabi crop. It is sown in both kharif and rabi seasons in southern states. But it is a kharif crop in northern India where it is mostly grown as a fodder crop. South of Vindhyas it is a rainfed crop and its yield level is very low in this region.  It does not grow where the rainfall exceeds 100 cm. Clayey deep regur and alluvium are the best suited soils for jowar. It can also be raised on gentle slopes upto 1,200 meters height. Production Production in 2017-18 (in Million Tonnes) State Area – Million Hectares Production (MT) Yield – tonnes/hectare 1 Maharashtra 2.2 (43.7%) 1.8 (36.5%) 0.8 2 Karnataka 1.1 (21.9%) 1.1 (22.9%) 1.0 3 Madhya Pradesh 0.3 (5.4%) 0.6 (11.5%) 2.1 All India 5 Mha 5 MT 1.0 Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan are the other major producers. Bajra (bull rush millet) Bajra is the second most important millet. It is a rainfed kharif crop of dry and warm north-western and western parts of the country. It is a hardy crop which resists frequent dry spells and drought in this region. It is grown in areas of 40-50 cm of annual rainfall. Upper limit is 100 cm. Just like jowar, it is also used as food and fodder in drier parts of the country. Being a rainfed crop, the yield level of this crop fluctuates a lot from year to year. Bajra can be grown on poor light sandy soils, black and red soils. It is sown either as a pure or mixed crop with cotton, jowar and ragi. Production and Distribution Production in 2017-18 (in Million Tonnes) State Area – Million Hectares Production (MT) Yield – tonnes/hectare 1 Rajasthan 4.2 (57.4%) 3.8 (41.1%) 0.9 2 Uttar Pradesh 0.9 (12.5%) 1.8 (19.7%) 1.9 3 Gujarat 0.4 (5.4%) 0.9 (10.1%) 2.3 4 Madhya Pradesh 0.3 (4.2%) 0.8 (8.3%) 2.4 All India 7.4 Mha 9.1 MT 1.2 Ragi  Ragi is mainly grown in drier parts of south India (Mostly drier parts of Karnataka). It requires warm climate and 50-100 cm rainfall. It is raised on a variety of soils. (Red, light black, sandy, well drained alluvial loams). It is a rainfed kharif crop which is sown between May and August and harvested between September and January. Karnataka is the largest producer (73.23 per cent). Uttarakhand and Tamil Nadu are the other major producers. Barley Besides food, it is used for manufacturing beer and whisky. It does not tolerate high heat and high humidity. Grows in areas with rainfall range of 75 cm to 100 cm. It is grown as a rabi crop in the Great Plains and valleys of the western Himalayas. It can be grown up to an altitude of 1,300 meters as in Uttarakhand. Production has declined over time (just like most of the millets). Rajasthan is the largest producer (40 per cent). Uttar Pradesh is the second largest. 1.4 Pulses Pulses include a number of crops which are mostly leguminous. Major pulses that are grown in India are tur (arhar), urad, moong, masur, peas and gram. These are the major source of protein in a vegetarian diet. Being leguminous crops, all these crops except arhar help in restoring soil fertility by fixing nitrogen from the air. Therefore, these are mostly grown in rotation with other crops. India is the largest producer as well as the consumer of pulses in the world. Pulses need less moisture and survive even in dry conditions. Major pulse producing states in India are Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Karnataka. Production in 2017-18 (in Million Tonnes) State Area – Million Hectares Production (MT) 1 Madhya Pradesh 7.5 (24.9%) 8.1 (32.1%) Pulses are mostly grown in the 2 Rajasthan 5.3 (17.8%) 3.4 (13.4%) dry regions of these states where 3 Maharashtra 4.4 (14.5%) 3.3 (13.1%) the cultivation of rice, wheat and 4 Uttar Pradesh 2.3 (7.6%) 2.2 (8.8%) maize is not feasible. 5 Karnataka 3 (10.1%) 1.9 (7.4%) All India 30 Mha 25.2 MT Gram Gram is the most important of all the pulses. It prefers mild cool (20°-25°C) and comparatively dry climate (40-50 cm). It is a rabi crop and is cultivated in subtropical areas. It grows well on loamy soils. It is cultivated as pure or mixed with wheat, barley, linseed or mustard. Mixed cropping helps to check the gram blight to some extent. It is a rainfed crop cultivated during rabi season in central, western and north western parts of the country. Just one or two light showers or irrigations are required to grow this crop successfully. It has been displaced from the cropping pattern by wheat in Haryana, Punjab and northern Rajasthan following the green revolution. The yield of this crop continues to be low and fluctuates from year to year even in irrigated areas. Production Gram like millets has suffered a lot at the hands of wheat. Production in 2017-18 (in Million Tonnes) State Area – Million Hectares Production (MT) Yield – tonnes/hectare 1 Madhya Pradesh 3.6 (34%) 4.6 (40.9%) 1.3 2 Maharashtra 2 (18.9%) 1.8 (15.9%) 0.9 3 Rajasthan 1.6 (14.9%) 1.7 (14.9%) 1.1 4 Karnataka 1.3 (12%) 0.7 (6.4%) 0.6 5 Andhra Pradesh 0.5 (4.9%) 0.6 (5.2%) 1.1 All India 10.6 Mha 11.2 MT 1.1 Tur or arhar (pigeon pea or recri gram) Tur is the second most important pulse. It is chiefly grown as a kharif crop. In areas of mild winters, it is grown as a rabi crop.  It is grown as a dry crop mixed with other kharif crops like jowar, bajra, ragi, maize, cotton, groundnut, etc. and is seldom grown as a single crop. Its conditions of growth are more or less similar to those of other pulses and millets. Production in 2017-18 (in Million Tonnes) State Area – Million Hectares Production (MT) Yield – tonnes/hectare 1 Maharashtra 1.2 (27.7%) 1.1 (25.2%) 0.9 2 Madhya Pradesh 0.7 (14.6%) 0.8 (19.7%) 1.3 3 Karnataka 0.9 (20%) 0.8 (18.1%) 0.9 4 Gujarat 0.3 (6.1%) 0.3 (7.9%) 1.2 5 Uttar Pradesh 0.3 (6.4%) 0.3 (7.8%) 1.2 All-India 4.4 Mha 4.3 MT 1.0 1.5 Major Cash Crops of India Cash crops: crops that are grown for sale in the market. E.g. cotton, jute, sugarcane, tobacco, oilseeds etc. Cash crops are the major contributors to agricultural GDP of India. They occupy only 15 per cent of the cropped area but account for over 40 per cent of the agricultural production by value. 1.5.1 Cotton Cotton is the most important fibre crop. Its seed is used in vanaspati industry and as part of fodder for milch cattle. Cotton is a tropical crop grown in kharif season in semi-arid areas of the country. Conditions for Growth Cotton is chiefly a tropical and sub-tropical crop. It requires uniformly high temperature (21°C to 30°C), light rainfall (50-100 cm) or irrigation, 210 frost-free days and bright sun-shine for its growth. Most of the irrigated area under cotton is in Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat and Rajasthan. High amount of rainfall in beginning (helps in sprouting of seeds) and sunny and dry weather at flowering and ripening time (moist weather during ripening leads to pest attacks) are very useful for a good crop. Soil  Deep black soils (regur-lava soil) of the Deccan Plateau, Malwa Plateau and those of Gujarat are best suited for cotton cultivation. It also grows well in alluvial soils of the Sutlej-Ganga Plain and red and laterite soils of the peninsular region. Cotton quickly exhausts the fertility of soil. Labour Since picking of cotton is not yet mechanized, a lot of cheap and efficient labour is required. Normally the picking season is spread over a period of about three months. Unfavourable factors The growth is retarded below 20 °C. Frost is enemy number one of the cotton plant. It is grown in areas having at least 210 frost free days in a year. Moist weather and heavy rainfall at the time of boll-opening and picking (rains lead to fibre damage) are detrimental to cotton as the plant becomes vulnerable to pests and diseases. Almost 65 per cent of the area under cotton is rainfed with erratic and poorly distributed rains. It is also subjected to severe attack of pests and diseases. Crop season Cotton is a kharif crop which requires 6 to 8 months to mature. Its time of sowing and harvesting differs in different parts of the country. Region Sowing time Harvesting time Note Punjab and Haryana Apr-May Dec-Jan To prevent crop damage due to winter frost Peninsular region up to Oct Jan-May There is no danger of winter frost Tamil Nadu Before the onset of April-May Adequate amount of rainfall for (both as a kharif and retreating monsoon (Oct) sprouting of seeds. as a rabi crop) Jan-Feb in the regions of Aug-Sep TN remains dry during Aug-Sep. So the irrigation picking period is free of rains Most of the crop is grown mixed with other kharif crops (maize, jowar, ragi, sesamum, castor, groundnut etc.). Types of Cotton Three broad types of cotton are generally recognized on the basis of the length, strength and structure of its fiber. India grows both short staple (Indian) cotton as well as long staple (American) cotton called ‘narma’ in north-western parts of the country. Long staple cotton It has the longest fiber whose length varies from 24 to 27 mm. The fiber is fine and lustrous and is used for making superior quality cloth. It fetches the best price. About half of the total cotton produced in India is long staple. It is largely grown in Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh. Medium staple cotton The length of its fiber is between 20 mm and 24 mm. About 44 per cent of the total cotton production in India is of medium staple. Rajasthan, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra are its main producers. Short staple cotton This is inferior cotton with fiber less than 20 mm long. It is used for manufacturing inferior cloth and fetches less price. About 6 per cent of the total production is of short staple cotton. U.P, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana and Punjab are its main producers. Cotton Crop Area India lost a large proportion of cotton growing area to Pakistan during partition. India has the sole distinction of growing all the three cultivated species of cotton. In India, cotton is grown in three distinct agro-ecological zones, viz., 1. Northern (Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan), 2. Central (Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh) and 3. Southern zone (Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka).  India has the largest area under cotton cultivation in the world. But in production it is world's third largest producer after China and the U.S.A. India exports inferior quality cotton mainly to U.K., where it is mixed with superior quality cotton there. India has been a big importer of superior quality long staple cotton mainly from the USA, Russia, Sudan and Kenya. Production in 2017-18 (in Million Tonnes) State Area – Million Hectares Production (MT) Yield – tonnes/hectare 1 Gujarat 2.6 (21.1%) 12.6 (36.2%) 0.8 2 Maharashtra 4.2 (33.9%) 6.6 (18.8%) 0.3 3 Telangana 1.9 (15.3%) 4.8 (13.6%) 0.4 4 Andhra Pradesh 0.6 (5.2%) 2 (5.8%) 0.5 5 Rajasthan 0.6 (4.7%) 1.9 (5.4%) 0.6 All India 12.4 Mha 34.9 MT 0.5 State Factors Gujarat Regur – black cotton soil 80-100 cm annual rainfall Maharashtra Regur – deep black cotton soil suffers from low productivity Andhra Pradesh & Telangana Conditions not as favourable as in Gujarat and Maharashtra Bt Cotton Maharashtra has the largest area under Bt cotton, followed by Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. In North, Punjab and Haryana are known for Bt cotton cultivation. Bt stands for the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (not biotechnology). Bacillus thuringiensis produces a toxin called bt toxin which is detrimental for certain kind of pest (bollworms) that infects cotton crop. This trait of Bacillus thuringiensis is induced into cotton by genetic modification. And the genetically modified cotton that has the ability to produce bt toxin is called as bt cotton. The Bt cotton was first tested in U.S.A. and it to cultivation there in 1995. China (1997) and India (2002) also followed the cultivation of Bt cotton. The initial field trials were encouraging as the crop required less pesticides and insecticides. The production and the area under cotton also increased considerably. But with time yields decreased sharply due to other pest population which could not be controlled by bt cotton. (Bt toxin controls only bollworm. Cotton attracts more than 100 different species of pests). Other concern with Bt cotton is that the bollworm may develop resistance like it happened in China. 1.5.2 Jute Jute is a long, soft, shiny vegetable fibre that can be spun into coarse, strong threads. Jute fibres are composed primarily of the plant materials cellulose and lignin. Jute is also called the golden fibre for its colour and high cash value.  Jute is used for manufacturing gunny bags, ropes, rugs, tarpaulins, etc. There was great demand for jute because of its low price, softness and strength. The introduction of synthetic alternatives has resulted in decline of demand for jute. Jute Crop Jute is the second most important fibre crop of India after cotton. Jute is a rain-fed crop with little need for fertilizer or pesticides. This is in contrast to cotton's heavy fertilizer and pesticides requirements. Ideal Conditions for Jute Cultivation Hot (24 °C to 35 °C) and humid climate (minimum rainfall of 120 cm/year) with 80 per cent relative humidity. Highly fertile alluvial soil (light sandy or clayey soils). Plenty of standing water is required for growth and processing of jute crop. Cropping season Sowing and raising of saplings are carried out in the pre-monsoon season so as to take full advantage of the monsoon season. Jute is generally sown in February and harvested in October (crop takes 8-10 months to mature). The plants are usually harvested (stalks are cut off close to the ground) before flowers turn into seed. Processing of Jute The plants bundles are soaked in water for about 3 weeks for retting. Retting is done to loosen the fibre from the woody stalk. Stripping of the fibres from the stalk is done after retting. Extracted fibres are washed in clean water and dried for 2-3 days. The bailing of jute fibre (jute fibre to jute bundle) is done. Production India lost large jute growing areas to East Pakistan (Bangladesh) during partition. There had been rapid increase in area, production and yield between 1950 to 1980. Negative trends were observed in area, production and yield from 1981 till present.  This is due to changes in weather conditions, increase in rice cropped area and introduction of synthetic alternatives (polythene, nylon, etc.) to jute etc. India is the world's largest producer of jute. Currently India accounts for about 56% of world’s jute production. Bangladesh is second largest with 25% of world’s jute production. Over 99 per cent of the total jute of India is produced in just five states of West Bengal, Bihar, Assam (Brahmaputra & Surma valleys), Andhra Pradesh, and Odisha. West Bengal (close to 75%), Bihar (close to 15%) and Assam are the leading jute producers. Andhra Pradesh (delta area) and Odisha are other important producers. Production in 2017-18 (in Million Tonnes) State Area (Mha) Production (MT) 1 West Bengal 0.5 (71.6%) 1.6 (75.4%) hot and humid climate; alluvial loamy soil 2 Bihar 0.1 (12.2%) 1.5 (14.3%) cheap abundant labour 3 Assam 0.1 (10.8%) 0.8 (8.3%) enough jute mills located in the Hugli basin 4 Andhra Pradesh 0 (0.7%) 0.1 (0.5%) a few jute mills are also located in AP 5 Odisha 0 (0.9%) 0 (0.4%) All India 0.7 Mha 10.1 MT Why is jute crop confined to the flood plains and delta regions of India and Bangladesh? 1. Just like cotton, jute also exhausts the fertility of soil rapidly. It is necessary that the soil is replenished annually by the silt-laden flood water of the rivers. 2. Crop takes 8-10 months to mature and requires plenty of water for growth and processing. 3. Large supply of cheap labour is necessary. Delta regions of the subcontinent have very high population density and most of the population is poor. Jute industry After partition, most of the jute producing areas went to Bangladesh. However, most of the jute mills remained in India. West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh are the two largest jute goods producers. At present, a total of 75 jute mills are functioning in India. 60 of these are located in West Bengal and 7 in Andhra Pradesh.  Though the largest producer, India imports significant quantities of jute fibre from Bangladesh as the local produce is not sufficient to feed the jute mills. India exports jute hessian to Bangladesh. Schemes to support jute industry National Jute Board (Ministry of Textiles) has been implementing schemes for modernization of jute industry. The Incentive Scheme for Acquisition of Plant & Machinery (ISAPM) scheme has been launched in 2013 with an incentive @20% of the cost of machineries to Jute mills. Whenever the market price of raw jute falls below a certain level, the Jute Corporation of India (JCI) procures raw jute at Minimum Support Price (MSP). Jute Packaging Materials Act (JPMA) Jute Packaging Materials Act (JPMA), 1987 makes it compulsory to pack 100 per cent of the food grains and 20 per cent of the sugar in diversified jute (gunny) bags. Sugar industry has been vehemently opposing the JPMA act as sugar as a commodity is unsuitable for packaging in jute bags due to issues like moisture contact and contamination by jute fibres. Cement and fertilisers were initially included in the JPMA but were later excluded due to seepage problems. Bangladesh has no compulsion to pack sugar in jute bags. This makes their sugar industry competitive compared to India. Why make it compulsory? 1. Gunny bags now account for about 63% of raw jute consumption. 2. Jute industry has over 3.7 lakh workers. Replacing jute bags with synthetic bags would mean loss of employment for lakhs of workers and farmers. 3. There is no better alternative to jute crop in severely flood prone regions. 1.5.3 Sugarcane It has the largest value of production among all the commercial crops in India. It is the first choice of the farmers wherever geographical conditions favour its growth. Sugarcane is indigenous to India. It belongs to bamboo family. Thickened sugarcane juice is used to make sugar, gur (jaggery) and khandsari.  Two-thirds of the total sugarcane produced in India is used for making jaggery and khandsari and the rest goes to sugar factories. Molasses, bagasse and pressmud are the byproducts of sugar industry. Molasses provides raw material for manufacturing alcohol (ethanol). It is also an efficient substitute for certain petroleum products. Bagasse (cane residue) is used for manufacturing paper and also as fuel in the mills. Bagasse is more useful if it is used in paper manufacturing rather than as fuel. (it can help to save trees; as fuel, it is very inefficient) Pressmud is used as soil amendment (compost) to increase fertility of the soil. Conditions for Growth Climate Sugarcane is predominantly a tropical crop. Requires hot (21°-27°C) and humid (75-150 cm) climate.  (Sugar beet (tuber crop) is the temperate alternative for sugarcane) It requires 10 to 18 months to mature depending upon the geographical conditions. Too heavy rainfall results in low sugar content & deficiency in rainfall produces fibrous crop. Temperature above 20°C combined with open sky in the second half of the crop season helps in acquiring juice and its thickening.  Short cool dry winter season during ripening and harvesting is ideal. Frost is detrimental to sugarcane. It must be harvested before frost season in northern parts where frost is a common phenomenon. On the other hand, hot dry winds like “Loo” are hostile to sugarcane. (Both frost and loo are absent in South India. So south is ideal) Coastal plains and western side of Western Ghats are generally avoided as the gusty winds (monsoon winds) damage the crop. Soil Sugarcane can tolerate any kind of soil that can retain moisture. Sugarcane exhausts the fertility of the soil. Flat plain or level plateau is an advantage for sugarcane cultivation (facilitates irrigation and transportation of cane to the sugar mills). Labour Cheap abundant labour is a prerequisite for successful cultivation of sugarcane. Sugar Crops Sugarcane and sugar beet. Sugarcane By-products of Sugar Industry Molasses, bagasse and pressmud. Molasses used for alcohol and yeast formation. Bagasse for paper making and fuel. Pressmud used as soil amendment. Trash (green leaf + dry foliage) — the waste is used for cattle feed. Sugar beet Sugar beet is grown in temperate region. It is a tuber crop (Tubers are enlarged structures in some plant species used as storage organs for nutrients - carrot, radish, potato are tuber crops). Sugar is extracted from the tuber juice. Sugar content in sugar beet is quite low compared to that in sugarcane. It is grown in temperate region where it can be economical compared to sugar imports. With reference to the usefulness of the by-products of sugar industry, which of the following statements is/are correct? 1. Bagasse can be used as biomass fuel for the generation of energy. 2. Molasses can be used as one of the feedstocks for the production of synthetic chemical fertilizers. 3. Molasses can be used for the production of ethanol. Select the correct answer using the codes given below. a) 1 only b) 2 and 3 only c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3 Ethanol is alcohol. Answer: c) 1 and 3 only Sugarcane Crop Area Three distinct belts of sugarcane cultivation can be identified in India. 1. Sutlej-Ganga plain from Low yield Punjab to Bihar High summer temperatures ranging from 30° to 35°C leads to low growth and fibrous crop. Loo (dry scorching wind in May and June with a desiccating effect) hampers the normal growth of the cane. In winter months (December and January) the crop is likely to be  damaged by severe cold and frost. Crushing cannot be done in winter. (only 8 month crushing season. Factories remain idle for 4 winter months) 2. Black soil belt from High Productivity Maharashtra to Tamil No winds like ‘loo’ during the summer. Nadu along the eastern Reasonably high temperature during winter. slopes of the Western Frost free climate throughout the year. Ghats (to protect from Yearlong crushing. (factories keep running throughout the year) high speed monsoon winds). 3. Coastal Andhra and the Maritime winds in the coastal areas moderate climate and lead to better Krishna Valley sugar content + all points of (2) Production India has the largest area under sugarcane cultivation in the world. But in production India lags behind Brazil – world's largest producer of sugarcane. Productivity is quite low compared to Columbia, Peru, Indonesia, Egypt, etc. Shortages of fertilizers, improper and untimely us of fertilizers, uncertain weather conditions, inadequate irrigation, poor varieties of cane, small and fragmented holdings and backward methods of cultivation are some of the major causes of low yields in India (This is common for rice and sugarcane). Sugarcane Research Institute, Coimbatore introduced the system of ratooning to reduce the costs of sugarcane cultivation. Ratoon crop is the second or any other successive crop obtained from the roots left over in the field from the first crop. (Prelims point) In this system the sugarcane is cut leaving the root intact in the soil. This is widely practiced in different parts of the country. Advantage of ratooning: Low cost of production, relatively shorter maturation period, low cost inputs and time is saved as there is no need for fresh sowing and growing of roots. However, productivity decreases with each passing year and ratooning becomes uncommercial after one or two years. Production in 2017-18 (in Million Tonnes) State Area – Million Hectares Production (MT) Yield – tonnes/hectare 1 Uttar Pradesh 2.2 (47.2%) 177.1 (47%) 79.3 2 Maharashtra 0.9 (19.1%) 83.1 (22.1%) 92.2 3 Karnataka 0.4 (7.4%) 28.3 (7.5%) 80.8 4 Tamil Nadu 0.2 (3.8%) 16.5 (4.4%) 92.0 5 Bihar 0.2 (5%) 14 (3.7%) 59.2 All India 4.7 Mha 376.9 MT 79.7 Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh and Telangana are the other major producers. South India offers more favourable climatic conditions for the growth of sugarcane, but the most important sugarcane belt lies in north India. What is the reason for this paradoxical situation? Before the World War I, the northern plain area was mainly used for growing indigo. With the introduction of cheap aniline dyes, indigo lost its market by the time of WW I. Consequently, indigo’s place was taken by sugarcane cultivation in the north. Other factors Sugarcane needs good irrigational facilities throughout the year. Such facilities were available in the north due to perennial river systems. On the other hand, south has only non-perennial rivers. Also, irrigational facilities were previously non- existent in most parts of the south. In the southern states, sugarcane had to face tough competition for land from a number of other cash crops such as cotton, tobacco, groundnut, coconut, etc. Do you agree that there is a growing trend of opening new sugar mills in southern states of India? Discuss with justification (5 marks) (100 words) (2013 GS1) More sugarcane cultivation = More sugar mills. Most favourable weather conditions (loo and frost absent). Development of extensive irrigational facilities in the past few decades. Yearlong crushing season. (In north, winter = very cold = There is no Crushing period in winter) High maritime influence = moderate climate = doesn’t reduce sugar content (very high temperature and low rainfall leads to fibrous crop). Uttar Pradesh Vast alluvial plains Large scale use of irrigation and fertilizers Suitable climate (but not as suitable as south Indian climate)  There is no Crushing period in winter. Maharashtra Superior sugar recovery due to year round crushing period. Yields are high compared to that in UP. Karnataka Most of the sugarcane is grown with the help of irrigation. TN High productivity (coastal region). Andhra Pradesh Coastal areas having fertile soil. Bihar, Gujarat (its recovery of 10.31 per cent of sugar is one of the highest among the major sugar cane producing states of India), Haryana, Uttarakhand (mostly hilly and mountainous – not much suitable. However, parts of Haridwar, Nainital and Dehra Dun districts are plain areas or areas located at the foothills), Punjab (wheat took over the sugarcane regions) are other important producers. 1.5.4 Tobacco Tobacco was brought to India by the Portuguese in 1508. Tobacco is mainly used for smoking and also for manufacturing insecticides. Returns from this crop are high. Conditions for Growth Climate Tobacco is a plant of tropical and sub-tropical climates. It can withstand a wide range of temperature varying from 16° to 35°C. As a result, it can be grown in many agro climatic regions of India. Tobacco needs fairly well distributed rainfall with an annual average of about 100 cm. It can be grown from low lying plains up to a height of 1,800 meters. Frost is injurious to its growth. Bright rainless weather is helpful at the curing stage. Soil For tobacco, soil is the most important geographical distribution factor rather than the climate. Well drained friable sandy loams are ideal for cultivation. Soils should be rich in mineral salts (facilitate full development of roots) but not in organic matter. Labour Cheap and abundant labour is required at all stages of its cultivation. Types of Tobacco Mainly two types of tobacco are grown in India. 1. Nicotiana Tobacum 2. Nicotiana Rustica Nicotiana Tobacum Nicotiana Rustica ✓ Tropical climate is ideal ✓ Needs relatively cool climate ✓ Widely grown in many regions of India ✓ Mainly grown in northern and north-eastern parts of the country ✓ Tall and has long broad leaves ✓ Comparatively shorter and has round and puckered (contract into wrinkles) leaves ✓ Good quality ✓ Low quality compared to Nicotiana Tobacum ✓ Used for cigarette, hookah etc. ✓ Used for chewing and snuff ✓ 90 per cent of the total tobacco production in ✓ 10 per cent of the total production India Production India is the third largest tobacco producing country after China and Brazil. India is followed by USA, Malawi, Indonesia and Argentina. Production in 2017-18 (in Million Tonnes) State Area – Thousand Hectares Production Yield – tonnes/hectare (Thousand Tonnes) 1 Gujarat 167 (41.8%) 375 (46.6%) 2.2 2 Andhra Pradesh 78 (19.5%) 177 (22%) 2.3 3 Uttar Pradesh 27 (6.8%) 119 (14.8%) 4.4 4 Karnataka 90 (22.5%) 65 (8.1%) 0.7 5 West Bengal 15.7 (3.9%) 26.7 (3.3%) 1.7 6 Telangana 7 (1.8%) 19 (2.4%) 2.7 All India 399.6 THa 805.5 TT 2.0 Gujarat 90 per cent of Gujarat's tobacco comes from Kheda and Vadodara districts. Andhra Pradesh Yield is higher than the yield of Gujarat and much lower than that of Uttar Pradesh Uttar Pradesh gives the highest yield – more than two times the national average. Trade Brazil and USA are the leading producers and exporters of tobacco. Only 20 per cent of the total production of India is traded externally. Bulk of India's tobacco export consists of unmanufactured tobacco. Russia and U.K. purchase about two-third of our total tobacco exports. About 90 per cent of the tobacco export trade is handled by Chennai alone. 1.6 Oilseed (Cash Crop) Crops in India Major oilseeds include groundnut, linseed, sesamum, castor seed, rapeseed, mustard, sunflower and soyabean. Oil extracted from oilseeds is used in diet and as raw material for manufacturing paints, varnishes, hydrogenated oil, soaps, etc. Oil-cake which is the residue of oilseeds forms an important cattle-feed and manure. India has the largest area (18-20 % of the net sown area) and production of oilseeds in the world. There had been a gradual increase in area, production and yield of oilseeds, with the passage of time. The production of oilseeds has always fallen short of our demand and India has always been a net importer of oilseeds. There is a very little scope for bringing additional area under oilseeds. Increasing productivity is the only way to meet the domestic demand. Drylands of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra & Gujarat are the main producers of major oilseeds accounting for over two-third of the area and three-fourths of the production. Other producers include Andhra Pradesh, UP, Haryana, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu (gives maximum yield in oil seeds) West Bengal, Odisha, Assam, etc. Production in 2017-18 (in Million Tonnes) Major oilseeds producing states Area – Million Hectares Production (MT) 1 Madhya Pradesh 6.6 (27%) 7 (22.2%) 2 Rajasthan 4.1 (16.7%) 6 (19.1%) 3 Gujarat 2.8 (11.2%) 5.9 (18.7%) 4 Maharashtra 4.2 (17.1%) 4.3 (13.6%) 5 Uttar Pradesh 1.1 (4.4%) 1.2 (3.7%) All India 24.7 Mha 31.3 MT  West Bengal, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Telangana are the other major producers of pulses. 1.6.1 Groundnut Groundnut is the most important oilseed of India. It accounts for nearly half of the major oilseeds produced in India. Groundnut kernels are rich in proteins and vitamins and have high calorific value. It contains 40-50% oil which is used as edible oil or hydrogenated vanaspati. The oil is used for manufacturing margarine, med