Industrial Psychology: Concepts and History

Industrial psychology is that branch of applied psychology that is concerned with efficient management of an industrial labor force and especially with problems encountered by workers in a mechanized environment. In the past, workers were treated like cogs in a machine—just gears in the grand scheme...

Industrial psychology is that branch of applied psychology that is concerned with efficient management of an industrial labor force and especially with problems encountered by workers in a mechanized environment. In the past, workers were treated like cogs in a machine—just gears in the grand scheme of production. But times have changed, and employers have finally realized that happy workers aren't just productive—they're unstoppable! Sure, a paycheck is nice, but it's not the only fuel in the tank. Imagine the magic when you combine decent working conditions, fair workloads, competitive pay, and leaders who actually know what they're doing. It's like giving your team a double shot of espresso. Get all that right, and your company will be cruising to success faster than a coffee-fueled Monday morning. CONCEPT AND MEANING Industrial psychology is concerned with people's work-related values, attitudes and behaviors, and how these are influenced by the conditions in which they work. The term 'Industrial Psychology' is a combination of two words 'Industrial' and 'Psychology'. - Industrial is that part of social life whose function is to provide civilized man with the material goals that his condition of life demands. Psychology is the science of behavior in relation to the environment. Thus industrial psychology is the systematic study of the behavior of the people at work. - It studies how the social, industrial, economic, political and other factors affect the behavior of the people at work. According to C.S. Myres, ‘The aim of industrial psychology is primarily not to obtain greater production or output but to give the worker greater ease at his work’. According to Thomas W. Harrell, ‘Industrial psychology may be defined as the study of people as individuals and in groups and of the relationship between individual and group’. According to Blum and Naylor is simply the application or extension of psychology facts and principles to the problem concerning human beings operating within the context of business and industry’. According to Tiffin and McCormick, 'Industrial psychology is concerned with the study of human behavior in those aspects of life that are related to production, distribution and use of goods and services of our civilization’. Guion ‘The scientific study of the relationship between man and the world at work: The study of adjustment people make to the place they go, the people they meet and the things they do in the process of making a living’ SIMPLY: Industrial psychology plays an important role in establishing and maintaining a conducive work environment and optimizing human and organizational efficiency. Key benefits include better workplace cooperation, higher levels of job satisfaction, and increased productivity. Known Before as : “economic psychology,” “business psychology,” and “employment psychology” (Koppes & Pickren, ). 1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY A.Systematic study—Industrial psychology is the systematic study of human behavior concerned with collecting the information regarding human behavior at work. What are the different factors which affect the work of an individual either they are personal or related to working conditions. B.Research—Industrial psychology is not concerned with administration;they are the part of the research. - Whatever information gathered from the work should be implemented and the personnel administration is the application of such research. C.Functional/Applied—It is concerned with the application of information about human behavior to the various problems of industrial human life. D.Human engineering—It studies the varied methods of performing manual operations for the better utilization and the least waste of effort through human engineering. 1.4 SCOPES OF INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY A.Scientific selection of workers’—Industrial psychology offers a whole arrangement of tests such as systematic depth interviews and psychological tests of intelligence, aptitude, skills, abilities and interest the personnel characteristic etc. - By these tests candidates are measured and properly selected and placed on the job. B.Proper division of work—One of the scopes of industrial psychology is the work should be properly divided according to the abilities, skills and aptitude of the workers so they may feel comfortable and satisfied. - It may also lead to higher production. C. Minimizing the wastage of human efforts—Industrial psychology tries to minimize the wastage of human power. It studies psychological factors causing fatigue or accident and give feasible suggestions to prevent them. - The techniques of motivation and morale are used for this purpose D.Promoting labor welfare—It promotes the welfare of the labor by introducing an adequate working environment through which job satisfaction, work efficiency increases and also states the provisions of higher incentives. E.Enhancement of human relations—Human relations are the relation among individuals in an organization and the group behavior that emerges from their relations. - Most of the problems that arise in the industries are connected to human relations. - If workers' feel at ease with the surroundings then automatically they get motivated and productivity will be higher. - Industrial psychology has made significant contributions in framing the techniques of leadership, worker participation, communication etc. F. Developing industrial relations—Industrial psychology studies the attitude of the employer and employees. Individuals differ from each other in their thoughts, thinking, behavior and other parameters. - Therefore, different measures may be adopted in solving the problem relating to each individual like transfers, promotions, grievances etc. - This helps in developing industrial relationships among workers' and management. G.Increase production—It helps in attaining the major objective of the organization to get the best output from the existing resources. - The production is automatically increased if proper selection is made, the work will be properly distributed, accident prevention and safety measures suggested. - This will improve and promote individual as well as industrial relations. Like it or not, you and I will spend a big part of our waking lives working. Not only does work take up a large chunk of the day, it also often governs where we live, how we live, and the kinds of people with whom we associate. And it only makes sense, then, that we should want to learn more about the world of work and our own work behavior. Don’t you agree? Here’s another thought , have you ever wondered what motivates people to work, what makes someone a good manager or leader, or why some people are competent, loyal workers, whereas others are untrustworthy and unreliable? Have you ever even considered that particular job might be redesigned to make it more efficient or the processes by which large organizations make decisions? Have you noticed that work can sometimes be very engaging and a great source of satisfaction, but it can also be terribly stressful at times? THE ROOTS AND EARLY HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY To understand the impact that Industrial psychology has had on the world of work, it is important to know a little bit about the history of the field. We will examine historical periods in Industrial psychology’s past and focus on a significant event or important phenomenon in each time period. We will later look at the present and future of Industrial psychology. THE BEGINNINGS Around the turn of the 20th century, when the field of psychology was still in its infancy, a few early psychologists dabbled in the study of work behavior. 1900’s Walter Dill Scott - 1903 Another experimental psychologist who pioneered the field of industrial psychology published Theory of Advertising ( Sales persons and Psychology of Advertising ) 1911- Increasing Human Efficiency in Business - Scott went on to become the first professor in this new field and started a consulting company to practice what was being learned from research. Hugo Munsterberg was an experimental psychologist who became interested in the design of work and personnel selection for jobs such as streetcar operator (Munsterberg, 1913). 1913- Psychology and Industrial Efficiency Frederick W. Taylor and The Scientific Management Frederick Winslow Taylor was one of the earliest theorists in the field of management. He initiated the Scientific Management movement and, along with his associates, was among the first to study the work process scientifically. They analyzed how work was performed and examined its impact on worker productivity. Taylor's philosophy emphasized that optimizing the work process was more efficient than merely pushing people to work as hard as possible. Taylor believed that scientific principles could be applied to the study of work behavior to help increase worker efficiency and productivity. ➔ He felt that there was “one best method” for performing a particular job. ➔ By breaking the job down scientifically into movements and recording the time needed to perform each movement ➔ He believed that he could develop the fastest, most efficient way of performing any task. ➔ He incorporated into his system of scientific management other considerations, such as selection of workers based on abilities and the use of proper tools (Taylor, 1911). In 1909, Taylor published "The Principles of Scientific Management," proposing that optimizing and simplifying jobs would boost productivity. He also emphasized the need for cooperation between workers and managers, which contrasted sharply with the existing practices where factory managers had minimal contact with workers, leaving them to produce products independently. During this time there was no standardization, and workers were primarily motivated by the desire to keep their jobs, offering little incentive for working efficiently or quickly. Taylor believed that monetary motivation was key for all workers, advocating the concept of "a fair day's pay for a fair day's work." This meant that less productive workers shouldn't be paid as much as their more productive counterparts. With his background in mechanical engineering, Taylor was deeply interested in efficiency. While progressing in his career at a U.S. steel manufacturer, he conducted workplace experiments to find optimal performance levels. One such experiment involved refining shovel design to allow workers to shovel continuously for several hours. He also studied bricklaying motions and developed a more efficient method. Applying the scientific method, Taylor sought to identify the best way to perform any workplace task by calculating the time required for each task element. He then concluded that hiring the right people for the job was crucial for maximizing workplace efficiency. From his experiments, Taylor formulated four principles of scientific management, collectively known as "Taylorism." SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT began by Frederick Taylor, a method of using scientific principles to improve the efficiency and productivity of jobs. Four Principles of Scientific Management Taylor's four principles are as follows: 1. Replace working by "rule of thumb," or simple habit and common sense, and instead use the scientific method to study work and determine the most efficient way to perform specific tasks. 2. Rather than simply assign workers to just any job, match workers to their jobs based on capability and motivation, and train them to work at maximum efficiency. 3. Monitor worker performance, and provide instructions and supervision to ensure that they're using the most efficient ways of working. 4. Allocate the work between managers and workers so that the managers spend their time planning and training, allowing the workers to perform their tasks efficiently. * Though refined over the years, these same ideas are still considered valuable today The principles of Taylor's Scientific Management Theory became widely adopted, and the collaboration between workers and managers it promoted eventually evolved into the teamwork practices we have today. Although pure Taylorism is not commonly used now, scientific management made several important contributions to management practices. It introduced systematic methods for selecting and training employees, provided a framework for studying workplace efficiency, and encouraged systematic organizational design. Online Source: https://www.mindtools.com/anx8725/frederick-taylor-and-scientific-management Engineer Lillian Gilbreth added efficiency and humanity to the workplace Coffee breaks, ergonomics, and other business mainstays exist due to Lillian Gilbreth, a pioneer who shaped the field of workplace efficiency. Let’s show our gratitude for these innovations. The husband and wife team prioritized regulation and consistency in the workplace. - They placed efficiency above all else, favoring a streamlined approach over a system with many moving parts. The couple believed that there is a single best way to accomplish any task, and that this process should be standardized throughout the manufacturing process. Their goal was to eliminate unnecessary steps and achieve the most efficient outcomes. Frank and Lillian Gilbreth - husband-and-wife team - Improve productivity and reduce fatigue by studying motions used by workers and implementing the principles of scientific management and revolutionized several physical labor jobs by making the accepted work procedures more efficient and productive (Gilbreth, 1916). ➔ Motion study by the Gilbreths focused on improving work methods by analyzing movements ➔ They expanded on scientific management, addressing the major flaw in Taylorism, which critics said ignored the human element and focused solely on profits. ➔ They considered factors like health, skills, habits, temperament, and nutrition to increase efficiency and examined worker fatigue and suggested solutions such as rest-recovery periods, chairs, and workbenches. Their work marked one of the first times process improvement and management were treated as a scientific problem. Frank, a bricklayer, noticed that each worker had a unique method for laying bricks and by studying these individual techniques, he identified the most efficient way to complete the task. - He believed that increased efficiency would benefit both employers and workers—employers would see higher productivity, while workers would experience less stress and fatigue. His insights led to a new bricklaying method that more than doubled daily output. Another of Frank's studies contributed to the creation of the surgical assistant role in modern operating rooms. Instead of the surgeon having to locate each needed instrument, a nurse would stand by and hand the appropriate tool to the surgeon. therbligs,” a term derived by reversing the sounds in their last name, to describe the fundamental motions required for workplace tasks. Frank and Lillian introduced the concept of “therbligs,” a term derived by reversing the sounds in their last name, to describe the fundamental motions required for workplace tasks. - These 18 units were used to analyze how tasks were carried out— such as : ➔ searching for an object with the eyes or hands ➔ grasping an object with the hands, ➔ assembling and disassembling parts, and so on. They would then determine which motions were essential and eliminate any that were unnecessary to enhance efficiency. Interesting Fact: The book "Cheaper by the Dozen" was written by Frank and Lillian's children Frank Jr. and Ernestine. There were 12 children in the family, and the book (and subsequent movies) highlighted the efficiencies that were introduced into their household as a result of their parents' methods. They also invented a microchronometer, a clock capable of recording time to the 1/2000th of a second, to study work motion. By placing this clock within the field of a picture, they could break movements down into extremely small time units. The Gilbreths' contributions to workplace efficiency extended beyond increasing output. - They were also concerned with reducing worker fatigue. From an industrial psychology perspective, they developed ideas on optimal ways to train and develop workers. - Techniques such as job rotation and identifying work that best matched a worker's natural skills and abilities emerged from the Gilbreths' extensive experiments. Online Source : MindTools | Home. (n.d.-c). https://www.mindtools.com/afg3mtv/frank-and-lillian-gilbreth Peek, S. (2023, February 21). The Management Theory of Frank and Lillian Gilbreth. business.com. ttps://www.business.com/articles/management-theory-of-frank-and-lillian-gilbreth/ The Gilbreths introduced a technical language to analyze labor processes within a scientific framework. They utilized scientific principles to develop a method for studying work motions, which included filming workers' activities while simultaneously recording the time. The films had two primary functions. they provided a visual record of how work was performed, highlighting areas for improvement. they were used to train workers in the most efficient ways to complete their tasks. This approach enabled the Gilbreths to refine and standardize best practices by building on the most effective aspects of these workflows. “The goal of motion studies is to reduce all types of waste. “ Online Source : Gilbreth Motion Studies. (2012, July 11). Trade Practices. https://tradepractices.wordpress.com/2012/06/18/gilbreth-motion-studies/ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dVKTX_Sbwzw&t=27s https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cJMvzH0uvPA&t=133s TIME AND MOTION TOGETHER: This approach has been successfully implemented in various fields, including factories, hospitals, department stores, housework, banks, cafeterias, libraries, and music. Example : Factories use it to minimize wasted time and enhance task completion Banks leverage it to help team members meet sales targets. However, the objective of a time and motion study extends beyond mere efficiency. These studies establish a baseline for assessing future changes in procedures, equipment, or personnel. They aim to comprehend the skills required for tasks and offer suitable training. Additionally, a goal might be to reduce discomfort during surgical procedures, even if it results in less efficiency.. Other Prominent Psychologist During its early years, industrial psychology thrived beyond the United States. Notable psychologists who applied their expertise to industry-related problems included Jules Suter in Switzerland, Bernard Muscio in Australia, Franziska Baumgarten-Tramer, Walter Moede, William Stern, Otto Lipmann, and Emil Kraepelin in Germany, Jean Marie Lahy in France, Edward Webster in Canada, and Cyril Burt, Charles Myers, and Sir Frederick Bartlett in Great Britain (Vinchur & Koppes, 2007; Warr, 2007). WORLD WAR I AND THE 1920’s At the outbreak of World War I, Robert Yerkes, who was president of the American Psychological Association, and a group of psychologists worked with the U.S. Army to create intelligence tests for the placement of Army recruits. The ARMY ALPHA AND BETA TESTS (the Alpha test was used for those who could read; the Beta test for non-literate recruits) represented the first mass testing efforts and set the stage for future testing efforts. Even today, employee testing and selection is an important area of Industrial Psychology A. Following World War I, psychologists began to be involved in the screening and placement of personnel in industry. - Throughout the 1920s, while the U.S. was experiencing tremendous industrial growth, industrial psychology began to take hold: - The first doctoral degree in industrial psychology was awarded in 1921, and psychologists worked directly with industries as consultants and researchers (Katzell & Austin, 1992). B. It was also in the 1920s that the first psychological consulting organizations began. Walter Dill Scott opened a short-lived personnel consulting firm in 1919, and the Psychological Corporation was founded by James McKeen Cattell in 1921 (Vinchur & Koppes, 2011). ➔ Today, consulting organizations offer their services to business and industry. ➔ In fact, the difficult economic times in the early part of the 21st century led to organizational downsizing, and many larger organizations that employed I/O psychologists in house eliminated those positions and now outsource their work to consulting firms. ➔ As a result, consulting firms are thriving and are a major place of employment for I/O psychologists. THE GREAT DEPRESSION YEARS AND WORLD WAR II As the U.S. economy slumped during the 1930s, there was less opportunity for industrial psychologists to work with industries and businesses. - Although industrial psychology continued to grow at a slower pace, an important development came out of this period from a group of Harvard psychologists who were conducting a series of experiments Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company in the Chicago area Hawthorne studies were published, psychologists became more involved in the quality of the work environment, as well as the attitudes of employees. The Hawthorne studies, conducted at the, demonstrated that employee behavior was complex and that the interpersonal interactions between managers and employees played a tremendous role in employee behavior. The Hawthorne studies were initially designed to investigate such issues as the effects of lighting levels, work schedules, wages, temperature, and rest breaks on employee performance. Much to the surprise of the researchers, the actual work conditions did not affect productivity in the predicted manner. That is, there were times when productivity improved after work conditions were made worse, and times when productivity decreased after work conditions were made better. After interviewing employees and studying the matter further, the researchers realized that employees changed their behavior and became more productive because they were being studied and received attention from their managers, a condition that is now commonly referred to as the Hawthorne effect. *Perhaps the major contribution of the Hawthorne studies was that it inspired psychologists to increase their focus on human relations in the workplace and to explore the effects of employee attitudes (Olson, Verley, Santos, & Salas,2004) Researcher Elton Mayo and his colleagues wanted to study the effects of the physical work environment on worker productivity. ➔ In the most famous of the experiments, Mayo explored the effects of lighting on worker productivity. ➔ Focusing on a group of women who were assembling electrical relay-switching devices, he systematically varied the level of illumination in the room. ➔ He expected to be able to determine the optimal level of lighting for performing the task. However, the results were surprising and dramatically changed psychologists’ views of the worker from then on. ➔ No matter what level the lighting was set at, productivity increased! ➔ When lighting was increased, worker output went up. ➔ Further increase to very bright illumination resulted in further improvement. ➔ Turning the lights down (even to such low levels that it appeared that the women were working in moonlight) also led to increases in productivity. ➔ There was a steady increase in workers’ output following any change in lighting. In other studies, Mayo systematically varied the length and timing of work breaks. - Longer breaks, shorter breaks, and more or fewer breaks all resulted in a steady increase in worker output (Mayo, 1933). Mayo knew that every change in the work environment could not possibly be causing the steady rises in worker productivity. Something else had to be affecting output. Upon closer examination, he concluded that the workers were being affected not by the changes in the physical environment but by the simple fact that they knew they were being observed. According to Mayo, these workers believed that the studies were being conducted in an effort to improve work procedures, and their positive expectations, coupled with their knowledge of the observations, seemed to Mayo to determine their consistent increases in productivity, a phenomenon that has been labeled the Hawthorne effect. Although in the first example discovered by Mayo the “Hawthorne effect” was positive, resulting in increased productivity, this was not always the case. - In another of his studies, work group productivity fell following the introduction of changes in the work environment. Because these workers believed that the results of the studies would lead to more demanding production quotas, they restricted output whenever they were being observed, thus producing a “negative” Hawthorne effect (Roethlisberger & Dickson, 1939). Hawthorne Effect changes in behavior occurring as a function of participants’ knowledge that they are being observed and their expectations concerning their role as research participants Although researchers have noted a number of serious flaws in the methods Mayo used to conduct the Hawthorne experiments, the general conclusions reached by Mayo and his colleagues resulted in the development of the human relations movement, which recognized the importance of social factors and something called “worker morale” in influencing work productivity. In fact, this movement stated that a harmonious work environment, with good interpersonal relationships among coworkers, should be a productive work environment, particularly when the work itself is boring or monotonous. According to Mayo,workers in repetitive or low-level positions—jobs that do not themselves provide satisfaction—will turn to the social environment of the work setting for motivation. THE EXPERIMENT: In 1927, researchers were trying to determine the optimal amount of lighting, temperature, and humidity for assembling electronic components at Western Electric's Hawthorne plant. The results showed that lighting had no consistent effect on production. Researchers were frustrated to discover that increasing light increased output, but reducing light also increased output. The common factor, it seemed, was that something in the work environment was changed, and that positive effects were then observed. After thoroughly examining the results, Elton Mayo and his fellow researchers determined that workers weren't responding to the change in lighting conditions, but instead were reacting to the fact that they were being observed by the experimenters. This phenomenon became known as the Hawthorne effect; the workers' awareness that researchers were measuring their productivity was sufficient to increase productivity. HUMAN RELATIONS MOVEMENT a movement based on the studies of Elton Mayo that emphasizes the importance of social factors in influencing work performance WORLD WAR II First, the tremendous need for state-of-the-art machinery, and the increasing complexity of that machinery, was an important impetus for human factors psychology and for training soldiers to operate the equipment. Second, to improve selection and placement of military personnel, continuing the work that psychologists had begun during World War I. The Army General Classification Test, a group-administered, pencil-and-paper test, was developed to separate recruits into categories based on their abilities to learn military duties and responsibilities. - Screening tests were also created to select candidates for officer training. - In addition, psychologists helped the U.S. Office of Strategic Services (OSS)—the forerunner of today’s CIA—develop intensive assessment strategies for selecting candidates for dangerous espionage positions. - Some of these techniques included “hands-on” situational tests in which candidates had to perform some tasks under difficult and near-impossible conditions. *The aim was to assess their ability to deal with stressful and frustrating circumstances, which is very important for soldiers involved in military espionage. THE POSTWAR YEARS AND THE MODERN ERA It was after World War II that industrial psychology truly began to blossom and specialty areas began to emerge. A distinct focus on personnel issues, such as testing, selection, and the evaluation of employees, was helped in part by the publication of a new journal, Personnel Psychology, in 1948. During the Cold War years of the 1950s and 1960s, the growth of the defense industry further spurred the development of a specialty area called engineering psychology (today referred to as human factors psychology, or ergonomics;this has become a separate discipline. - Engineering psychologists were called in to help design control systems that were both sensible and easy to operate. - In addition, the contributions of sociologists and social psychologists who began studying and performing extensive research in work organizations helped create a subspecialty area of organizational psychology. The 1960s through the early 1990s was a time when research and practice in I/O psychology flourished topics such as motivation and goal setting, job attitudes, organizational stress, group processes, organizational power and politics, and organizational development. 1960’s CIVIL RIGHTS LEGISLATION. - One portion of the sweeping Civil Rights Act of 1964, Title VII, banned discrimination in employment practices. - Designed to protect underrepresented groups such as ethnic minorities from being unfairly discriminated against in work-related decisions, this legislation forced organizations to take a closer look at the ways people were selected for jobs - Particular attention was given to the fairness of employment selection tests and personnel decisions such as promotions, compensation, and firings. - Subsequent civil rights legislation protected other groups from discrimination, including older people (Age Discrimination in Employment Act, 1967 and 1978) and people with disabilities (Americans with Disabilities Act, 1990). * As a result, to establish and implement fair employment standards. TODAY AND IN THE FUTURE It is one of the fastest-growing areas of psychology. forefront of those professionals who are satisfying the huge demand for information leading to greater understanding of the worker, the work environment, and work behavior. They are involved in nearly every aspect of business and industry, and as we will see, the range of topics they research and the varieties of tasks they perform are extensive. First Trend: The Changing Nature of Work Jobs and organizations are rapidly changing and evolving. Organizations are becoming flatter, with fewer levels in the hierarchy, and they are being broken up into smaller subunits with greater emphasis on work teams. ➔ With telecommuting, advanced communication systems, and sophisticated networking, people can work in almost any location, with team members who are quite remote. ➔ helping workers adapt to technological and structural changes (Craiger, 1997; Huber, 2011). ➔ assist organizations in redesigning jobs for greater efficiency; in creating new and more flexible organizational structures and work teams; and in helping workers become more engaged, motivated, and better able to deal with stresses that result from all the changes. ➔ Many jobs are becoming increasingly complex due to technological advancements, and they are more demanding, requiring workers to process more and more information and to make more decisions (Ones & Viswesvaran, 1998a). In addition, organizations worldwide are reducing their workforces. ORGANIZATIONAL DOWNSIZING is a strategy of reducing an organization’s workforce to improve organizational efficiency,productivity, and/or competitiveness (Mentzer, 2005; Molinsky & Margolis, 2006). Organizations are downsizing because of technological advancements such as robotic and computer-assisted manufacturing that eliminate workers’ jobs, because of increased efficiency in jobs and the elimination of overlapping worker functions, and because of a general reduction in middle-level managers (De Meuse, Marks, & Dai, 2011; Murphy, 1998). In addition, economic downturns, such as the economic meltdown in 2007–2008, tend to increase the number of laid-off workers. Moreover, catastrophic events can affect certain industries, such as the September 11, 2001, terrorist hijackings and airliner crashes that caused the immediate downsizing of nearly all U.S. commercial airlines. Downsizing requires organizations to “do more with less” to survive—including the fact that fewer workers are doing more work (Cascio & Wynn, 2004; DeWitt, 1993). - This trend toward “leaner”workforces has negative consequences for workers, who are required to do more, and can create a sense of job insecurity. ORGANIZATIONAL DOWNSIZING a strategy of reducing an organization’s workforce to improve organizational efficiency and/or competitiveness. Research evidence shows that some of the changes in the nature of work, such as telecommuting, increased mobility of U.S. workers, and organizational downsizing, have led to decreased levels of worker loyalty and commitment to organizations (e.g., Allen, Freeman, Russell, Reizenstein, & Rentz, 2001). - Increasing worker engagement and reducing employee turnover OUTSOURCING OF WORK contracting with an external organization to accomplish tasks that were previously done, or could be done, within the organization (Davis-Blake & Broschak, 2009; Gerbi et al., 2015). Outsourcing is used to increase output and can reduce overhead costs associated with the personnel needed to do the tasks in house. - involved in helping to understand the effects that the increased use of outsourcing is having on variables such as the way jobs are conducted, group processes,structure and design of organizations, employee commitment, motivation, and other factors. - Outsourcing contracting with an external organization to accomplish work tasks SECOND TREND: EXPANDING FOCUS ON HUMAN RESOURCES The increasing concern with the management and maintenance of an organization’s human resources that began with Mayo and the human relations movement continues to be important. - Organizations have become more and more concerned about and responsive to the needs of workers. - organizations are realizing that skilled and creative workers are the keys to success. The term “TALENT MANAGEMENT” is a frequent buzzword heard in organizations—important because it reflects the emphasis on the value of the worker and the need to select, care for, and develop workers’ talents (Sparrow & Makram, 2015). This will become even more important in the future (Cascio & Aguinis, 2008; Losey, Ulrich, & Meisinger, 2005). - The technological age of the past few decades has seen a tight labor market for truly skilled workers, particularly in high-tech industries. * This means that organizations will have to compete ferociously to attract and keep the best workers (Cascio, 2014; Goldsmith & Carter, 2010). - Greater emphasis will need to be given to such areas as employee recruitment and selection procedures. *Companies will also have to offer more enticing benefit programs to attract and retain the best workers—including “family-friendly” policies such as employer sponsored child-care and extended family leaves (Grandey, 2001; Halpern & Murphy, 2005) AGING WORKFORCE In addition,continuing advancements in work technology and the ever-increasing body of knowledge needed by workers to perform their jobs mean that older workers will be retrained often to remain contributing members of the work-force. - In addition, the U.S. and much of Europe are facing an increasingly aging workforce and relatively fewer young people entering the workforce (Hedge, Borman, & Lammlein, 2006). - All of this suggests the need for greater focus on personnel issues, such as recruiting, screening, and testing potential workers, and on employee training, development, and compensation programs, all of which are specialties of I/O psychologists. THIRD TREND: INCREASING DIVERSITY AND GLOBALIZATION OF THE WORKFORCE Immigration, the increase in global organizations, and the increasing number of women entering the organizational workforce has led to greater and greater workplace diversity. This diversity will only increase in the future. - Women and ethnic minorities—who have been targets of employment discrimination—now make up the majority of the U.S. workforce, and there are similar trends worldwide. - Moreover, the diversity of cultures in workplaces will also increase as workers become more internationally mobile. For example, in one Washington, DC hotel, workers speak 36 languages, are 65% foreign born, and serve an even more diverse clientele (Offermann & Phan, 2002). - Workforces will continue to consist of members from a greater number and variety of cultures. In addition, it has been suggested that there are many different layers or levels examining cultures and cultural differences (Erez & Gati, 2004). Although increased diversity presents challenges to organizations and managers, this increased workforce diversity also represents a tremendous strength and opportunity. ADVANTAGES : ➔ An opportunity for different viewpoints and perspectives that will lead to organizational creativity and innovation (Jackson & Joshi, 2011). ➔ help an organization in understanding and reaching new markets for products or services. ➔ An organization’s commitment to diversity can also help in recruiting and retaining the best workers. For instance, cutting-edge companies that value workforce diversity not only attract the most qualified workers, but also the valuing of diversity permeates the entire organizational culture, leading to reduced organizational conflict, greater cooperation among workers,and increased flexibility and innovation (Cascio, 2009; Jackson, 1994; Loden & Rosener, 1991). *Although diversity has benefits, demographic and cultural differences can, if not carefully managed, create great difficulties in the functioning of work teams—increasing destructive conflict, inhibiting team cooperation, and impeding performance (van Knippenberg, DeDreu, & Homan, 2004; Williams & O’Reilly, 1998). *The key to dealing successfully with diversity will involve getting beyond the “surface” issues that divide people and getting at the“deeper” benefits that diversity brings (Cascio, 2009; Härtel, 1998). In the past several decades, there has been a rapid, continuing shift toward a more global economy. ➔ Businesses and industries worldwide are focusing more and more on the global marketplace (Erez, 2011). ➔ Companies that were formerly concerned only with domestic markets and competition must now consider the international picture. ➔ As more and more organizations go international, there is an increasing need for workers to be trained for working in or with organizations located in other countries (Stroh, Black, Mendenhall, & Gregersen, 2005). * The successful executive or manager of the future must be globally aware, knowledgeable and respectful of other cultures, and capable of working with people from a wide variety of backgrounds (Teagarden, 2007). FOURTH TREND: INCREASING RELEVANCE IN POLICY AND PRACTICE Cascio and Aguinis (2008) suggest a number of workplace and social issues and questions that should be addressed These include: ➔ Selecting and developing better organizational leaders—including leaders who are ethical and socially responsible. ➔ Improving the lot of workers through fair compensation, flexible work policies (including work–family issues), and reducing discrimination in the workplace. ➔ Leveraging workforce diversity and globalization in optimal ways. ➔ Improving performance through optimal management and development of talent. ➔ Helping organizations (and the people in them) to embrace positive change and be more innovative What is a Job? - A job is a formal arrangement where individuals exchange their time, skills, and expertise for compensation, typically monetary, provided by an employer or client.  - A job entails fulfilling specific tasks or responsibilities within a designated role or position, often within a structured organization or industry. Jobs serve as a means for individuals to earn a livelihood, support themselves and their families, and fulfill personal and professional aspirations. - They can range from manual labor to highly specialized professions, offering opportunities for career advancement, skill development, and personal growth. A "job" is a specific activity undertaken to earn a living, synonymous with "profession" or "occupation." In contrast, "work" encompasses any activity, whether mental or physical. While all jobs are considered work, not all work qualifies as a job. Before a worker can be hired or trained and before a worker’s performance can be evaluated, it is critical to understand exactly what the worker’s job entails. Such analyses should also be conducted on a periodic basis to ensure that the information on jobs is up to date. - In other words, it needs to reflect the work actually being performed. JOB ANALYSIS : CONCEPT AND MEANING Job Analysis the systematic study of the tasks, duties, and responsibilities of a job and the qualities needed to perform it. - It is a systematic analysis of each job for the purpose of collecting information as to what the job holder does, under what circumstances it is performed and what qualifications are required for doing the job. - Is the primary tool in personnel management. - Is a formal and detailed examination of job. - is the process of gathering and organizing detailed information about various jobs within the organization so that managers can better understand the process through which they are performed most effectively. * A personnel manager has to undertake job analysis so as to put right man on right job. Understanding a job fully is challenging due to the variety of tasks and duties involved. Job analysis methods must be comprehensive and precise, especially in large organizations where specialists are responsible for creating detailed job descriptions. As jobs become more complex, requiring diverse skills and knowledge, effective job analysis is crucial. However, job analysis should not be restrictive; it should allow for flexibility and creativity in how work is performed rather than prescribing rigid methods. In addition to understanding how jobs are performed, a work analysis can focus on work methods and procedures in order to discover faster, better, and/or more efficient ways of performing jobs (Wilson, 2012). Recently, organizations are moving away from rigid job definitions and focusing more on understanding how work is performed. Accurate definitions are still crucial to match the right person to the right role, helping both employers and employees clearly understand expectations and deliverables. A job analysis should focus on the following aspects to bring out all the critical facts and details about a job. Duties and tasks: The type, frequency, and complexity of performing specific duties and tasks. Environment: Work environment, such as temperatures, odors, and hostile people. Tools and equipment: Tools and equipment used to perform the job successfully. Relationships: Relationships with internal and external people. Requirements: Knowledge, skills, and capabilities required to perform the job successfully. PURPOSE OF JOB ANALYSIS A thorough job analysis is crucial for HR activities as it provides essential details about employee tasks, work conditions, and required competencies. This information is key for creating job descriptions, selecting employees,  evaluating performance, and designing training programs. A.Writing Job Descriptions A job description, typically a two- to five-page summary, is a written product of a job analysis. While the job analysis identifies work activities and requirements, the job description documents these findings. Both job analysis and job descriptions are fundamental for HR activities such as employee selection, evaluation, training, and work design. B.Employee Selection A clear understanding of job tasks and required competencies is essential for selecting employees effectively. By identifying these requirements, appropriate tests and interview questions can be developed to assess applicants' knowledge, skills, and abilities. Despite this logical approach, many employee selections are influenced by non-job-related factors, such as height requirements for police officers, firm handshakes, and physical attractiveness for flight attendants. C. Training Effective employee training relies on knowing job requirements. Job analyses provide detailed lists of job activities that can be systematically used to develop training programs. D. Personpower Planning An important but rarely used application of job analysis is determining worker mobility within an organization. Organizations often promote the best performer in the job immediately below the one in question, which can lead to the Peter Principle: employees being promoted to their level of incompetence. E. Performance Appraisal Another crucial use of job analysis is in developing performance appraisal instruments. Like employee selection, performance evaluations must be job-related. Often, employees are assessed using vague criteria such as “dependability,” “knowledge,” and “initiative.” Specific, job-related categories, however, result in more accurate performance appraisals that are better received by employees and the courts (Werner & Bolino). Additionally, when properly implemented, job-related performance appraisals can be valuable for employee training and counseling. F. Job Classification - Job analysis allows human resources professionals to classify jobs into groups based on similar requirements and duties. This classification is useful for determining pay levels, transfers, and promotions. G. Job Evaluation - Job analysis information can also be used to determine the worth of a job. H.Job Design - Job analysis information can identify the optimal methods for performing a job. 3 NO PART OF THIS LEARNING MATERIAL WILL BE REPRODUCED , STRICTLY FOR REFERENCE ONLY. I. Compliance with Legal Guidelines Any employment decision must be based on job-related information. Job analysis is a legally acceptable method to directly determine job relatedness. While no law specifically requires job analysis, several important guidelines and court cases effectively mandate it. J. Organizational Analysis During job analysis, analysts often uncover organizational issues. STAGES IN THE JOB ANALYSIS PROCESS 1. PLANNING THE JOB ANALYSIS Planning the job analysis process is crucial before gathering data from managers and employees. - Identifying clear objectives is essential—whether it's updating job descriptions, revising compensation programs, redesigning jobs, or aligning organizational structure with business strategies. - Obtaining top management support is critical to address any issues or resistance that may arise from managerial and employee concerns. 2. PREPARING AND INTRODUCING THE JOB ANALYSIS Preparation for job analysis involves identifying which jobs to review, such as hourly, clerical, or all positions. This phase includes selecting the analysis team, methods, and outlining employee and manager participation. Reviewing existing documentation like job descriptions and organization charts helps streamline the process. Effective communication is crucial, informing managers, employees, and stakeholders (including union representatives, if applicable) about the purpose, steps, timeline, and contact details for the job analysis representatives in reviewing job descriptions and specifications to minimize potential conflicts. 3. CONDUCTING THE JOB ANALYSIS After preparation, the job analysis process begins according to the chosen methods, which dictate the project timeline. Employees should submit completed questionnaires to supervisors for initial review before forwarding them to the job analysis team. Accompanying each questionnaire should be a letter explaining the process and instructions. Once collected, the data should be organized by job, job family, and organizational unit for comparison. The data must be reviewed for completeness, with follow-up interviews or queries as needed. 4. DEVELOPING JOB DESCRIPTIONS AND JOB SPECIFICATIONS At this stage, job analysts create initial drafts of job descriptions and specifications. Organizations typically avoid having managers and employees write these due to potential inconsistencies and personal biases. Once drafts are completed, they are reviewed by managers, and whether employees review them depends on the organization's culture. After finalization, HR distributes the descriptions to managers, supervisors, and employees. Supervisors or managers should then discuss the descriptions with employees to ensure clear understanding and agreement on their use in performance appraisals and other HR activities. JOB ANALYSIS METHODS There are many different methods which may be used to obtain data for a job analysis. A. CHECKLIST METHOD In this data collection technique for job analysis, workers select tasks they perform from a comprehensive list of task statements. Preparing the checklist with suitable task statements requires substantial preliminary effort. The checklist method is efficient for large groups, as it is straightforward to administer and tabulate. B. OBSERVATION METHOD The observation method involves assessing tasks directly at the workplace. Observers watch workers perform their tasks without disrupting their work and draw conclusions based on their observations. This method's advantage lies in allowing the production process to continue uninterrupted. C. INDIVIDUAL INTERVIEW METHOD In this method, representatives are chosen to conduct structured interviews typically outside the actual job setting. These interviews are facilitated by experienced and qualified interviewers. Instead of a single interview, a series of individual interviews are conducted to gather precise data for job analysis. While this technique is expensive and time-consuming, careful execution ensures a comprehensive understanding of the job. D. GROUP INTERVIEW METHOD The group interview method builds upon the individual interview approach. Its advantage over individual interviews lies in time savings achieved through group participation. In this method, interviewers conduct simultaneous interviews with a group of respondents. They guide participants to recall and discuss their work activities. The interviewer then consolidates all comments into a unified job description. E. WORK PARTICIPATION METHOD In this technique, job analysts personally perform the job themselves. By engaging directly in the work, they gain firsthand insights into all job characteristics. This approach is effective for simple tasks but not recommended for complex jobs. Complex tasks require analysts to undergo extensive training beforehand, making this method costly and time-consuming for data collection. F. DIARY METHOD Workers are directed to log their daily job activities using a diary or logbook. This method systematically gathers valuable data for job analysis. However, it can be time-consuming, and the quality of data may suffer if the recording forms are overly complicated for workers. G. TECHNICAL CONFERENCE METHOD In this method, job analysts gather information from experts rather than the actual job performers. These experts are typically supervisors who possess extensive knowledge of the job. The analysts discuss all job characteristics with these experts. One drawback of this method is that the experts do not personally perform the tasks; instead, they provide information based on their own past experiences. H. QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD In this method, job performers provide detailed job information through surveys. A carefully crafted questionnaire about job activities is given to workers, and job analysts review their responses. This approach is effective for individuals who can articulate well but may not be ideal for gathering data from low-level workers who struggle with self-expression. It is also a time-consuming and lengthy process to analyze the collected data. SPECIFIC JOB ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES JOB ELEMENT The job element method of job analysis, developed by Primoff in 1975, identifies the basic knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) required for a particular job. Subject matter experts (SMEs) are relied upon to identify and rate these job elements based on their importance for job performance. This method is person-oriented, focusing on the characteristics of the individual performing the job. Commonly used in federal government jobs, the job element method is often combined with other job analysis methods due to its limited scope (Bemis, Belenky, & Soder, 1983). CRITICAL INCIDENT TECHNIQUE The critical incidents technique (CIT) of job analysis, established by Flanagan in 1954, documents specific worker behaviors that lead to particularly successful or unsuccessful job performance. Examples: The primary value of CIT is in identifying the specific knowledge, skills, and abilities needed for successful job performance. Information is gathered by interviewing or using questionnaires with job incumbents, supervisors, or other knowledgeable individuals. Collecting hundreds of critical incidents allows the job analyst to gain a comprehensive understanding of the job and its successful performance.  Three pieces of information needed from each critical incident are presented by Flanagan: The context of behavior and details of the lead-up to the behavior exhibited. FUNCTIONAL JOB ANALYSIS ( FJA) - Analyzes a job’s requirements to assign the right candidate to the role or analyzes a candidate’s skills to assign them to the proper position. - It is a process for obtaining detailed information about the tasks, duties, and responsibilities associated with a particular job. PURPOSE : to identify the specific skills, knowledge, and abilities required to perform the job successfully. This information can then be used to develop job descriptions, performance standards, and training programs. It is usually conducted by interviewing incumbents or subject matter experts and observing workers as they perform their jobs. The resulting data are then analyzed and compiled into a report that includes a task list, a description of the skills required to perform each task, and a list of the knowledge and abilities required for the job as a whole. HR or hiring staff typically perform functional job analysis when developing or hiring for new roles. SEVEN CATEGORIES OF FUNCTIONAL JOB ANALYSIS There are seven categories of data to collect when conducting a functional job analysis. Each category is essential in establishing a complete overview of the position. 1.Things - Refer to the tools, assets, and equipment a candidate must be able to use to perform their role. Examples include hammers, computers, or medical equipment. It's important to identify which tools are used in the position and the level of proficiency required. For instance, for an office job, while training on internal software may be provided, proficiency in Excel and PowerPoint is expected. 2. Data - Encompasses all information about the knowledge, skills, and abilities required for the job, including job performance and tool knowledge. Reviewing this data helps identify if any procedural changes are needed. For example, you might discover that a previously unnecessary skill, like first aid, has become critical for the role. 3. People This category evaluates whether a candidate's skills align with the role's requirements and considers personality fit. It's important to assess how well the candidate will contribute to the company culture, their manager, team, and overall leadership. A candidate's cultural fit is as crucial as their qualifications for the position. 4. Worker instructions Reviewing processes and instructions ensures they effectively achieve desired results and that expectations are clear and reasonable. This step helps determine if the worker will be set up for success.  For instance, if a salesperson is expected to meet a monthly quota within two weeks of starting, given a two-week onboarding period, these instructions and expectations would need to be reviewed and adjusted to be realistic and achievable. 5. Reasoning The reasoning category in a job analysis examines how employees think critically about work problems and whether they are supported in suggesting process improvements. Employees need autonomy and to feel that their expertise and opinions are valued. This category helps ensure that the role allows for personal expression and input, recognizing that those performing the job daily often have valuable insights for process improvement. 6. Math The math category is relevant for roles involving company accounts and finances. Employees in these positions require advanced mathematical and financial knowledge to manage sensitive business operations. Such roles often necessitate specialized certifications or degrees. 7. Language The language category focuses on communication skills. It ensures employees can understand their requirements, whether through writing or speaking. It also includes the ability to clearly express thoughts and communicate professionally with coworkers and customers. O*NET ➔ ONET OnLine is a user-friendly application designed to provide public access to the extensive ➔ It is a database of occupational information. ➔ Developed by the National Center for O*NET Development for the U.S. Department of Labor, it offers various search options and occupational data. For students and job seekers, My Next Move is a more streamlined version of this application. Key Features: Comprehensive Database: O*NET contains detailed information on skills, abilities, knowledge, work activities, and interests for over 900 occupations, based on the 2018 Standard Occupational Classification system. Career Exploration: This information aids in career exploration, vocational counseling, and human resources functions like developing job orders, creating position descriptions, and aligning training with workplace needs. Updated Information: O*NET is a continuously updated, interactive, skills-based database that translates vast amounts of data into precise, understandable occupational intelligence. For Businesses and HR Professionals: O*NET helps to: Quickly and easily develop effective job descriptions. Expand the pool of quality candidates. Define success factors for employees and jobs. Align organizational development with workplace needs. Refine recruitment and training goals. Design competitive compensation and promotion systems. For Job Seekers: O*NET assists in: Finding jobs that match their interests, skills, and experience.  Exploring high-growth career profiles with the latest labor market data. Researching the requirements for their dream job. Maximizing earning potential and job satisfaction. Understanding what it takes to succeed in their field and related occupations. Online There are TWO OUTCOMES of job analysis. A Personnel Manager carried analysis in two ways: 1. Job description 2. Job specification A job description is a detailed accounting of the tasks, procedures, and responsibilities required of the worker; the machines, tools, and equipment used to perform the job; and the job output (end product or service). ➔ A detailed description of job tasks, procedures, and responsibilities; the tools and equipment used; and the end product or service ➔ Implies the enumeration and description of each operation in a job and responsibilities involved in performing are also outlined. It lists out required materials, tools, equipment and machinery for each job. This type of document is descriptive in nature and it constitutes all those facts which are related to a job such as: 1. Title/ Designation of job and location in the concern. 2. The nature of duties and operations to be performed in that job. 3. The nature of authority- responsibility relationships. 4. Necessary qualifications that are required for a job. 5. Relationship of that job with other jobs is a concern. 6. The provision of physical and working conditions required in performance of that job. or the work - Job description includes basic job-related data that is useful to advertise a specific job and attract a pool of talent. It includes information such as job title, job location, reporting to and of employees, job summary, nature and objectives of a job, tasks and duties to be performed, working conditions, machines, tools and equipment to be used by a prospective worker and hazards involved in it. Aims of Job Description ➔ To collect job-related data in order to advertise for a particular job. 12 NO PART OF THIS LEARNING MATERIAL WILL BE REPRODUCED , STRICTLY FOR REFERENCE ONLY. ➔ helps in attracting, targeting, recruiting and selecting the right candidate for the right job. ➔ It is done to determine what needs to be delivered in a particular job. ➔ clarifies what employees are supposed to do if selected for that particular job opening. Advantages of Job Description: ➔ It helps supervisors in assigning work to the subordinates so that he can guide and monitor their performances. It helps in recruitment and selection procedures. ➔ It assists in manpower planning.  ➔ It helps the supervisors ( performance appraisal) ➔ It is helpful in job evaluation in order to decide the rate of remuneration for a specific job. ➔ It also helps in chalking out training and development programmes. Let’s take a look: The following is an example of Job description.Examine carefully what is included in creating Job description. JOB DESCRIPTION OF ASST. LIBRARIAN-INFORMATION SECTION Job Title :Asst. Librarian - Information Section Class Title : Assistant Librarian Reports to :Librarian / Head - Reference Section Supervises:Information Assistant, Library Assistant Summary:Asst. Librarian Information Section directs the provision of reference and information services and supervises information Qualifications He should be acquainted with developments and trends in the field of reference and information services. He should be service oriented and helpful by nature. He should be familiar with resources, knowledgeable and possess experience. He should be M.Sc. OR B.Lib.Sc. with 55% marks Establishes and plans information services. Duties Establishes and plans user education programmes. Develops and administers policies pertaining to services and staff Assist the users in the use of catalog Assist the users in the location of materials Receives book requests; edits and compiles the forms with additional bibliographic information Answer telephone calls Provides ready reference service Gives directional information Screens information requests for long range reference service Overall supervision of the section Receives and responds to serious complaints from users and staff Provides user education repares, reports and statistics Attends conferences and meetings Supervises work of other staff in the section Prepares section budget; reviews and reports on budget periodically Assists and recommends to the librarians about policies and produces relating to the section Selects reference books Salary: Rs. 14000-18000 JOB SPECIFICATION Job Specification specifies information about the skills or qualities required for doing the job. AKA Man or Employee Specification. - It is a statement which tells us minimum acceptable human qualities which helps to perform a job. Job specification translates the job description into human qualifications so that a job can be performed in a better manner. - Job specification helps in hiring an appropriate person for an appropriate position. The contents are: 1. Job title and designation 2. Educational qualifications for that title 3. Physical and other related attributes 4. Physique and mental health 5. Special attributes and abilities 6. Maturity and dependability 7. Relationship of that job with other jobs is a concern. Job Specification also known as employee specifications, a job specification is a written statement of educational qualifications, specific qualities, level of experience, physical, emotional, - It also includes general health, mental health, intelligence, aptitude. memory, judgment, leadership skills, emotional ability, adaptability, flexibility. values and ethics, manners and creativity, etc. Purpose of Job Specification ➔ Helps candidates analyze whether they are eligible to apply for a particular job vacancy or not. ➔ It helps the recruiting team of an organization understand what level of qualifications, qualities and set of characteristics should be present in a candidate to make him or her eligible for the job opening. ➔ Gives detailed information about any job including job responsibilities, desired technical and physical skills, conversational ability and much more and It helps in selecting the most appropriate candidate for a particular job. ADVANTAGES OF JOB SPECIFICATION ➔ It is helpful in preliminary screening in the selection procedure. ➔ It helps in giving due justification to each job. ➔ It also helps in designing training and development program ➔ It helps the supervisors for counseling and monitoring performance of employees ➔ It helps in job evaluation. ➔ It helps the management to make decisions regarding promotion and giving extra benefits to the employees. ➔ It helps in selecting the most appropriate candidate for a particular job. Remember: Job description and job specification are two integral parts of job analysis. They define a job fully  and guide both employer and employee on how to go about the whole process of recruitment and selection. Both data sets are extremely relevant for creating a right fit between job and talent, evaluating performance and analyzing training needs and measuring the worth of a particular job. WHAT IS RECRUITMENT? Recruitment - Is the process of attracting potential candidates for a particular job vacancy. It forms the first stage in the process which continues with selection and ceases with placement of the Candidates. DEFINITIONS: According to Edwin B. Flippo, “Recruitment is the process of searching the candidates for employment and stimulating them to apply for jobs in the organization”. According to BusinessDictionary.com, “Process of identifying and hiring best-qualified candidate (from within or outside of an organization) for a job vacancy, in a most timely and cost effective manner”. According to Yoder and others, “Recruitment is a process to discover the source of manpower to meet the requirement of the staffing schedule and to employ effective measures for attracting that manpower in adequate numbers to facilitate effective selection of an efficient working force.” Recruitment is the process of attracting and selecting qualified candidates for job openings within an organization. It involves drawing potential employees to apply for jobs and building a pool of candidates for future needs, even if there are no immediate vacancies. It typically begins when a manager requests new hires for specific or anticipated positions. It is a key function of the personnel department, focusing on finding and evaluating potential employees to fill vacant positions and integrate them into the organization. Recruitment is a two-way street: it takes a recruiter and recruitee. Just as the recruiter has a choice of whom to recruit or whom not, so also the prospective employee has to make the decision if he should apply for that organizations’ job. The individual makes this decision usually on three different bases : (i) the objective factor (pay, benefits, location, opportunity etc.) (ii) critical contact ( behavior of the recruiter, the nature of physical faculties, etc. ) (iii) subjective factors (personality patterns, the image of organization i.e. choices are made on a highly personal and emotional basis.) Recruitment is the process of attracting qualified applicants for a job. It starts when applications are received and ends when the selection process is complete. AIM : to create a pool of candidates from which the best individual(s) can be selected for employment. THE NEED FOR RECRUITMENT 1. Projected: Projected needs are those movements in personnel, which an organization can predict by studying trends in internal and external environments. 2. Intended: That needs arising from changes in organization and retirement policy. 3. Unexpected: Resignation, deaths, accidents, illness give rise to unexpected needs. OBJECTIVES OF RECRUITMENT ➔ Recruitment aims at developing and maintaining adequate supply of labor according to the need of the organization. ➔ To provide a sufficiently large group of qualified candidates, so that suitable candidates can be selected out of them. ➔ Hiring the right kind of candidate for the right job. ➔ It facilitates the maximum pool of candidates with minimum cost. ➔ Meet the organization’s legal and social obligation regarding the composition of its workforce. ➔ Recruitment is the process which associates the employers with the employees. ➔ Help to reduce the probability that job applicants once recruited and selected will leave the organization only after a short period of time. ➔ Attract and encourage more and more candidates to apply in the organization. Recruitment is a core function of the Human Resources department, encompassing sourcing, screening, and shortlisting candidates. It involves identifying staffing needs and filling those positions. The process includes identifying, attracting, interviewing, selecting, and onboarding the right candidates for the organization. PROCESS OF RECRUITMENT The recruitment process involves several key steps: A.Identify Vacancy: It starts when the HR department receives a requisition detailing the number of personnel needed and their qualifications. B.Job Analysis: This involves a thorough examination of the job's operations and responsibilities, creating a detailed job description (including title, location, duties, and hazards) and job specification (including qualifications, experience, and age requirements). C.Communicating Vacancy: The vacancy is then communicated to potential applicants through advertisements in various media like newspapers, radio, television, and online platforms. Recruiters may also proactively reach out to qualified candidates and use job portals to find resumes. Jobs are advertised both internally and externally to attract the best candidates. Internal recruitment is to recruit employees that are already familiar with the company values, culture, and work ethics. The recruiters either promote employees to senior roles or transfer them to different departments. external recruitment, the HR department recruits people from outside the company. D.Managing the Response: It is a crucial task and should be done by well qualified staff because if any flaws exist in this stage it may lead to call for interview an undesirable candidate or organization miss an opportunity to recruit a desirable candidate. - The goal of screening resumes is to decide whether to move the applicant forward or not. E.Select Candidates: It is as important as the previous stage which should be done with sincerity. Here the HR department selects the candidates who are suitable for the particular job or profile. F.Arranging Interview: This is the last stage in the recruitment process which leads to the initiation of the selection process. The suitable candidates which are selected in previous stage should call for interview and arrange interview for those candidates SOURCE OF RECRUITMENT Organizations can choose candidates for recruitment from two sources: internal and external. Internal sources include employees already within the organization, such as through transfers or promotions. External sources involve recruiting candidates from outside the organization. INTERNAL SOURCES 1. Promotions: The employees are promoted from one department to another in the same organization with more benefits and greater responsibility based on efficiency and experience of a particular employee. 2. Upgrading and Demotion Employees are upgraded or even demoted according to their performance which was assigned to him/her 3. Transfers: The employees are transferred from one department to another according to their performance and experience. With little benefits or no benefits. 4. Retired Employees: It may also be recruited once again in case of shortage of qualified human resources or increase in load of work. Recruitment of such people saves time and costs of the organizations as the people are already aware of the organizational culture and the policies and procedures. 5. Retrenched Employees : Retrenched employees are also a source of useful recruitment for the organization. They better know the organization policy and practices and when they again recruited most of the cost was reduced. 6. Deceased Employees :The dependents and relatives of deceased employees and disabled employees are also a source of internal recruitment. EXTERNAL SOURCES 1. Educational Institutions or Campus Placement: : Various management institutes, engineering colleges, medical colleges etc. are a good source of recruitment. Where well qualified executives, engineers, medical staff etc. are recruited by the companies. They provide facilities for interviews and placements in their campus. 2. Placement Agencies/Consultancy : They charge a small fee from a candidate. They play the role of a third party where they provide the required number of candidates to the organization with significant qualifications. And they also charge some little amount as a fee from the respective candidate. 3. Employment Exchange: Government establishes public employment exchanges throughout the country. They provide a clearinghouse for jobs and job information. These exchanges provide job information to job seekers and help employers in identifying suitable applicants. 4. Press Advertisement of the vacancy in the newspaper and other related magazine or journal is also a good source of recruitment. Where candidates respond on job vacancy according to their matched profile. 5. Recruitment at Factory Gate If a permanent worker is not present than unskilled workers may be recruited at the factory gate. More competent among these may be recruited to fill permanent vacancies in the organization. 6. Employees Referrals and Recommendation: Many organizations have prepared a system where the existing employees of the organization can refer their friends and relatives for some position in their organization. Also, the office bearers of trade unions are often aware of the suitability of applicants. Management can inquire these leaders for suitable jobs. In some organizations these are formal agreements to give priority in recruitment to the applicant recommended by the trade union. 7. Unsolicited Applicants /Casual Callers :Most of the applicants visit an organization to seek jobs when recruitment is not in process. In that case, the organization keeps their resume and asks them to contact them after some time or if there is any vacancy in the organization in the near future organization should call them. These types of applicants are called unsolicited applicants. This is also a good source of recruitment. 8. Labour Contractor Manual workers can be recruited through contractors who sustain close contacts with the sources of such workers. This source is used to recruit labor for construction jobs or daily wages jobs. 9. E-recruiting, also known as electronic recruiting or online recruiting, leverages digital technology to streamline and enhance the recruitment process. 10. Walk-Ins: This is a direct recruitment method where candidates are invited to apply for job vacancies through an advertisement. The announcement provides details about the date, location, and time for the walk-in event. Prospective candidates are encouraged to attend the event in person to participate in interviews, without needing to submit their applications beforehand. THE SELECTION Selection is a process of selecting the most desirable candidates among others for a particular job. Basically , picking candidates who have relevant qualifications to fill jobs in an organization. OBJECTIVE OF SELECTION - is to determine whether an applicant meets the qualifications for a specific job and to choose the applicant who is most likely to perform well in that job. - In other words, to find out which job applicant will be successful, if hired. PROCESS OF SELECTION Selection is generally a series of hurdles or steps. Each one must be successfully cleared before the applicant proceeds to the next. There is no hard and fast rule that every organization has the same pattern or process of selection. Organizations have their own policy of selection even for different job profiles may have different selection processes. 1. Invite Application: It is the first step of the selection process. To successfully complete the process of selection it is required that the number of applicants should be in large. At the time of receiving an application , the office manager or even the receptionist entertains the candidate thus it makes a good image of organization in the mind of applicants. They meet tactfully with applicant’s i.e. friendly and courteous. If jobs are not available at that time the applicant may be asked to contact the HR department after a suitable period of time. 2. Screening of Application: Whatever the application received by the organization is now screened with certain criteria like education, experience, age and other related information for a particular job. This helps to remove undesirable applications. From here the rejection will start, applicants who are desirable come to the next stage and those who are not will be rejected at this initial stage. 3. Preliminary Interview: When the large numbers of applicants are available, the preliminary interview is desirable both for the applicant seeking employment and for the company also. In preliminary interviews, perspectives are given the necessary information about the nature of the job and information taken by applicants like their education, skills, salary demanded, reason for leaving previous jobs etc. 4. Application Blank: Application blank is one of the easiest and common methods by which a company gets the maximum information on various aspects of the candidate’s academic, social, demographic, working experience and references. It is a widely acceptable device for getting information from a prospective applicant which will enable a management to make a proper selection and the particular information should be in their own hand-writing. Application blank may be very long or comprehensive and sometimes brief are used. It includes: Personal data—Address, contact number, email ID, sex, and identification marks etc. Physical data—Height, weight, and health condition. 6 NO PART OF THIS LEARNING MATERIAL MAY BE REPRODUCED. FOR REFERENCE ONLY. For reference only. Educational data—Levels of formal education like class X, XII, graduation, PG etc., marks obtained from any other professional education acquired. Employment data—Past experience, job profile, promotions, reason for leaving previous job, last salary drawn and expected etc. Extra curricular activities—NSS, NCC, sports, games, debate, quiz etc. at school, college, university, state or national level and of course prizes won on these events. Reference—Name of two or more individuals who certify the suitability of an applicant to a particular job. 5. Psychological Test: The next step in the process of selection is very important because from here the main and critical test of candidature begins. What kind of psychological test is used for judging the candidate is another important decision. A test is standardized, having an objective to measure a candidates’ behavior, performance or attitude. Some of the commonly used test are as follows: Attitude test (measure a candidates' potential to learn certain skills like clerical, mechanical, mathematical, etc.) Intelligence test (mental ability, ability to understand instruction, take decisions etc) Personality test (the way he/she presents themselves, co-operative, calm, relaxed, good communicator etc.) Achievement test (typing test, shorthand test, tally, knowing latest technology) Simulation test 6. Interview: When the candidate passed their psychological test then the next step is to face the interview. Interview is a face to face interaction between interviewer and interviewee. The interviewer checks that the particular candidate is suitable for the specified job or not and the interviewee gets maximum information about their job profile, salary, etc. There are many types of interviews like structured and unstructured interview, selection interview, panel interview, stress interview etc. 7. Reference Checking: The use of references is common in most selection procedures. It helps in checking out the candidate character, their qualification, what they have, their experience is appropriate or not, and whether other related data should be authenticated or not. These references may be from candidate’s who are familiar with the candidate’s information. The personnel department checks references carefully. 8. Final Selection by Interviewers: After completing the entire above step now final selection should be done by the interviewers. 9. Medical Test/Physical Examination: Physical or medical examination reveals whether or not a candidate possesses physical qualities like acute hearing, clear vision, high stamina, clear tone of voice. ‘Physical examination should disclose the physical characteristics of the individual that are significant from the standpoint of his efficient performance of the job he may enter or of those jobs to which he may reasonably expect to be transferred or promoted’, says Dale Yoder. 10. Placement: The final step in the selection process is placement of candidates to their job and workplace. Onboarding After the candidate accepts the offer, the pre-boarding period begins. This period, between the acceptance of the offer and the joining date, is critical for keeping the candidate engaged to prevent them from joining another company. During this time, the recruiter shares the new hire’s email and other details with the team. Once the candidate starts their first day, the onboarding process begins. MEDIA ADVERTISEMENTS Newspaper Ads Running ads in periodicals such as local newspapers or professional journals is a declining method of recruiting employees. In fact, in a study of 108,000 external hires in large organizations, Crispin and Mehler (2013) found that, in 2012, only 2.3% of external hires were recruited through print media, compared to 28.7% from a similar survey in 1997. Such a decline is consistent with a 2007 survey in which recruiters rated print advertising as one of the least effective recruitment methods (SHRM, 2007). These findings demonstrate the huge change in recruiting that has occurred in the past decade: In 2002, recruiters rated newspaper advertising as one of the most effective avenues of applicant recruitment (Gere, Scarborough, & Collison, 2002). Examples of creative Job Ads FH Company, a Norwegian importer and distributor, ran a help-wanted advertisement reading, "Tiresome and boring wholesale company seeks indolent people with a total lack of service mindedness for a job that is completely without challenge." Thus, the same techniques and imagination used in product advertisements may increase the recruitment yield from help-wanted ads. Electronic Media Although not common, some organizations find that using electronic media such as TV and radio ads is an effective recruitment tool. Examples: CarMax ran a national television campaign to publicize its career opportunities. In addition to generating applicants, the commercials are an excellent public relations vehicle. In the public sector, the military has been very active in television recruitment: Point-of-Purchase Methods The point-of-purchase method of recruitment is based on the same "POP" (point-of- purchase) advertising principles used to market products to consumers. Example: Consider shopping at a local grocery store. As you push your cart through one aisle, you come across a special display for potato chips, in the next aisle a display for cookies. When you get to the checkout stand, items such as the National Enquirer, candy, and batteries are conveniently placed so you can examine them while you wait in line. The idea is to get you to buy more items once you are already in the store. In employee recruitment, job vacancy notices are posted in places where customers or current employees are likely to encounter them: store windows, bulletin boards. restaurant placemats, and the sides of trucks. Example : Cabela's, a retail chain specializing in hunting and fishing goods, an organization that recruits current customers for job openings. A perk that also helps recruit avid hunters and fishermen is product discounts and a policy that allows sales staff to take a product home for 60 days so that they can provide customers with accurate opinions about the product (Taylor, 2007). OTHER TYPES OF JOB ADVERTISEMENTS If you're new to the job market, it can be helpful to know where to look for job advertisements. Here's a list of eight types of job advertisements and where you can find them: COMPANY WEBSITE ADS Organizations can post job advertisements on their websites by adding a dedicated webpage or job search function. This allows candidates to explore the website and gain a comprehensive understanding of the company culture and role requirements before applying. To find these job ads, navigate to the company website menu and look for tabs like "Careers," "Join Our Team," or "Open Positions." SOCIAL MEDIA POSTS Social media is an effective platform for sharing job openings with a broad audience. Companies can post job announcements across all their social media channels, directing readers to detailed job descriptions. Hiring teams may also use paid social media ads to increase visibility and reach a larger audience. JOB BOARD LISTINGS Posting job openings on job boards is an excellent way to target individuals actively seeking employment. Job boards exist in both print and online formats. Print job boards can be particularly useful in educational institutions, while online job boards, like Indeed.com, allow organizations to easily edit listings and candidates to use filters for location, salary, or field. NEWSLETTERS Job advertisements in newsletters can effectively inform individuals with an existing connection to the organization about new opportunities. - For example, an employee newsletter might encourage staff to recommend friends for openings, while a customer email newsletter can alert long-time customers to job opportunities, leveraging their existing relationship with the company. BILLBOARDS Billboard advertisements can enhance brand awareness and reach new audiences, which is valuable for companies seeking to hire a large number of employees or increase candidate diversity. Visually appealing billboards placed in high-traffic areas can generate many new impressions, particularly when combined with market research to target areas with potential qualified candidates. POSTERS Posters are an effective way to advertise open positions to specific groups of qualified candidates. For instance, a tech company might hang posters near tech stores or universities, while a restaurant might place posters in their window to inform regular customers. Some posters may include tear-off contact information for interested candidates. FLIERS Similar to newsletters, fliers can inform individuals with existing company connections about new job opportunities. Companies can distribute fliers by mail, at store locations, or at job fairs. This approach helps candidates remember the job and application process when they return home. NEWSPAPER AND MAGAZINE ADVERTISEMENTS Newspapers often feature sections for job advertisements, making them a useful tool for targeting specific geographic areas or demographic groups. - For example, a corporate company might advertise in a business magazine, while a local bookstore could place an ad in a neighborhood newspaper. WHAT TO INCLUDE IN A JOB POSTING A well-crafted job posting is crucial for attracting a high volume of qualified applicants. It should clearly outline the available position and specify the requirements for consideration. Key elements of an effective job posting include: Job Summary: Provide a concise overview of the job, including the key responsibilities and expectations of the role, along with any other relevant information. Company Information: Include details about the company, its mission, and work culture to help candidates understand the organizational environment. Experience Requirements: Specify the required years of work experience needed for the position. Educational Requirements: Outline the minimum education qualifications or any specialized education required for the role.  Required Documents: List the documents applicants need to submit, such as a resume, cover letter, or portfolio. Physical and/or Mental Requirements: Mention any physical or mental requirements necessary to perform the job. Application Method: Indicate the preferred method for applying to the position, including any specific instructions for submitting applications. Including these elements will ensure that your job posting is comprehensive, clear, and appealing to potential candidates. RECRUITERS CAMPUS RECRUITERS Many organizations send recruiters to college campuses to answer questions and interview students for available positions. The behavior and attitude of recruiters can significantly influence applicants' decisions to accept job offers. However, due to cost considerations, many employers have reduced on-campus recruiting. Consequently, more colleges are organizing virtual job fairs, allowing students and alumni to interact with recruiters online, learn about companies, and submit resumes. OUTSIDE RECRUITERS Over 75% of organizations use external recruiting sources such as private employment agencies, public employment agencies, and executive search firms. Private employment agencies and executive search firms operate for profit, while public employment agencies are run by state and local governments and are nonprofit. EMPLOYMENT AGENCIES AND SEARCH FIRMS A.EMPLOYMENT AGENCIES Employment agencies connect job seekers with employers and may charge fees ranging from 10-30% of the applicant's first-year salary. Agencies that charge the applicant are considered low-risk for companies, which only pay if a suitable candidate is found. These agencies are useful when HR departments are overwhelmed or lack recruitment skills, though they may offer less control over the hiring process and sometimes less suitable candidates. Employment agencies can be privately owned or publicly managed, serving various needs on local, national, or international levels. They specialize in placing qualified individuals in long-term positions and handle recruitment for various job types, including temporary, permanent, and temp-to-hire roles. Agencies aim to bridge the gap between unemployment and steady employment by matching job seekers with employers and facilitating the hiring process. Additional Online Resource: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LMcsylLcCrA WHAT IS A RECRUITMENT AGENCY? Recruitment agencies manage the entire hiring process for businesses, from finding qualified candidates to conducting interviews and communicating job duties and expectations. They leverage their industry resources and staffing expertise to identify applicants with the highest potential for success. By handling most of the time-consuming aspects of recruitment, these agencies allow businesses to concentrate their efforts and resources elsewhere. Recruitment agencies may vary in their screening processes and resources based on their industry focus or area of expertise. They can fill a range of job roles, including seasonal, part-time, and full-time positions, and often collaborate with companies to adjust expectations as the hiring process evolves. HOW DO RECRUITMENT AGENCIES WORK? Recruitment agencies partner with companies to identify and attract qualified candidates for job vacancies. They use databases and online job postings to find suitable candidates and handle most of the hiring process, including creating job descriptions, sorting applications, and posting job listings. This streamlines the hiring process, benefiting companies, especially smaller ones, by managing tasks such as conducting interviews and negotiating salaries. The company is more involved in the final decision-making stages. Overall, recruitment agencies act as intermediaries between employers and job seekers, enhancing the efficiency of hiring and ensuring the right candidates are matched with the right roles. Recruitment Agencies are generally more focused on finding candidates for permanent roles and may specialize in certain industries or job functions. Employment Agencies have a broader scope, including temporary staffing and job placement services, and can cater to both employers and job seekers. EXECUTIVE SEARCH FIRMS An executive search firm, also known as a headhunter, is a professional service firm that specializes in recruiting and placing senior-level executives in corporate, non-profit, and governmental organizations. - They handle highly qualified candidates in executive-level positions across the public, private, and non-profit sectors. Executive search consultants seek to understand a specific executive position, define the core competencies necessary for a successful hire, and target several candidates that fit a distinct profile. - Such positions include President, Vice President, CEO, CFO, COO, department heads, and more. A word of caution regarding both employment agencies and executive search firms: Since they earn money based on the number of placements they make, they often pressure applicants to accept job offers. However, applicants are not obligated to take a job and should not feel intimidated about declining a position that seems unsuitable. Executive Search Firms: Purpose: Specialize in recruiting for high-level executive and senior management positions. Services: Conduct detailed searches to find top-level talent, including headhunting and background checks. Examples: Firms focusing on C-suite and senior executive roles. PUBLIC EMPLOYMENT AGENCIES State and local employment agencies, also known as public employment agencies, assist the unemployed in finding work and offer services like career advisement and résumé preparation. These government-run organizations match job seekers with employers, particularly for blue-collar and clerical positions, at no cost to the employer. Many organizations rely on these agencies for recruiting and screening, with government programs often covering training costs. To facilitate job searches, public employment agencies have installed kiosks in locations like shopping malls, allowing applicants to search for job openings and apply electronically. Blue-collar jobs, which often involve manual labor and may require specific skills or vocational training, are commonly filled through these agencies. Here are some examples of blue-collar jobs: 1. Construction Workers: Includes roles such as carpenters, bricklayers, electricians, plumbers, and general laborers. 2. Manufacturing and Production Workers: Includes assemblers, machine operators, welders, and fabricators. 3. Maintenance and Repair Workers: Includes mechanics, HVAC technicians, and appliance repair workers. 4. Transportation and Delivery Workers: Includes truck drivers, delivery drivers, and forklift operators. 5. Agricultural Workers: Includes farm laborers, animal caretakers, and equipment operators. 6. Warehouse Workers: Includes pickers, packers, and stock clerks. 7. Cleaning and Janitorial Staff: Includes custodians, janitors, and housekeepers. 8. Food Service Workers: Includes cooks, kitchen staff, and dishwashers. 9. Mining and Extraction Workers: Includes miners, drill operators, and quarry workers. 10. Utilities and Infrastructure Workers: Includes utility line installers, waste management workers, and water treatment plant operators. These jobs are essential for the functioning of various sectors and often involve working with hands-on tasks, machinery, or in environments that require physical stamina and practical skills. In the Philippines, several public employment agencies assist job seekers and employers. Here are some examples: 1. Philippine Overseas Employment Administration (POEA): Oversees and regulates the recruitment of Filipino workers for overseas employment. It also provides services such as job matching and processing of overseas employment contracts. 2. Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE): Provides various employment services, including job matching, career counseling, and skills training programs. It operates through its regional offices and attached agencies. 3. Public Employment Service Office (PESO): Local government units run PESO to assist job seekers in finding employment, provide career guidance, and conduct job fairs. PESO offices are located in cities and municipalities across the country. 4. Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA): While primarily focused on providing technical education and skills training, TESDA also helps connect skilled workers with job opportunities. 5. JobStreet and PhilJobNet: Though not traditional public employment agencies, these government-supported online job portals provide job matching services and job search resources to Filipino job seekers. These agencies aim to improve employment opportunities and support b