Human Philosophy - 2nd Semester PDF

Human Philosophy - 2nd Semester > thus its value lies in its being able to provide what the mind or spirit needs 1.1: Philosophy & the Search for Truth - philoso...

Human Philosophy - 2nd Semester > thus its value lies in its being able to provide what the mind or spirit needs 1.1: Philosophy & the Search for Truth - philosophy does not offer definitive & exact Philosophy - answers to questions - comes from two Greek terms - philosophy asks about the value of things to > “philo” meaning “love” human life and human existence > “sophia” meaning “knowledge” - questions are more important than the answers > hence, philosophy means “love of wisdom” 4 Benefits of a Philosophical Attitude to a Person Wisdom (1) They learn how to systemize all important - profound understanding of the meaning, reason, knowledge in the domain of reason or causes of things (2) They are guided in their pursuit of the truth & Knowledge in distinguishing truth from what is false or - acquisition of ideas, information & theories, the from mere opinion application of certain scientific principles & (3) They are able to analyze things through an formula, or the mastery of certain methods or “intellectual eye” that enables them to see procedures things not only as they appear to the senses - its objective is to teach us how to reflect on our but also the underlying causes & meaning of ​ own experiences so that we may gain wisdom these things - endeavors to explain why things are as they are (4) They are able to gain insights into human Philosophy (Academic Definition) - nature; it helps them understand their - “the science of things (or beings in capabilities & potentials & gives them a better a more technical sense) in their ultimate appreciation of themselves principles & causes as known by natural reason The Art & Wonder of Philosophy - alone” Philosophizing > it is a science because it does not base on - making speculations or theories about mere opinions or hypotheses fundamental or serious issues in a complicated - science of all things or beings in their ultimate or difficult manner causes & principles known by human person - begins with wondering & posing the question alone “why” - ultimate aim: have an understanding of reality - man uses philosophy to satisfy his/her curiosity mainly based on reason > thus to philosophize is to satisfy one’s curiosity Science - to engage in a philosophical activity, a person - systematized body of knowledge* will need two basic components: > *an organized & interconnected collection of > Reason = enables a person to reflect on or ideas, theories, laws, formulas, and other examine the underlying meaning or causes of conceptions about a particular field things/realities - knowledge acquired from science is derived from > Experience = provides a person with the initial a reasoned demonstration of causes & reduced to data so that he/she would be able to speak of a system his/her subsequent reflection or examination Value of Philosophy - > every man can philosophize given that they - should not be compared to the value of the have these two components physical or natural sciences - a person’s philosophical reflection comes to an - philosophy only provides food for the mind & end (at least temporarily) when he/she has come nourishment for the spirit to gain a better understanding of his/her 1  experience - it’s also important to have an understanding > there are those who proceed to the next phase: about how some topics and issues are engaging in the sharing of thoughts or ideas interrelated with others (2) Thinking by and for Oneself How Schools of Philosophy are Established - using one’s power or ability to think or reason - men organized their thoughts & ideas & out presented them as coherent and systematic - he/she has to rely on his/her own power to think organizations of ideas instead of having others do the thinking for - what comes out is a far better version of the him/her original system of ideas (3) Thinking Proactively Another Way of Philosophizing - philosophizing & critical thinking are examples - involves studying the thoughts of other persons of proactive thinking or thinkers, reflecting on them, analyzing & - in proactive thinking, one uses his/her own criticizing them, & coming up with one’s own intelligence, knowledge, & abilities in order to synthesis or evaluation deal with different situations, issues, and subject matters 1.2: Philosophical Reflection and the Search for (4) Being Open minded Truth - to philosophize is to be open to new views, interpretations, and concepts Philosophical Reflection - > this does not mean that one should accept - a more profound examination of the underlying outright the new ideas or concepts presented meanings or causes of the problems regarding to him/her human existence - philosophizing means that one welcomes new Elements of Critical Thinking - ideas as another interpretation or view of one’s (1) Understanding own ideas or a probable source of new - having a proper and clear understanding of a knowledge particular situation (5) Considering Different Perspectives - to understand means “to have a mental grasp of - philosophical reflection requires that one things, of reality, of issues at hand, or of the considers different possibilities and perspectives subject matter” - being open to the different paths to the truth is 3 Elements of Understanding - being open to new perspectives and views (1) Context > a person has to consider the fact that others - may be understood as the framework, the may have good or better ideas which people frame of reference, & the different connections, can learn and benefit from and relationships within which something - a critical thinker is a person who is willing to must be understood and interpreted listen & examine carefully the views of others (2) Knowing the Opposite Views (6) Questioning and Challenging Beliefs - to philosophize & think critically is also to know 2 Types of Questioning - the opposing views or contrary ideas, which will (1) Destructive Type of Questioning help you place yourself in a better position to - questioning is used as a means to contradict a compare, respond, and analyze rightly & different view without any basis or reason correctly (2) Constructive Type of Questioning (3) Understanding the whole subject matter - involves asking for clarification, reconfirmation - one must have a comprehensive understanding of an old interpretation that has been accepted of the whole range of ideas, opinions, and views 2  or believed in - general theory about truth which asserts that Philosophical Reflection and Problem Solving - the mind can know certain, fundamental, and 5 Logical Steps or Stages of Problem-solving immediate truths Behavior (2) Relativism Theory (1) Representing or Defining the Problem - - according to this theory, truth as the object of - involves a thorough understanding & knowledge cannot be known as it is in itself’ it comprehension of the problem & its cause can only be known as it is modified by a person Problem - truth is always dependent on a person - a break, disruption, or distortion of the normal (3) Pragmatism Theory flow of things or when a desired objective or - proposed by William James goal cannot be attained - the truth is consequential in nature’ the real (2) Generating Possible Solutions - norm or criterion of truth is its consequence or - involves divergent thinking result Divergent Thinking (4) Correspondence Theory - one thinks of possible solutions to the problem - proposed by Logical Positivist Bertrand Russell - he/she recalls past solutions or invents new - truth is in what is said, in the propositions ones; his/her mind or thought “diverges” along uttered a number of different paths > a proposition is true if it corresponds with a (3) Evaluating Solutions - state of affairs or with facts - one tries to apply his/her knowledge & the rules (5) Coherence Theory of logic and attempts to narrow down the - developed as a reaction to the correspondence possibilities to one that is most appropriate or theory effective - asserts that truth cannot be asserted of one Convergent Thinking proposition, only in isolation from other - the mind “converges” on the most appropriate propositions solution - truth belongs to a system of propositions* (4) Applying the Solutions - > *set of propositions that cohere with one - once the solution has been finalized, the next another step is to apply it Truth as Value (5) Critiquing Given Solution Through Dialectics - Existentialists - Dialectics - assert that truth is not purely intellectual and - the critical discussion* about certain things speculative & it is not purely based on analysis > *involves questioning certain thoughts or > truth is not just an object of the mind or ideas, even the ideas of the one looking for intellectual speculation the solution > truth is also a matter of conviction Truth and Theories on Truth > truth is a value that gives meaning to one’s life Truth - > as a value, one can live & die for the truth; - proper aim of any inquiry, particularly scientific people commit themselves to the truth and philosophical inquiry Skepticism, Doubt, and Opinion - Philosophical Theories about Truth & How it - - according to the skepticism theory, human mind can be Attained - can never attain the truth (1) Realism - the human mind is unreliable and people are prone to error, there is a prevalence of error over truth 3  2.1: Oriental Conceptions of Man Karma - human action is governed by a law which is Oriental Philosophy - karma. - philosophy that originated in the East - the law of karma states that: - two main origins: India and China > good action results in a positive outcome. > Hinduism & Buddhism from India > bad action results in a bad outcome. > Taoism and Confucianism from China - karma affects the cycle of samsara. > There’s also Islam, but it has a different Yogas conception​ - three possible paths to moksha, or salvation. Man in Hinduism - - these paths or methods of attaining salvation Sacred texts: are called yogas and they were taught by the - Vedas = oldest extant literary works of the Aryan sages. people (people of ancient India) (1)​ Karma yoga > “veda” means “knowledge’ in Sanskrit > a way of attaining salvation through good - Upanishads = end of the Vedas deeds or good action such as fulfilling one's > contain the teachings & concepts of different duties to the family and to society. ancient Indian thinkers (2)​ Jnana yoga Reality can be interpreted through the notions > jnana means "knowledge." of: > this is a way of attaining salvation through - Brahman = ultimate & underlying reality knowledge. > everything is Brahman; everything or the > the basic principle of this method of totality of what one sees & knows is Brahman attaining knowledge is that the cause of > beyond specific or concrete ideas one's suffering and bondage is ignorance. - Atman = individual reality > a person attaches himself/herself to it. But > specific or concrete aspect of reality the world is only temporary and it ~ human person is part of reality; he/she is part or is just an illusion. What is permanent is the one with the Brahman, but he/she is also a Brahman—the ultimate reality. concrete & individual reality; therefore he/she is Ignorance also an Atman - one can also see himself/ herself as a separate Ultimate Goal of the Human: individual self. - to be one with the Brahman & reach Nirvana - one cannot escape the cycle of birth and rebirth > attained when one is released or liberated and therefore cannot attain from the earthly life; this is called “moksha” salvation. - the person must purify themself & be detached (3)​ Bhakti yoga from the world > bhakti is devotion. > if he/she does not attain moksha, he/she is > bhakti yoga is salvation through devotion. reincarnated or born again > a person attaches himself to the gods or > the cycle of death & rebirth is called “samsara” goddesses who are manifestations ~ one can attain a release from this through of the Brahman. enlightenment Buddhist Conception of Man - Enlightenment - the development of the Buddhist teachings can - starts with the understanding that this world is be traced to the life of its founder an illusion or “maya” Siddhartha Gautama Buddha. - a person should not cling to this world, since - the life of Siddhartha Gautama is a constitutive everything in it is temporary 4  part of its teachings. - the cure to suffering is the Eightfold Path. - he became known as the Buddha which means Man in Taoism - "awakened one." - is based on its understanding of the whole of the About Siddhartha Buddha universe which follows certain universal and - Siddhartha was a prince who enjoyed the luxury unchanging laws. of life. - the way of the Tao is universal and since a person - he search for a way to escape the inevitability of is part of this universe. suffering such as death, old age, and pain. Lao Tzu - he first studied the life of religious men. - the Chinese philosopher and writer who is - Siddhartha encountered an Indian ascetic who regarded as the author of the Taoist text (Tao Te encouraged him to follow the “ascetic life” (a life Ching.) of extreme self-denial and discipline.) - explains the sense of the ultimate, underlying - he also practiced meditation but realized that great principle, rule or cause of "the way of all attaining the highest meditative states was not things." enough. Tao Te Ching - he abandoned the strict lifestyle of self-denial - the universe viewed holistically expresses and asceticism. harmony, purpose, order, and calm power. - he pursued the “Middle Way” (a life which is Invariables neither in luxury nor poverty) - laws that govern them are not themselves - the Buddha believed that because of one's changeable although the things that are ever nature. changeable and changing. - Buddha himself did meditation under the - come from the Chinese word ch’ang, which Bodhi tree. could also be translated as eternal or abiding. - after forty nine days of meditation, Gautama - "when a thing reaches one extreme, it reverts saw himself and all life as part of an unending from it." process of change. - this invariable law is called practicing Nirvana enlightenment. - the state of bliss and detachment from the - the enlightened man associates the Tao with physical world. spontaneity and creativity; he/she frees - is a state of emptiness or "no-thing-ness." himself/herself from selfishness and desire, and - it is a state of bliss where there is no appreciates simplicity. individuality, separateness, discrimination, or Wu-Wei Theory intellectualizing. - from the general theory which states that - this is the state "pure consciousness"—the state "reversing" is the movement of the Tao, comes of emptiness. the wu-wei theory. Four Noble Truths - from the general theory which states that 1.​ suffering - because there is a cause of "reversing" is the movement of the Tao, comes suffering, there is a cessation or end to the wu-wei theory. suffering. - this theory states that everything comes from 2.​ ignorance - he identifies the problem the ultimate "wu" or "nothing" which is the which is suffering and then identifies its "unnamed" or the "invisible." cause. - the Tao consequently acts by "non-acting." 3.​ realization that there is a cure - Wu-wei is translated literally as "having no 4.​ recommendation for the cure activity" or "non-action," but it does not actually 5  mean complete absence of activity, or doing this has to be done without ulterior motive. nothing. - is a moral disposition to do good. - It could mean lesser activity or doing less or (3) Li acting without artificiality or arbitrariness. - or propriety, another of the main virtues in - the goal of wu wei is to achieve a state of perfect Confucianism. equilibrium - the code of the ritual which embodies the Man in Confucianism - essence of ancient culture. - the Confucian concept of the human person is - Li is translated as code or ritual, it means more centered on the proper conduct of a person in in the Confucian tradition. society. - pertains to proper social behavior or conduct - according to the Chinese philosopher like filial piety, loyalty, and etc. Confucius, every normal human being - if one has Yi, then it will be easy for him/her to cherishes the aspiration to become a superior practice Li. man. ~ A good description of the “perfect man” is one - Confucius wanted his disciples to be more than a who "combines the qualities of saint, scholar, literati or ju, he wanted them to be well-rounded and gentleman." men Xiǎo Rén - The sage or the wise is the most ideal type of - The opposite of the jun tzu is the xiǎorén. person - means "small person." - Confucius encouraged his followers to be a jun - characterized as having shallowness of thinking, tzu or gentleman. being egoistic and self-interested, and being Jun Tzu greedy and materialistic. - is second only to the sage. Islamic Conception of Man - - the jun tzu lives a simple life and can live in - Islam is one of the major monotheistic religions poverty. in the world. - he is loyal, obedient, and knowledgeable. - Muslims address God as Allah. - A jun tzu is also disciplined, hardworking, and Qur'an does not engage in empty talk. - the Holy Book of Islam which contains the Virtues in Confucian Ethical System message of Allah given to His prophet (1) Jen Mohammed, asserts that Allah is Omniscient, - or human heartedness is the fundamental omnipotent and omnipresent. virtue of the jun tzu. - He knows what has happened, what will - Jen or Ren is the first and foremost of the happen and how it will happen. virtues. - He determines everything such that no affair - is the perfect virtue and is the cardinal occurs in the whole world except by His will. principle of humanism. Islam - the man of jen is a man of virtue. - emphasized the importance of knowing oneself - for the jun tzu, it is the supreme virtue. based on the divine source, the One who created (2) Yi him/her. - a righteous act is done without any selfish - human persons have been trying to know motive or intention themselves and in their desire to know - is "oughtness of a situation." themselves. - this means that everyone in the society has a - they have to follow the words of Allah and must certain thing which he/she needs to do, but obey His laws. 6  - Otherwise, they would lose themselves and he/she possesses qualities of the animate and become confused between two inanimate worlds extremes—selfishness and worthlessness. 3 Prominent Philosophers of Ancient Greek - This is why he/she lowers himself/ herself down Philosophy and submits to physical or material objects, like (1) Socrates - the sun, the moon, and other beings other than - known as a moralist, a philosopher who Allah. advocates moral transformation among the - humans have two origins. First is the spiritual citizens of Athens origin wherein God created humans from dust before breathing life into them. The second is - famous teaching: self-knowledge the biological origin wherein humans came from > he admonished his follows to “know thyself” the womb of their mother. > for him, one can only transform one’s self if - This reality expressed in the Qur'an is meant to he/she knows himself/herself remove from persons any form of arrogance so Socratic Dialogues that they should humble themselves and submit - written by his student Plato to Allah alone. - contained his teachings and philosophy - a person is indeed a privileged being because Socratic Method although Allah created him/her like any other - known as “dialogue” because of the creature. conversational and question-answer nature of - the Islamic philosophers were influenced by the his way of teaching Greek philosopher Aristotle in their - according to Socrates, the philosopher’s task is interpretation of their Islamic faith. to stir the mind of people & make them think for - Allah made the whole of creation in the service themselves instead of following the dictates and of the person and put him/her in charge of all His thinking of others creation. (2) Plato - - Allah gave humans the faculty that will enable - student & follow of Socrates them to differentiate good from evil. - man has two components: body and soul - Allah has raised them above the rest of creation > our soul preexisted in the ideal world, and thus and were entrusted with taking control of has already knowledge of the ideas, but the creation. soul got united with the body & temporarily - this reality expressed in the Qur'an is meant to forgot the knowledge it acquired from the remove from persons any form of arrogance so world of ideas. Thus, to gain knowledge, man that they should humble themselves and submit must recall all the ideas that the soul had to Allah alone. already known before through experience - thus, Plato believed that there were 2 types of 2.2: Western Conceptions of Man worlds: Ideal World Ancient Greek Conception of Man - - world of ideas Ancient Philosophy - is the true reality - a.k.a. ancient Greek philosophy - everything is perfect and good - generally described as a cosmocentric philosophy Material World because the search for truth and knowledge is - we see and experience centered on the nature of the universe--the - only a copy of the ideal world cosmos (3) Aristotle (Not Aristocrat) - - the human is perceived as part of the cosmos 7  - student of Plato; followed his philosophy for a - the most important is the will, since it is the while function to love, because of the will, the soul is - later, he developed his own philosophy restless, because of that, it prompts > he did not subscribe to Plato’s idea of 2 the soul to search for meaning and truth different worlds; there is only one world which - this search for truth reaches God, who is the is the physical world which we experience Truth Himself, and the real meaning of human > ideas are the products of one’s own mind or existence, hence, St. Augustine said "My heart is thinking restless until it rests in Thee (God)." > man is a rational being capable of conceiving - so, for St. Augustine, the divine spark is the cause ideas of this restlessness, and it will remain until he/she > the soul did not pre-exist in a separate ideal returns to God after death, but because of world Mankind's imperfect nature, they cannot return to > Aristotle defines soul as a “principle of life so God on their own, they need His grace, and will that every living being has soul because it has only receive it if they have faith in Him life” > 3 kinds of souls corresponding to the 3 living (2) St. Thomas -​ beings: - also adopted the Christian understanding of (1) vegetative = proper to plants man, but enriched himself by understanding other (2) sentient = proper to animals philosophers ideas' (3) rational = soul of man - followed Aristotle's notion of the man as being > the body is the physical principle of man which composed of body and soul enables the human being to nourish, grow, - describes man as a human person as concrete, reproduce, sense, feel, and move existing, individual > soul is the one that gives life to the body - the rational soul is the basis of intelligence and ~ it is through the body that the soul can fully will, this is the very foundation of a person operate and function - though a human is composed of spiritual and ~ hence, according to Aristotle, the body and corporeal, the spirit and the body it the spirit that soul are substantially united offers dignity Medieval Conception Of Man- - the term corporeal means "bodily"; corpus means Medieval Philosophy "body", it is the spiritual component of the person - can be described as theocentric, meaning, the that is made after God search for truth is centered on God - the human person is made in the image of God, - combined the Greek's philosophical ideas with because of their capacity for understanding their theological ideas/religious beliefs and being a master of themselves The 2 Main Philosophers Of The Medieval Period Modern Conception Of Man - (1) St. Augustine - - the ultimate aim of a human is no longer eternal - first proposed the idea that humanity was salvation in heaven & be in the company of the created in the image of God divine being, but rather to develop natural talents - said that the world was created by Him out of & reason & to satisfy natural desires nothing and through his free act Modern Period - describes the soul as spiritual, simple, and - generally characterized as anthropocentric and immortal rationalistic - the soul has three functions-- being, - the search for truth is centered on man and understanding, and loving human reason, which is liberated from the 8  influence of faith a stream of consciousness - during the Period of Enlightenment, the later > the human person puts into flesh his/her years of the modern period, philosophy was subjectivity; the human body puts into action understood to be not just an instrument for his/her intentions & incarnates the meaning and intelligence but also for human happiness initiative that emanates from his/her core which > one can fight against ignorance and tyranny by is his/her consciousness developing his/her natural powers; one can > one basic experience of a human person is that improve his/her natural powers through he/she lives in this world together with other education which will lead to happiness men Rene Descartes Existentialism - French philosopher; one of the leading - challenges the human person to question his/her philosophers of the modern period existence, the meaning of their own existence as - describes man as being composed of body and a human person spirit or mind - the focus therefore is on individual existence > these two components are separate substances - the human person is an individual who is or entities having different attributes and constantly faced with situations wherein he/she functions has to make important decisions that could spell ~ the mind does not depend on the body in the difference between authentic and inauthentic order to exist or be understood; it is capable of existence conscious acts like doubting, thinking, and > authentic existence = a meaningful existence; willing one’s experiences are always unique to a person ~ the mind is not an extended substance and Facticity does not take up space; it is not made of parts - refers to those features that are given to us and & cannot be corrupted or destroyed fixed from without ~ the body is not conscious and is moved by - gender, race, physical features, environment we mechanical forces acting on it are born into ~ the body is an extended substance & occupies Transcendence space & can be divided into more elementary - refers to the features of our existence which have components been decided and created by us The Conception Of Man In Contemporary - - our future actions and decisions Philosophy- Intersubjectivity Existentialists and Phenomenologists - personal relationship between two persons or - emphasize more man’s subjectivity, his/her subjects: the I and Thou freedom, and relation with his/her fellow humans Depersonalization and Dehumanization - contemporary philosophers focus on the - the human being deprived of his/her personhood existential and practical aspects of human and degraded as a human being existence - the human person is deprived of personal - diverting from the traditional definition of the qualities or individuality; he/she is sometimes human as a “rational animal,” the Existentialist treated like an object or a thing thinkers regard the human person as a subject, an “embodied spirit,” or an “incarnate subjectivity” 3.1: The Notions of Being and Person > according to them, the human person is first Being - and foremost a subjectivity, a center or unique - anything that exists within our reality, core, a well-spring of initiative and meaning, and surrounding both the physical world & the reality 9  of one’s mind > a human person is a substance and can - according to Aristotle: whatever it is therefore exist on its own, has his/her separate > whatever that can be the subject of a true individual existence, and he/she does not preposition contains the word is or to be depend on other objects for his/her existence > whatever exists or has existence can be - the human rational nature comes from the fact considered a being that each one has his/her spirit or soul - according to Plato: it is not an existence in > the human person is the only being who has a general, but specifically something like a human, spiritual nature or rational soul or spirit, making horse, etc. him/her the most perfect being in the physical > being is something recognizable by its quality or world (this perfection is their result of the shape rational and thus spiritual nature which subsists - according to existentialists: existence pertains to in one’s person) only the human person > this spiritual nature is manifested in 2 > only human persons are beings & human properties: reason/intelligence and will existence is always individual & unique ~ because of these two, the person is always a > this means that existence pertains to one’s rational & free individual being existence and another person’s existence - St. Thomas Aquinas described the relationship - a human person is a being because he/she exists between body & soul using the Hylomorphic and has his/her own individual human existence Theory > this is why a human person is different from Hylomorphic Theory - other beings or entities that exist - hylomorphic comes from Greek “hyle” (“matter”) Object vs. Person and “morphe” (“form”) - an object cannot feel, think, and relate with you > soul is the form; body is the matter - a person is able to relate with you & you can - soul is the principle of life & activity of the human relate with them - body is temporal (a subject to aging and decay); > can also be seen as a subject (a subject has soul has eternal qualities (immortal) thoughts, intentions, wishes, and aspirations) - as the substantial form of the body, the soul has Person - powers or faculties that are intrinsically - is not an object; he/she is a subject dependent on matter or the body; these faculties - as a subject, the human person has a body & a are the sensory faculties: spirit or soul (1) Cognitive Faculties - the senses > through their body, they are able to express or (2) Appetitive Faculties - the emotions or feelings show their intentions as well as manifest their > these faculties are found in the person since feelings they belong to the concrete human being; they > through their spirit, theta re able to reason, contribute to the shaping of the psychological & desire, wish, and will moral personalities of the person - also an individual; meaning, even if they are > following St. Thomas’ thoughts, Karol Wojtyla somehow the same as other persons, they are (St. John Paul II) asserts that all the faculties of also unique from others the human soul work together to perfect the > one does not think or feel or relate in exactly the human being same way others do The Uniqueness and Dignity of the Human - The Person as Body and Soul - Person - - according to St. Thomas, a person is a being since - a human personal is composed of both the it is a substance; he/she exists spiritual and corporeal: spirit & the body 10  > the relationship between the body & soul is Individuality and Personality - what’s described by St. John Paul II as the “basic - according to Jacques Maritain (1947), the human importance for understanding the whole being has two poles: a material pole called uniqueness of the human person, as well as for ‘Individuality’ & a spiritual pole called ‘Personality’ explaining the whole structure of the human - spiritual substances or spiritual beings are not person” rooted in matter, such as angels - because of a human person’s spirituality, he/she is > God the Supreme being is known as the most an image of God the Supreme Being perfect individual - a person can be considered both as an object & - material substances or material beings, according subject to St. Thomas Aquinas, have their individuality > as an object, man is ‘somebody’, setting him rooted in matter apart from every other entity in the visible > Individuality signifies a person’s presence in the world, which as an object is only ‘something’ physical world - the human person can be distinguished from all - the human body has a physical body and a spirit other entities because of his/her specific inner > these are the two substantial co-principles of self, an inner life that is characteristic only of a the human being person > the complexity of the human person having > even advanced animals are different from both material & spiritual aspects is what makes humans due to their own inner life (spiritual life) him/her unique from all other beings in the > the spiritual character is fundamental in the world formation of a genuine interior or inner life Personality - > humans establish contact and relate with all - interior of the human person which is derived other things through their inner selves from one’s spiritual being The Irreducibility of the Human Person - - a person cannot just be considered as one of the 3.2: The Human Person as Hylomorphic Being many objects in the world because humans are The Theory of Hylomorphism - human subjects (unique and unrepeatable) - the human person as discussed in the previous - one human cannot be substituted for another lesson, is composed of the body and soul. The - according to St. John Paul II, the concept of main theory of Hylomorphism is another way to look at as belonging to the genera of animals simply the human being. makes him/her as one of the objects of the world Hylomorphism & fails to picture man as a personal subject; this - also called hylemorphism, the term comes from understanding is only at the “cosmological level” two Greek words: hyle, meaning “matter” and > humans can be considered as species of morphe, meaning “form.” animals, but their humanity is NOT identical - according to this theory, all corporeal beings are with the nature of the animals made up of matter and form. First expounded by > people are not just beings defined according to Aristotle and later adopted by St. Thomas their species but as a concrete self, a Aquinas. self-experiencing subject “Corporeal” - The Understanding of Man - - the word corporeal is derived from the Latin - must be “personalistic” term copus, meaning “bodily or physical.” Personalism - There are two kinds of corporeal beings – - focuses on the personal, the inner aspect of the animate and inanimate: human being that is irreducible Animate Beings 11  - An animate being is a living being or a living confined in a space. organism. (3) SIMPLE, because it is not made of parts and - A soul is only found within these beings as a cannot be disintegrated into smaller parts; and principle of their lives; while in man, the soul is lastly, called the spirit. (4) IMMORTAL, which means it will continue to ex. Plants, Insects, and Men live even after the body has died. It will continue Inanimate Beings to live forever and only God the Supreme Being - An inanimate being is a non-living being. can annihilate the rational soul. - Non-living beings do not have a soul, only a The Faculties of Man in General - form. - previously, Aristotle described man as a rational ex. Pencil, Rock, Chair animal, meaning that they are capable of animate powers including vegetative, sentient and The Body and Soul Within Man rational. - The physical principle of man is the matter and (1) Vegetative faculty this physicality is manifested in his/her having a - the vital faculty that includes the operations of body. nutrition, augmentation, and reproduction. - The spiritual principle of man is the form and this A.​ Nutrition - absorption and assimilation of spirituality is manifested in one having a spirit or food. soul. B.​ Augmentation - capacity to increase in - The soul is the one that gives life to the body size as a result of nutrition. which is why when the soul leaves the body after C.​ Reproduction - capacity to generate one’s a person dies, their body becomes lifeless; So- own kind. - for a man to be complete and alive, he/she must (2) Sentient faculty have both body and soul that are substantially - the senses and the appetites: united. A.​ Sense - the material cognitive faculty of a The Three Vital Principles or Souls - human. Includes the external senses (ex. - According to Aristotle and St. Thomas Aquinas, Sense of sight, taste, smell, hearing and the three vital principles or souls are: touch) and internal senses (ex. Common (1) Vegetative - proper to the plants sense, imagination, memory and (2) Sentient - proper to the animals estimative sense). (3) Rational - soul of the man B.​ Appetite - the natural inclination towards These souls have their corresponding faculties of anything that one perceives to be good or powers. In the rational soul, all these powers are away from anything that is evil. inherent to man. (3) Rationality and Intelligence The Nature of Rational Soul - - is the faculty that differentiates a human from - The rational soul is described as spiritual, other corporeal beings. immaterial, simple and immortal. - it is a power that is proper to a human. A human The rational soul is… has two rational faculties – Intellect and Will: (1) SPIRITUAL, because it doesn’t depend on the A.​ Intellect - is the spiritual cognitive faculty body for its existence – it would continue to live of humans that enables man to know even after it is separated from the body. objects that are spiritual, immaterial, (2) IMMATERIAL, because it is not physical and is abstract, and universal. It enables people not subjected to the law of materiality. It can to recognize and understand the world transcend or go beyond time and cannot be and each other. 12  B.​ Will - is the faculty of volition – the faculty (2) Imagination - is the sense that forms in the of choice. It inclines man to lean towards a mind the image of an object without an actual or rational good or move away from a concrete reference to time, whether past, present, rational evil. It is the faculty that enables or future. This has 3 functions: the Formative, people to make choices and determine Reproductive and Creative function. their course of action. (3) Memory - is the sense that forms the images of past experiences, events, or objects perceived in The Senses: External and Internal the past. This has 2 functions: Recall and - previously mentioned, the sense is simply defined Recognition. as the material cognitive faculty. As a material (4) Estimative Sense - is the sense that perceives faculty, it is dependent on the bodily organs for its the harmfulness or usefulness of an object. operations. Because it is a physical or material The Emotions or Sentient Appetites - concrete, tangible and individual object. - the sentient appetites are the emotions. It is a Two Kinds of Senses of a Human Being natural tendency to seek what is good and avoid (1) External - Image formed by the external sense what is evil. and the common sense is called the precept (the - Aristotle classified the sentient appetites into product of the common sense; is the image of the two: the concupiscible and irascible. object while it is present to the external senses). A.​ The Concupiscible Appetites (2) Internal - Image formed by the imagination and - Are the mild emotions; they simply seek what is stored in one’s memory is called phantasm. (The good and avoid what is evil. image of the object that is stored either in the (1) Love - natural inclination toward imagination or memory. It is the phantasm that we something simply apprehended as good. recall in memory). (2) Hatred - natural inclination to stay The Five External Senses - away from what is simply apprehended to (1) Sense of Sight - it is through this sense that be evil. people acquire more information or data about (3) Desire - natural inclination toward objects and reality. (The objects of this sense are good which is at the moment absent but color, shape, size and structure) possible to maintain. (2) Sense of Hearing - the object of this sense is (4) Aversion - natural inclination to move sound. away from evil that is absent at the (3) Sense of Smell - the object of this sense is moment but possible to happen. odor or scent. (5) Joy/Happiness - taking comfort in the (4) Sense of Taste - the object of this sense is fact that something good is apprehended flavor or savor. or possessed. (5) Sense of Touch - is a complex sense as it (6) Sadness - is the sorrow caused by the acquires different information about objects. possession of or occurrence of evil. OBjects of this sense are temperature, pressure, B.​ The Irascible Appetites and texture. - Are the emergency emotions. The Four Internal Senses - - Their objects are difficult to attain, or difficult to (1) Common/Central Sense - it is the sense that avoid. receives, distinguishes and relates to the different (1) Hope - natural inclination toward stimuli and sensations received by the external something good perceived as difficult but senses. possible to attain or happen. 13  (2) Despair - natural inclination to move - it is the faculty that inclines man to tend toward a away from something good perceived as rational good or move away from a rational evil difficult and impossible to attain. - it is considered as a blind faculty and that it only (3) Courage - natural inclination toward acts after the intellect. It is blind in the sense that something evil perceived as imminent but it cannot make a choice unless the intellect possible to overcome. considers first its object and passes a judgement (4) Fear - natural inclination to move away on the object if it's good or evil. from something evil perceived as grave, - the will acts on the recommendation and imminent, or impossible to overcome. judgement of the intellect. (5) Anger - the vehement inclination to fight and inflict harm upon an object Aristotle maintains that the will of man is always perceived as evil. free. Intellectual and Will - The two kinds of Freedom A.​ Intellect (1) Freedom of Exercise - is the freedom to do or - the intellect is the rational and spiritual cognitive not to do, or to act or not to act. faculty of man. As a spiritual faculty, it does not (2) Freedom of Specification - is the freedom to depend on the bodily organs for its existence and choose from different alternatives or courses of operations. action. - however, as a cognitive faculty of man, it depends on man’s other faculties, particularly the senses, for it to have knowledge. The Process of Abstraction - - is defined as the process by which the intellect “strips” the object of its non-essential qualities or elements, retains the essential ones and from them, forms the mental image called the idea. - through the process of abstraction, the intellect, though it is a spiritual faculty, could form a mental image from a material object. Three Operations of Intellect: (1) Simple apprehension is the operation by which the intellect forms the idea, which is expressed in a term. (2) Judgement is the second operation of the intellect by which it compares two ideas, pronounces their identity or non-identity and expresses this mental judgement in a proposition. (3) Reasoning is the third operation of the intellect by which the intellect is able to form another proposition out of these previously known propositions which were the result of judgement. B.​ Will - the will is the faculty of volition, the faculty of choice. 14