Chapter 7 The Legacy of Rome: Law and Government PDF

## Chapter 7 The Legacy of Rome: Law and Government ### Introduction >"True law is right reason consonant with nature, diffused among all men, constant, eternal. To make enactments infringing this law, religion forbids, neither may it be repealed even in part, nor have we power through Senate or p...

## Chapter 7 The Legacy of Rome: Law and Government ### Introduction >"True law is right reason consonant with nature, diffused among all men, constant, eternal. To make enactments infringing this law, religion forbids, neither may it be repealed even in part, nor have we power through Senate or people to free ourselves from it." - Cicero - The history of Rome is a history of power. - Romans established hegemony over the entire Italian peninsula and the western Mediterranean. - Patricians and plebeians struggled for greater political power. - The political institutions that it organized jostled for dominance over the others. - Roman power and influence would be felt from Spain in the west to Asia Minor in the east and from Gaul in the north to northern Africa and Egypt in the south. - Romans left an indelible mark in the area of politics and empire-building. ### Geographic Setting - Italy's location at the center of the Mediterranean Sea positioned Rome to be able to reach any part of the Mediterranean whether it be for trade or for conquest. - Rome's location in the Italian peninsula that is at its midpoint contributed to its success in establishing control over the entire peninsula by 275 BCE. - Mountains of Italy are not as rugged as those found in Greece. - This allowed the Romans to achieve unity as a people at a much earlier time than the Greeks ever did, and helped them to move beyond the city-states. ### Early Settlers - The Latins were the first to establish settlements in the Palatine Hill near the Tiber River around 750 BCE. - They were herdsmen and farmers. - The fertile land and the many hills around the area provided them with some degree of security. - The site on which the Latins built their communities became known as Rome. - They began to trade with the Greeks who had settled in the southern tip of the Greek peninsula around 500 BCE. - The Greeks established colonies on the southern tip of Italy as well as in Sicily around 750 BCE to 600 BCE. - The Romans adopted the Greek deities and gave Roman names to the Olympian gods and goddesses. - Greek styles and techniques could also be seen in Roman art and architecture. - The Etruscans were the third group of people that settled in what is now Tuscany in central Italy early in its history. - The practice of foretelling the future known as divination seemed to be at the heart of their belief system. - The Etruscans conquered and ruled over Rome from about 616 BCE to 509 BCE. ### Forum - The marketplace for Rome, center of public meetings. ### Religion of Etruscans - Based on the idea of submission to their gods. - It was important for them to try to understand the will of their gods in order to be able to behave accordingly. Hence, divination became an essential practice. - Numerous divinities that the Etruscans worshipped. - Etruscan tombs provide a wealth of insight into their lives and belief system. - They were built like houses and furnished. - The decoration on the walls provided a glimpse into the daily life of the deceased. - These suggest a belief in an afterlife that required the material wealth acquired in this world for the next. ### Influence By 509 BCE - The Etruscan king was overthrown by the Romans that brought an end to the monarchy. - The Romans established a republic. ### The Republic (509-29 BCE) - In the beginning, Rome was ruled by kings. - Legend has it that prior to the establishment of the republic, seven kings ruled Rome from Romulus to Tarquinius Superbus or Tarquin the Proud. | **King** | **Years** | |---|---| | **Romulus** | 753-715 BCE | | **Numa Pompilius** | 715-672 BCE | | **Tullius Hostilius** | 672-641 BCE | | **Ancus Marcius** | 641-616 BCE | | **Servius Tullius** | 616-578 BCE | | **Lucius Tarquinius Priscus** | 616-578 BCE | | **Tarquinius Superbus** | 578-509 BCE | ### Client System - Roman society operated according to a client system. - similar to the feudal relationship between lord and vassal during the Medieval Ages. - The patron-client relationship was on a personal level wherein the client was obliged to render services to the patron who in turn bestowed certain benefits to the former. - A client supported a highly respected Roman family through military service or support in politics. - The patron in return extended aid to his client by defending him in court if necessary or by representing his interests through the patron's political office. - Loyalty or fides to each other held this system together. ### Roman Ideals - Much like the Greeks, the Romans developed their character as a people by embracing certain virtues that they held in high esteem. - Gravitas which literally means "serious and stern sense of purpose" is said to embody the Roman ideals of strength, discipline, loyalty, practicality, and tenacity. - These were emphasized in the education of the young men of the patrician class. ### Roman Army - The Romans were often referred to as the greatest empire builders of their time. - Behind this feat was the Roman Army. - In the beginning, only the patricians were allowed to bear arms and to defend the state. - Perhaps this was because the members of the Army were expected to provide the weapons and armor that they needed. - This would therefore require some degree of wealth. - Eventually therefore all male citizens of Rome were required to serve in the Army. - The military was organized according to classes of military service based on property. This determined what one could afford in terms of armor and weapons. - The First Class was composed of men who had a property of about 100,000 asses. - The Fifth Class was composed of men who had a property of about 11,000 asses but equipped only with slings and were basically used at "skirmishes." ### Roman Legion - The Roman Army was organized into Legions composed of about 4,000 to 6,000 foot soldiers. - They were divided into cohorts or groups of 500 which in turn were divided into centuries or groups of 100. - They were supported by the cavalry. - Primarily because the Roman Army in its early days was made up of citizen-soldiers similar to the Greeks, they tended to fight for their republic fiercely and loyally. - The Roman Army at that time was far from being a standing army. - Citizens were called to action only when the need arose. - Otherwise they pursued their own occupations be it in the fields or the shops or the government. ### Early Political Institutions - A republic is a government without a king. - The ouster of the last Etruscan king was an outright rejection by the Romans of the rule of a king. - The establishment of a republic in Rome meant that the citizens of Rome would be given the right to vote for their leaders. - In place of a king, the Romans elected two consuls who served for one year. #### Consuls - Having two consuls meant that one could check on the other. - Consuls commanded the Roman Armies and their powers were absolute. - As the highest magistrates in Rome, the consuls did not only enjoy executive powers but also the power to make laws and to pass judgment wielding the fasces that symbolized the power of corporal punishment. - They could also veto any law passed by any assembly. - Once a consul, that person must wait ten years to be elected again. #### Senate - The Senate predated the Roman Republic. - During the time that Rome was ruled by a king, it had 100 members chosen from the original aristocratic families. - Essentially it advised the king. - In the days of the Republic, the Senate evolved into the main governing body of the Republic sharing powers with the consuls. - It would grow to 300 members. - In time, it would become even more powerful than the consuls. - It was responsible for decisions on war and peace, foreign alliances, the establishment of colonies, and perhaps most importantly taking care of the state finances. ### Popular Assemblies - There were two popular assemblies in the Roman Republic namely the Curiate Assembly and the Centuriate Assembly. - The first was the earliest popular assembly in Rome dating back to the times of the rule of the kings. - It was based on the gens or clans. - Each curia was made up of several gens. - The number of curia increased as Rome expanded. - The Curiate Assembly however did not have the power to pass any laws but its approval was needed to declare war or to elect a new king. - In time, the importance of the Curiate Assembly waned and was eventually reduced to being a ceremonial institution. #### Curiate Assembly #### Centuriate Assembly - The Centuriate Assembly, on the other hand, was based on the classes of military service. - It included five classes of military service plus the cavalry and another group made up of musicians and engineers. - The centuries that made up the Centuriate Assembly represented voting units. - It accommodated senior centuries or those who were beyond 45 years old in order to allow them to participate in political decision-making even if they were no longer in active service. - The Centuriate Assembly became more powerful than the Curiate Assembly. - The Centuriate Assembly had the authority to declare war and to appoint the most important magistrates including the consuls. - It also had the power to vote on laws proposed to them by the magistrates although it needed the ratification of the Senate on such laws. ### Plebeians Struggle for Political Rights (509-265 BCE) - Since the period of the kings, the patrician class had always dominated political power in Rome. - During the time that property and wealth were prerequisites to becoming members of the Roman Army by virtue of the requirement to provide weapons and armors for themselves, it effectively disqualified many of the ordinary citizens of Rome. - As numbers increased, they soon outnumbered the patricians. This forced the issue of recognizing the important contribution of the plebeians to the essential responsibility of providing defense and security to Rome. #### Tribunes - One of the first victories of the plebeians in their struggle was the creation of the position of Tribune whose main task was to represent and defend the interests of the plebeians. - Two tribunes were elected just as there were two consuls. **Powers:** - The Tribunes had the power to countermand the decision of the consuls and veto any legislation that they deemed were incongruous to the interests of the plebeians. - They had the right to appeal any case directly to the Senate. - The plebeians were given a voice for the first time. #### Twelve Tables - Another important victory of the plebeians was the Twelve Tables. - The first written code of laws of the Roman Republic. #### Law of Nations - The Law of Nations was the set of laws that applied to both Roman citizens and foreigners alike. #### **Equality before the law** - The Twelve Tables were significant in promoting and strengthening the principle of equality before the law. - By 287 BCE, the plebeians and the patricians had equal legal rights. - In 367 BCE, the consulship was opened to plebeians. - This would have meant the end of patrician monopoly of the Senate. ### Roman Hegemony Over Western Mediterranean #### Conquest of the Italian Peninsula - From the communities that grew in the Palatine Hill, Rome emerged as a dominant force in the Italian peninsula and the Western Mediterranean. - The primary factor that made this possible was the Roman Army. - At first made up of citizen-soldiers commissioned to serve the Republic for a specified period of time, the Roman Army swept through the various tribes surrounding Rome and incorporated them into the Republic. - The Etruscans in central Italy succumbed to the force of the Roman Army. - The Romans engaged the Greeks to the south. - Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, came to the aid of Greeks. - By 275 BCE, the Romans had established an undisputed mastery over the Italian peninsula with the exception of the Po valley in the north. #### Punic Wars (264-146 BCE) - With the Italian peninsula under their control, the Romans were now in a position to challenge the Carthaginian Empire established by the Phoenicians that dominated the Western Mediterranean. - The center of power of Carthage was in what is today Tunisia. - It controlled most of the coasts and islands of western Mediterranean from Tunisia to Morocco, southern Spain, Corsica, Sardinia and western Sicily. - Its wealth was based on the commerce that it conducted in the region supported by a powerful navy and an equally powerful mercenary army. - Its capital was protected by high walls. - To prepare for the war with Carthage Rome built a powerful navy. #### First Punic War (264-241 BCE) - Won by the Romans. - They claimed Sicily as their prize. - Sardinia and Corsica were also taken and made into Roman provinces soon after. #### Second Punic War (218-208 BCE) - Involved the use of a different strategy of war. - Under the command of Hannibal, the Carthaginian army was assembled in Spain and marched overland and crossed the Alps approaching Rome. - Under Hannibal, the Carthaginian army defeated the Romans repeatedly but never succeeded in capturing Rome. - Hannibal had hoped that his victories would encourage rebellion among the subject peoples of Rome but they remained loyal to Rome. #### Third Punic War (149-146 BCE) - Some say, was not necessary. - The Romans burned Carthage to the ground and was said to have sewn salt into the fields as a symbol that never again would Carthage rise. ### Internal Conflict and Civil Wars (133-31 BCE) #### The Gracchi Brothers - Tiberius and Gaius were elected tribunes. - They attempted to address the economic crisis that gripped the Republic at that time and to improve the lives of the poor by redistributing public lands reclaimed from large landowners to the poor. - They were eventually killed in separate riots. #### Slavery - Slavery became an important source of instability in Roman society. - With the victorious conquests of Rome, the number of slaves taken during warfare dramatically increased. - Ownership of slaves became a status symbol in Rome that seemed to have fueled the desire to acquire more slaves. - Slaves were put to work from doing menial tasks to those that required greater skills. #### Spartacus - A slave who was trained to be a gladiator. - He led a revolt against Rome by raising an army of about 70,000 slaves. - Between 73 to 71 BCE, his army defeated the Roman Army nine times before being finally routed by the forces of Crassus. - Spartacus was crucified together with some of his followers to set an example to all those who may challenge Roman power in the future. #### Gaius Marius (157-86 BCE) - A general who became a consul six times. - The first to allow the recruitment of the poor and the landless to the Roman Army. - He introduced the practice of providing a standard pay and benefits to all the members of the Army. - The Roman soldiers became professional soldiers. - For the thousands of poor and jobless citizens of Rome, soldiering became a career option. - Marius is considered the Father of the Roman Army. - He is also credited for having reorganized the Roman Army into the classic Roman Legion. - Government revenues collected through taxes supported the Army with standardized weapons, equipment, training, and wages. - The Roman Army no longer fought for the Republic but for their military leaders. ### The Triumvirate - A group of Roman generals and statesmen who had been rivals, joined together to stem the widespread rebellions and wars that broke out in the Roman Republic. - Crassus, Pompey, and Julius Caesar had banded together to restore order in Rome. - However, the Triumvirate soon dissolved, with Caesar's triumphs in Gaul and the subsequent wars between the members of the Triumvirate . - Caesar, realizing the power that the Roman Army had come to wield, decided to march his legions back to Rome and take the position of Dictator of Rome. ### Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BCE) - A Roman general who was a rival of Marius. - Sulla served as consul, governor, and military leader during the Roman Republic. - A successful general in his own right, Sulla eventually rose to the supreme power in Rome, eliminating all those who opposed him, and seizing the position of Dictator. - Following Sulla's victories in the Social War and in defeating the Pontic king, Mithridates VI of Pontus, Sulla became a powerful figure. - His political career was marked by his political struggles against Marius, a rivalry that had spilled over into civil war. - Sulla is regarded as one of the first dictators to attempt reform of Roman political culture by eliminating the Roman Senate's corruption and the influence of the popular assemblies in that body. ### The Roman Empire (27 BCE - 476 AD) - After the fall of the Roman Republic, the empire was ruled by a series of emperors who attempted to restore the Republic. - Initially, the Roman Empire had many significant successes and developed a thriving economy. - The Roman Empire gradually declined and was eventually divided into two separate empires: the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire (also known as the Byzantine Empire). - The Western Roman Empire eventually fell in 476 AD. #### Key Emperors - **Augustus (27 BCE - 14 AD):** Rome's first emperor, Augustus consolidated his power by reforming the army, establishing a postal system, and expanding the empire. - **Trajan (98 - 117 AD):** Trajan was a popular and successful emperor who expanded the empire into the provinces of Dacia, Mesopotamia, and Armenia. - **Hadrian (117 - 138 AD):** Hadrian was known for his competent administration and for building Hadrian's Wall in Britain. - **Marcus Aurelius (161 - 180 AD):** Marcus Aurelius was a philosopher-king who wrote Meditations, a famous collection of Stoic aphorisms. - **Constantine I (306 - 337 AD):** Constantine I was the first Christian emperor of Rome. He legalized Christianity and called the First Council of Nicaea, which established the core doctrines of Christianity. #### Key Developments - **Pax Romana (Roman Peace):** A period of peace and prosperity that lasted for almost two centuries, from the reign of Augustus to the reign of Marcus Aurelius. - **Roman Law:** The Romans developed a system of law that was based on reason and justice. This system of law was codified in the Twelve Tables, which were the first written laws in Rome. It was further developed by later emperors and codified into a body of law known as the Corpus Juris Civilis, which became the basis for legal systems in Europe. - **Roman Architecture:** The Romans were known for their impressive public works projects. They built aqueducts, roads, bridges, temples, amphitheaters, and baths. - **Roman Religion:** The Romans were polytheistic. They worshipped a variety of gods, including Jupiter, Juno, Mars, Venus, and Mercury. Christianity began to spread throughout the Roman Empire in the 1st century AD. ### Conclusion The legacy of Rome is complex and multifaceted. Rome left behind an indelible mark on the world that extends to this day. - Its political institutions, its system of law, its architecture, and its culture have all influenced the development of Western civilization. - The Roman Empire has left a lasting impact on our world, influencing the development of law, government, architecture, and society. - The Roman Empire's legacy is found in the languages, laws, and cultures of many of the world's nations. - We still learn today about the Roman Empire's achievements in engineering, science, philosophy, literature, art, and governance.