Human Factors Full PDF

1 Human Performance One 6ENT1169 Navigation, Human Factors and Meteorology Dr Ivan Sikora Module Aims 2 TO ENABLE STUDENTS TO GAIN AN TO DEVELOP KNOWLEDGE TO DEVELOP A UNDERSTANDING OF HOW AND UN...

1 Human Performance One 6ENT1169 Navigation, Human Factors and Meteorology Dr Ivan Sikora Module Aims 2 TO ENABLE STUDENTS TO GAIN AN TO DEVELOP KNOWLEDGE TO DEVELOP A UNDERSTANDING OF HOW AND UNDERSTANDING OF THE ATMOSPHERIC THE FACTORS THAT LIMIT COMPREHENSIVE CONDITIONS IMPACT VFR HUMAN PERFORMANCE. UNDERSTANDING OF (VISUAL FLIGHT RULES) AND THE PRINCIPLES OF IFR (INSTRUMENT FLIGHT AIRCRAFT NAVIGATION RULES) OPERATIONS. Human Performance Module Team One Ms Joanna Rawska (Module Leader) Dr Ivan Sikora (Module Tutor) Associate Director of Academic Quality Principal Lecturer Assurance (Curriculum Management) Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]  4 Today’s Lecture Content  HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY 5 ❑ Fundamental Knowledge of Atmosphere EASA Part-FCL / eRules ❑ The Circulation System Aug 2020 (Subpart C) ❑ Oxygen and Respiration ❑ The Human Ear ❑ The Human Eye and Vision  6 Fundamental Knowledge of Atmosphere Human Performance Fundamental Knowledge of Atmosphere One STRUCTURE of ATMOSPHERE 1000 Miles EXOSPHERE NOT TO SCALE 400 Miles IONOSPHERE -70˚C +10˚C 40 Miles -56.5˚C STRATOSPHERE Tropopause -56.5˚C 6 Miles TROPOSPHERE SL +15˚C Human Performance Fundamental Knowledge of Atmosphere The Atmosphere One APPROXIMATE COMPOSITION of DRY AIR ‘Other gases’ includes Carbon Dioxide and rare gases such as Argon, Xenon etc. The atmosphere contains varying amounts of WATER VAPOUR Human Performance Fundamental Knowledge of Atmosphere One International Standard Atmosphere TEMPERATURE PROFILE 20.0 10.0 +15˚C = Things to REMEMBER Temperature (C) 0.0 -10.0 0 20 40 60 80 -20.0 -30.0 -40.0 -50.0 -60.0 -56.5˚C -70.0 Altitude (x1000) Temperature (C) PRESSURE PROFILE USEFUL DATUM used for: 1200.0 1000.0 1013.2 Density =1225 g/m3 Pressure (Mb) Measuring aircraft performance. 800.0 600.0 Calibrating instruments. 400.0 200.0 Operating aircraft. 0.0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Altitude (x1000) Pressure Human Performance Fundamental Knowledge of Atmosphere One GAS LAWS BOYLE’s LAW The pressure x volume = constant ie: P x V = C If pressure is increased the volume decreases CHARLES’ LAW The volume divided by the temperature = constant ie: V / T = C If temperature is increased the volume increases GENERAL GAS EQUATION Boyle’s and Charles’ law combined ie: P V / T = C where C is the Gas Constant DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURES In a mixture of gases, the total pressure = the sum of the pressures of the individual gases ie: Pt = P1 + P2 + etc Human Performance Fundamental Knowledge of Atmosphere One DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURES 1 (3000 hPa) 2 (1500 hPa) 3 (1500 hPa) Gas A + B Gas A Gas B Gas A Gas B Ptotal = PA + PB Human Performance Fundamental Knowledge of Atmosphere One  13 The Circulation System Human Performance The Circulation System One CIRCULATION SCHEMATIC Lungs Left Right Atrium Atrium Heart Right Ventricle Left Ventricle Body Oxygenated Blood Contaminated Blood (Front View) Human Performance The Circulation System One THE HEART OXYGENATED BLOOD TO BODY CONTAMINATED http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Diagram_of_the_human_heart_%28cropped%29.svg/300px-Diagram_of_the_human_ CONTAMINATED BLOOD TO BLOOD FROM LUNGS THE BODY CONTAMINATED BLOOD TO LUNGS OXYGENATED BLOOD FROM OXYGENATED LUNGS BLOOD FROM LUNGS  16 Oxygen and Respiration Human Performance Oxygen and Respiration One LUNGS File:Illu bronchi lungs.jpg Human Performance Oxygen and Respiration One O2 TRANSPORTATION Alveolus The surface of the Alveoli are covered (about 70%) with a mesh of capillaries. The blood entering the matrix gives up its CO2 and picks up O2 from the air in the Alveolus. Human Performance Oxygen and Respiration One O2 TRANSPORTATION O2 O2 O2 O2 Alveolus AIR O2 Wall Capillary CO2 Haemoglobin Oxygenated Blood De-Oxygenated Blood Oxygen binds to the Haemoglobin in the RED blood cells Human Performance Oxygen and Respiration One ❖ The amount of O2 NEED FOR OXYGEN carried by the Haemoglobin depends upon the partial pressure of the Oxygen in the atmosphere. Hence, as altitude is increased, partial pressure falls and O2 absorption also falls. ❖ An insufficient supply of O2 will result in a condition known as Hypoxia (you may see Anoxia which is a term for severe hypoxia). ❖ The symptoms of Hypoxia vary but can be: ▪ Apparent personality change (Lethargy, Euphoria, Aggression) ▪ Co-ordination problems ▪ Vision impairment ▪ Drowsiness ▪ Light headedness, dizziness ▪ Blue colouring of lips, nose, fingers (called Cyanosis) ▪ Unconsciousness & Death ❖ The onset of Hypoxia, at a given altitude, can be accelerated by: ▪ Workload or physical exercise ▪ Drugs or alcohol ▪ Illness ▪ Smoking Human Performance Oxygen and Respiration One Time of USEFUL CONCIOUSNESS ❖ In a state of Hypoxia we need to know how long a pilot has during which he can perform his tasks safely. ❖ This is known as the TIME OF USEFUL CONCIOUSNESS. ❖ This time reduces dramatically above 10,000ft down to a few seconds above 40,000ft. Human Performance Oxygen and Respiration One OXYGEN REQUIREMENTS In order to prevent Hypoxia we can: ❖ Pressurise the cabin (Normally all commercial transport aircraft are pressurised to 8,000ft). ❖ In an unpressurised aircraft, some military aircraft and in the event of a pressurisation failure we need to breath supplementary Oxygen. ❖ The requirements for oxygen are: ❖ SL to 10,000ft – normal air only (Some people may be affected). ❖ 10,000ft to 33,700ft – additional oxygen added to the air. ❖ 33,700ft to 40,000ft – 100% oxygen required. ❖ Above 40,000ft – Pressurised 100% oxygen. Human Performance Oxygen and Respiration One HYPERVENTILATION ❖ If you breath very deeply and frequently you could cause Hyperventilation. ❖ This is caused by the reduction in CO2 which the brain monitors in order to regulate breathing. ❖ The symptoms of hyperventilation are many and varied but typically are: ▪ Light Headedness or dizziness. ▪ Visual impairment such as poor focussing or tunnel vision. ▪ Tingling around lips fingers. ▪ Impaired performance. ▪ Unconsciousness. ❖ Note how similar these symptoms are to Hypoxia hence the two can be confused. ❖ If these symptoms occur below approximately 10,000ft then suspect Hyperventilation and if above, suspect Hypoxia. Human Performance Oxygen and One Respiration DEPRESSURISATION ❖ If a passenger aircraft looses cabin pressure Oxygen must be provided for all on board and an EMERGENCY DESCENT initiated. ❖ Other problems caused by depressurisation are due to the gas expansion within the body i.e.: ▪ Sinuses. ▪ Eustachian Tubes in the ears. ▪ Intestinal system. ▪ Teeth fillings. Human Performance Oxygen and Respiration One EFFECT OF ‘G’ ❖ The effect of pulling a lot of ‘G’ is to pool the blood in the lower part of the body thus starving the brain. ❖ In the military, pilots will wear anti ‘G’ suits which squeeze the legs and abdomen as ‘G’ is applied. ❖ Exceeding your personal limit can cause ‘Black out’. ❖ Exceeding your personal negative ‘G’ limit can cause ‘Red out’. Human Performance Oxygen and Respiration One DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS (The Bends) ❖ If Ambient pressure is REDUCED, any dissolved N2 in the blood can come out of solution and can form gas bubbles. ❖ It is a significant potential problem for divers using compressed air SCUBA equipment. ❖ If these bubbles forms: a) in the JOINTS it causes pain and is called the ‘BENDS’. b) in the SKIN it is called the ‘CREEPS’. ❖ Since the risk is much higher for divers then it is important to observe c) in the INNER EAR it is known as the ‘STAGGERS’. the following: d) in the BRAIN which causes amnesia etc. 1. Do NOT fly within 12 HOURS of SCUBA diving to 30ft max. 2. Do NOT fly within 24 HOURS if you have exceeded 30ft.  27 To Be Continued in The Next Lecture…  28 The Human Ear Human Performance The Human One Ear Human Performance The Human One Ear Human Ear OUTER MIDDLE EAR INNER EAR EAR The EAR is provides for TWO main functions: HEARING & BALANCE Pinna Auditory Canal STRUCTURE OF THE EAR Human Performance The Human One Ear Middle Ear Ossicles Tensor Tympani Icnus (anvil) Malleus Stapedius Labrynth Stapes Auditory Canal Tympanic Cavity Tympanic Membrane Eustachian Tube or Ear Drum Human Performance The Human One Ear HOW WE HEAR Tensor Tympani This muscle controls the tension of the ear drum The malleus passes vibrational energy to the This results in Icnus (anvil) vibration of the Malleus This vibration is then passed to Stapes Airborne vibrations pass down the Auditory Canal This causes the Tympanic Membrane or Ear Drum to vibrate From the Stapes the energy passes down the Cochlea to the AUDITORY NERVE Human Performance The Human One Ear HEARING FREQUENCY RANGE ❖ Normal range is 20 Hz to 20 kHz (20,000 Hz). ❖ This range varies between individuals. ❖ Range deteriorates with age especially at the high frequency end of the spectrum. ❖ Hearing tests form part of the regular medical. Human Performance The Human One Ear EAR PROTECTION COCKPIT NOISE LEVELS ❖ Damage to hearing threshold is about 90dB. ❖ A typical light aircraft cockpit can be around 100 to 115 dB. ❖ Headsets are therefore essential. ❖ Headsets can cut out around 25-30dB. ❖ Active Noise Reduction (ANR) headsets can cut out much more ambient noise. ❖ ANR has one big disadvantage ------------------------------------------ ❖ You may miss a noise indicative of an engine or other problem. Human Performance The Human One Ear INNER EAR (Labrynth) Semi-Circular Canals Otolith Organs Human Performance The Human One Ear INNER EAR (Labrynth) Otolith Organs Human Performance The Human One Ear The OTOLITH ORGANS ❖ The Otolith Organs sense Linear Acceleration. ❖ Horizontal acceleration in the Ultricle and Vertical in the Saccule. Ultricle or Acceleration Saccule Endolymph (fluid) Hair Cell Filaments Nerve Human Performance The Human One Ear SEMI-CIRCULAR CANALS ❖ The Semi-circular Canals sense Angular Acceleration in much the same way as do the Otolith organs. Semi-Circular Canals Human Performance The Human One Ear SEMI-CIRCULAR CANALS To brain ❖ If the canal is rotated then the fluid displaces the sensing hairs which then sends signals to the nerves and hence to the brain. ❖ This occurs in THREE planes, hence the head position can be determined.  40 The Human Eye and Vision Human Performance The Human Eye and One Vision COMPONENTS OF THE EYE Schematic diagram of the human eye en.svg Lens muscle Lens Optic nerve Iris Pupil Fovea Cornea Retina Human Performance The Human Eye and One Vision ❖Comprises RETINA ▪ Cones ❑Located in the Fovea which is the centre of the retina. ❑Sensitive to colour. ❑Sensitive to detail. ❑Not good in low light conditions. ▪ Rods ❑Concentrated around the periphery of the retina. ❑Sensitive to low light conditions. ❑Sensitive to movement (Peripheral vision more likely to detect faint light sources and movement). Human Performance The Human Eye and One Vision NORMAL EYE RANGE Lens THIN Light from Infinity Light from Near Object Lens FAT Approx 25cm Human Performance The Human Eye and One Vision SHORT SIGHTED - MYOPIA Object from INFINITY focussed IN FRONT OF RETINA. Lens THIN Light from Infinity Light from Near Object Lens FAT Less than 25cm ❖ A short sighted person can focus on close objects but parallel rays from infinity are focussed in front of the retina and the image is blurred. ❖ Caused by a lengthened eyeball or a lens defect. Human Performance The Human Eye and One Vision CORRECTION OF MYOPIA Object from INFINITY now focussed on the RETINA. Light from Infinity CONCAVE LENS MYOPIA is corrected using a CONCAVE LENS Human Performance The Human Eye and One Vision LONG SHIGHTEDNESS - HYPEROPIA Close objects are focussed behind the RETINA. Lens THIN Light from Infinity Light from Near Object Lens FAT Approx. 25cm ❖ A long sighted person can focus on infinity but close objects are focussed behind the retina and hence the image is blurred. ❖ Caused by a shortened eyeball or lens defect. Human Performance The Human Eye and One Vision CORRECTION OF HYPEROPIA Close objects are now focussed on the RETINA. Light from Infinity is no problem Light from Near Object CONVEX LENS HYPEROPIA is corrected using a CONVEX LENS PRESBYOPIA is a loss of focussing range due to aging Human Performance The Human Eye and One Vision COLOUR BLINDNESS Normal vision Colour Blind Colour Blindness is predominantly a male problem and usually results in the imposition of flying limitations. Human Performance The Human Eye and One Vision TESTING EYES http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Snellen_chart.svg/200px-Snellen_chart.svg.png Eyes are tested for VISUAL ACUITY (VA) using a chart: VA is measured using a ratio: YOUR A NORMAL range SIGHTED person’s range 20/20 (20ft ≈ 6m) 20/20 (or 6/6) is NORMAL VISION Note: 20/25 means that you can see at 20ft what a normal person can see at 25ft.  50 Thank you Dr Ivan Sikora Twitter: @Master_Mentor SKYPE: IvanS_Office WordPress: ivansikora.wordpress.com herts.ac.uk References 51 ▪ EASA Part-FCL/eRules, August 2020, Subpart C. ▪ Human Performance and Limitations, CAE Oxford ATPL Series Books. (Including pictures) ▪ Human Performance and Limitations, Atlantic Flight Training ATPL Series Books. (Including pictures) ▪ Human Factors and Pilot Performance, Volume 6, Air Pilot’s Manual, Pooley’s 2nd Edition 2003. Images are from www.google.com for illustration purposes.  1 Human Performance Two 6ENT1169 Navigation, Human Factors and Meteorology Dr Ivan Sikora  2 Today’s Lecture Content Human Performance Today’s Lecture Content One HUMAN PSYCHOLOGY ❑ Flying and Health EASA Part-FCL/eRules Aug 2020 (Subpart C) ❑ The functions of the Mind (Basic Psychology) ❑ Stress and Managing Stress  4 Flying and Health  Human Performance Flying and Health One Diet and Health ❖ The most common problem we have these days is being ’overweight’ or ‘obese’. ❖ The growth process of one’s body is completed in early 20’s. ❖ The good alternative for being healthy is to measure Body Mass Index, more commonly known as BMI. ▪ It is calculated by dividing body weight (in kg) by height (in meters) squared. For e.g. 70 e.g. someone who weigh 70 kg and 1.75 m tall, the BMI is: 2 = 22.80. 1.75 ▪ A BMI of about 25 is considered to be ‘normal’ with certain diseases, such as diabetes and high blood pressure. ▪ A BMI of 30 or above is an indication of high risk of increasing symptoms of disease mentioned above. Human Performance Flying and Health One ❖ Use this NHS link to know your BMI. Human Performance Flying and Health One Heart Disease ❖ It is the most common reasons for loss of medical certificate. ❖ Major factors in assessing the risk of heart disease are age and family history (neither of which you can do very much about). ❖ Other factors which might affect the heart diseases are: ▪ High Blood Pressure ▪ Raised blood cholesterol ▪ Diabetes An example of cholesterol in ▪ Obesity heart’s coronary ▪ Lack of Exercise artery. ▪ Stress ▪ Alcohol ▪ Drug Human Performance Flying and Health One Alcohol and Drugs ❖ Consumption of alcohol is normally absorbed in to bloodstream and carried to the brain. ❖ Alcohol initially affects higher thought processes, behaviour & mood. ❖ Alcohol gives false feeling of well-being and increased confidence and give rise to risk-taking behaviour. Human Performance Flying and Health One Alcohol and Drugs 30 mg of alcohol Increased risk of accident 50 mg of alcohol Positive Impaired Judgement 80 mg of alcohol Loss of Driving Licence 150 mg of alcohol Loss of Self Control Human Performance Flying and Health One Alcohol and Drugs 1 Unit and it takes 1 OR OR hour to dissipate ❖ In UK, “eight hours bottle to throttle” rule is quite popular to remember the rest period. ❖ Maximum ‘acceptable’ alcohol level in pilot’s blood is around 20mg/100ml (a blood/alcohol concentration of 0.02%). DO NOT DRINK AND ❖ Safe Limits of regular drinking: FLY ▪ 14-21 units per week for a woman. THEY DON’T MIX ▪ 21-28 units per week for a man. Human Performance Flying and Health One Alcohol and Drugs ❖ Social and recreational drugs such as cannabis, cocaine, LSD, ecstasy etc. have adverse effects in performance of a pilot while flying. ❖ They affect the thought process and reduce reaction times and co-ordination. ❖ Tobacco and Caffeine can also to an extent can be considered in this category. ❖ A moderate smoker at sea level may experience a physiological altitude of around 6-7000ft. For heavy smoker at sea level it is around 1—12000ft. ❖ The ‘side-stream’ smoke contains more concentrations of toxins and can damage the health of the ‘passive’ smoker. Human Performance Flying and Health One Alcohol and Drugs ❖ Caffeine is a prime ingredient in tea and coffee. It is consumed at a rates second to AVGAS. ❖ Despite stimulating and increasing alertness & good agent for anti-depressant, it does have some negative effect on body if consumed in large quantities. ❖ It an lead to conditions like insomnia, fatigue, anxiety, depression an increased reaction time. ‘Average’ safe consumption limit is around 400 mg per 24 hours. i.e. not more than Approx. 100 mg caffeine 75 mg 60 mg 4 cups of coffee. caffeine caffeine Human Performance Flying and Health One Common Medication ❖ Well known medicine (over the counter), paracetamol, or any other pain killer often used for minor injuries and aches have proved to to have some side effects and can cause drowsiness. ❖ Time limit for minimum rest: ▪ General Anaesthetic – 24 hours (48 hours recommended). ▪ Donating Blood or Plasma – 24 hours. ▪ Donating Bone Marrow – 48 hours. ▪ Operation – Re-medical examination. ▪ FAA rule – use of Viagra – 6 hours. Human Performance Flying and Health One Toxic Hazard ❖ CARBON MONOXIDE is a very dangerous gas: ▪ Colourless. ▪ Odourless. ▪ Binds to the haemoglobin in the red blood cells in preference to Oxygen. ▪ Early symptoms are insidious: defective judgement, lack of concern. ▪ Exhaust system should be well maintained. ▪ CO detectors are available. ❖ OTHER DANGERS ▪ Fuels can cause skin damage. ▪ Furnishing materials can give off toxic smoke when burning. ▪ Acid in batteries. Human Performance Flying and Health One IMSAFE ❖ A short mantra – ‘I’ M SAFE’ is simple but effective way to highlight any aeromedical problems that occasionally affects pilots. ▪ I – Illness. Am I suffering from an illness, or do I have any appreciable symptoms? ▪ M – Medication. Am I taking any medication? If so, what are the side effects? ▪ S – Stress. Am I under particular pressure or under stress? ▪ A – Alcohol. Have I had any alcohol within last eight hours? For significant amount, will it have left my system now? Do I have a hangover? ▪ F – Fatigue. Am I well rested? ▪ E – Eating. Have I had adequate nourishment before starting this flight? Ensure: I M SAFE before entering the cockpit!  16 The functions of the Mind (Basic Psychology) Human Performance The functions of the Mind (Basic Psychology) One Information Processing Iconic memory 0.5-1 sec Working 10-20 secs Memory Selective attention Central Perception Sensors Decision ACTION Filter Unit Nervous system Long term Peripheral – nerves in finger tips etc Permanent Echoic Central – spinal chord and brain Memory memory Autonomic – heart, lung, digestive system etc 2-8 secs Human Performance The functions of the Mind (Basic Psychology) One Memory ❖ Is limited to about 7 unrelated items. ❖ Lasts about 10-20 secs. ❖ Needs rehearsing. Working ❖ Data is easier to remember if ‘Chunked’. Memory ❖ 0 1 5 3 6 4 9 8 2 6 7 is easier to remember as 01536 498 267. ❖ Acoustic information is easier to recall than visual. ❖ Always WRITE DOWN important information. ❖ Semantic memory. ▪ Database of knowledge. Long term Meaning of words. Memory Learning a checklist. ❖ Episodic memory. ▪ Recollection of events. Human Performance The functions of the Mind (Basic Psychology) One Skills ❖ Skillful tasks are performed by the Motor memory. MOTOR ❖ When learning first, the student uses the central processing system MEMORY and needs to concentrate on the task. ❖ Eventually the process becomes automatic and is performed without conscious effort. ❖ Unfortunately the task is prone to ‘slips’ and hence must always be monitored. ❖ Constant feedback is required for most tasks demanded of the PAYING pilot. ATTENTION ❖ There is always a trade off between ‘SELECTIVE & ‘DIVIDED’ attention. For example, on approach, one must primarily control the glide path but also monitor the speed and continually lookout. Human Performance The functions of the Mind (Basic Psychology) One Workload AROUSAL LEVEL ❖ Low workload Optimum ❖ Being is equally as bad overloaded is as a workload Efficiency common for that is too high as learners but it affects arousal being under level and hence aroused is often a ‘Overloaded’ efficiency. ‘Half asleep’ problem for Arousal level experienced pilots. Human Performance The functions of the Mind (Basic Psychology) One Spatial Disorientation ❖ A general description of any false perception of the aircraft’s attitude is spatial disorientation. Under acceleration When an aircraft accelerates, the the pilot thinks he is climbing pilot senses a false ‘pitch up’. Acceleration Inertia Apparent gravity sensed Gravity Gravity by pilot Human Performance The functions of the Mind (Basic Psychology) One Spatial Disorientation When an aircraft decelerates, the pilot senses a ‘pitch down’. Under deceleration the pilot thinks the aircrafts has pitched down Deceleration Apparent Inertia gravity sensed Gravity by pilot Gravity Human Performance The functions of the Mind (Basic Psychology) One Visual Illusions Runway slope illusion ❖ A down-sloping runway can create the illusion that the aircraft is lower than it actually is, leading to a higher approach. ❖ An upsloping runway can create the illusion that the aircraft is higher than it actually is, leading to a lower approach. Normal approach Approach due to illusion Human Performance The functions of the Mind (Basic Psychology) One Visual Illusions Runway width illusion ❖ A narrower-than-usual runway can create an illusion that the aircraft is higher than it actually is, leading to a lower approach. ❖A wider-than-usual runway can create an illusion that the aircraft is lower than it actually is, leading to a higher approach. Normal approach Approach due to illusion Human Performance The functions of the Mind (Basic Psychology) One LOOKOUT ❖ Always keep a good lookout and use the correct technique. PAUSE to focus eyes Human Performance The functions of the Mind (Basic Psychology) One LOOKOUT ❖ Watch out for aircraft remaining on the same spot on the screen: Constant bearing = constant danger  Human Performance The functions of the Mind (Basic Psychology) One Human Behaviour Skill Based behaviour Rule Based behaviour Knowledge Based behaviour ❖ Consists of actions which ❖ Major contribution to flight ❖ Occurs due to long-term have been learnt as motor safety. memory used by pilot to skills. ❖ E.g. procedure for flying assess situation and make ❖ Mastering things requires visual circuits. i.e. the ‘Rules decisions. certain amount of conscious of the air’. ❖ Pilot with large storage of mental application. ❖ Professional flying is largely knowledge allows safer ❖ With practise, the skills is governed by rule-based decisions. learnt so that that it can be behaviour. ❖ The knowledge might have applied without conscious ❖ IFR flights are good example. been acquired through thought. Such as compulsory to fly learning process or by direct ❖ E.g. initial training of lowering 1000ft above any obstacle personal experience. flaps leads to pitch up nose within five miles of either side ❖ Incomplete knowledge is attitude requiring re-trimming of the track. threat to aviation! for level flight.  Human Performance The functions of the Mind (Basic Psychology) One Situational Awareness (SA) ❖ Definition: The perception of the elements SA ELEMENTS in the environment within a volume of time SA LEVELS and space, the comprehension of their THINK AHEAD PLANE meaning and the predictions of their status in the near future (Endsley, 1988). PATH UNDERSTAND ❖ Basically – know what is going on around NOTICE PEOPLE you and be able to interpret this information, and predict what may not NOTE: That too much thinking ahead happen in the future, i.e. seeing the can be to the detriment of what’s ‘Bigger Picture’. happening NOW so perhaps we can now say: ❖ ‘NUTA’ – Notice, Understand and Think AVIATE (NUTA) Ahead, (corresponding to Perception, NAVIGATE (NUTA) Comprehension and Projection from the COMMUNICATE (NUTA) Endsley definition). Human Performance The functions of the Mind (Basic Psychology) One Situational Awareness (SA) The link between SA, TEM and CRM ❖ TEM is the process of detecting and responding to all of the various Threats and Errors which occur when conducting a task and to ensure that their ending outcome is inconsequential. ❖ CRM is the effective utilisation of available resources (crew member, aircraft systems and supporting facilities e.g. ground personnel) to achieve a safe and efficient operation. Threats Threat and Error Management Identify POTENTIAL threats AVOID and avoid them TEM was developed as a Identify CURRENT threats that psychological framework to TRAP are developing and correct them improve Human Performance in Identify ERRORS that have dynamic, operational MITIGATE occurred and limit the damage environments.  30 Stress and Managing Stress Human Performance Stress and Managing Stress One What is Stress? ❖ There are several definition of stress in different textbooks. Oxford dictionary defines stress as “a demand upon physical or mental energy”. ❖ We generally require some amount of stress in order to function, to keep us alert and to perceive our surroundings. ❖ Stress is triggered by the subjective interpretation of a situation and the perceived evaluation of our capabilities to cope. ❖ There is no such thing as a stressful situation, only stressful reaction. ❖ One situation, two different reaction. Human Performance Stress and Managing Stress One ❖ Human performance is generally better when relaxed, independent of the time of the day. ❖ Moderate level of stress may improve performance. ❖ Excessive or insufficient stress weakens performance. ❖ Optimum performance obtained with optimum arousal. ❖ An identical situation can be experience by one pilot as exciting in a positive sense yet by another as threatening. ❖ In both cases the arousal level will be raised. Human Performance Stress and Managing Stress One ❖ The response of the body to stress can be called as arousal and can be thought of as a state of alertness, with deep sleep at one extreme of the scale and total panic at the other. The classic ‘arousal/performance’ curve Human Performance Stress and Managing Stress One ❖ Stressors is an external or internal stimulus which is interpreted by an individual as being stressful. ❖ Examples of physiological stressors include: ▪ Noise. Environmental or Physical Stressors ▪ Temperature. Concentration ▪ Humidity. Turbulence Physical Preparation ▪ Hunger. Eye Strain Flashing Lights ❖ Keep fit ▪ Sleep Deprivation. Tired Excessive Heat ❖ Eat well Vibration ❖ Sleep well Excessive cold ❖ Relax Properly Noise ❖ Time Management Uncomfortable ❖ Control your physical Unwell environment  Human Performance Stress and Managing Stress One Intellectual, Psychological & Emotional Stressors ❖ Psychosomatic means that mental Strained and/or emotional stressor can be manifest relationship itself in an organic and physical stress with management reaction. or colleagues Marital Family ❖ Circumstance leading a pilot to stress in problems Death flight can include: Family Illness Financial Difficult Problems ▪ A plan of action needing to be revised Flight and a solution not immediately Psychological Preparation available. ▪ Inexperienced pilot when situational ❖ Be well prepared demands exceed individuals perceived ❖ Well placed confidence capabilities. ❖ Leave your worries at home ▪ Pilot convinced he/she will not be able ❖ Do not procrastinate ❖ Do not be afraid to discuss to find a solution for the problem with ❖ Do not become over excited which he/she is confronted.  36 Thank you Dr Ivan Sikora Twitter: @Master_Mentor SKYPE: IvanS_Office WordPress: ivansikora.wordpress.com herts.ac.uk References 37 ▪ EASA Part-FCL/eRules, August 2020, Subpart C. ▪ Human Performance and Limitations, CAE Oxford ATPL Series Books. (Including pictures) ▪ Human Factors and Pilot Performance, Volume 6, Air Pilot’s Manual, Pooley’s 2nd Edition 2003. ▪ Human Factors Flight Safety, Jeremy M Pratt, Airplan Flight Equipment Ltd, 2nd Edition 2003. Images are from www.google.com for illustration purposes.  1 Human Performance Three 6ENT1169 Navigation, Human Factors and Meteorology Dr Ivan Sikora  2 Today’s Lecture Content Human Performance Today’s Lecture Content One HUMAN & COCKPIT PSYCHOLOGY ❑ Personalities and CRM ERGONOMICS EASA Part-FCL/eRules Aug 2020 (Subpart C) ❑ Cockpit Design and Procedures  4 Personalities and CRM Personalities Traits 5 ❖ Personality is made by the following elements: ▪ Heredity. ▪ Childhood Environment. ▪ Upbringing. ▪ Past Experience. ❖ Attitudes are tendencies to respond people, institutions or evens either positively or negatively; are the product of personal disposition and past experience with reference to an object or a situation (e.g. extrovert/ introvert; unstable/stable). ❖ Human behaviour is determine by biological characteristics, social environment and cultural influences. ❖ Personality characteristic that make Crew Decision making most effective: assertiveness. Personalities Traits 6 ❖ Personality of an individual in general Goal-oriented either be about achieving a particular +G objective i.e. goal-motivated or Ideal concerned about the people he or she is interacting with i.e. person-motivated. + Person- -P +P oriente ❖Goal motivated person can be d described as ‘+G’ where as the opposite - is ‘-G’. -G The idealised personality ❖Similarly, Person motivated can be traits described as ‘+P’ and ‘-P’. Hazardous Attitude 7 ❖ Most common hazardous attitudes of the pilots: Hazardous Attitude Symptom Remedy “The rules are there for Anti - Authority “They can’t tell me” reason” Impulsiveness “Do something now!” “Think first, then act” “Nothing’s going to Complacency “It could happen to me” happen to me” “I’ll show them how good “Taking unnecessary Machismo Complex I am” risks is stupid” Resignation “What the point?” “I’m not helpless” Decision Making 8 ❖ Deciding means choosing between alternatives. ❖ Decision Making is a concept which represents a voluntary and conscious process of selection, from among possible solutions, for a given problem. ❖ Decision Making results in a choice between different solutions for achieving a goal. ❖ Judgement is based upon a process involving a pilot’s attitude to take and to evaluate risks by assessing the situation and making decisions. ❖ A good decision depends on the analysis of the situation. Decision Making 9 ❖ In Decision Making, the selection of a solution depends on: ▪ Objective and Subjective criteria. ▪ Objective to be achieved. ▪ Risks associated with each solution. ▪ Above all, on the personality of the decision maker. Decision Making 10 ❖ The DECIDE model is based on a prescriptive generic model, taking into account the method which seems most likely to come up with the solution. ❖ The DECIDE model is the acronym of 6 particular activities needed in the decision- making process. ▪ D = define the problem. ▪ D = develop and implement a plan of action. ▪ E = establish the criteria. ▪ E = evaluate and monitor the ▪ C = consider all the alternatives. solution and feedback when necessary. ▪ I = identify the best alternative. Decision Making 11 ❖ Abilities to improve efficient Decision Making in the cockpit: ▪ Ability to search and examine all available information regarding a situation. ▪ Ability to think ahead and specify alternative courses of action. ▪ Communicational Skills and Social Competence. ❖ When a pilot is facing a problem during flight they should take as much time as they need and is available to make up their mind. ❖ The Decision Making in emergency situation requires firstly distribution of tasks and crew co-ordination. Decision Making: Relieving the Pressure of Time 12 ❖ In order to provide optimum human performance it is advisable to establish strategies for planning, automating and managing resources (in real time). ❖ Main strategies for adapting to time constraints: ▪ Preparation of action. ▪ Prioritisation of tasks. ❖ Many pilots come up with methods to deal with situations so that they don’t have to think every time what they have to do. This has to be positively appreciated for it increases consistency in action. Decision Making: Relieving the 13 Pressure of Time ❖ Pre-taught action plans may be said to: ▪ Ease access to information which may be necessary. ▪ Sensitize and prepare for a possible situation to come. ▪ Define a framework and a probable strategy for the encountered situation. CRM - Crew (Cockpit) Resource Management 14 ❖ CRM training is intended to develop effectiveness of crew performance by improving attitudes towards safety and human relationship management. ❖ Safety is often improved by applying the principle of CRM: expression of one’s doubt or different opinion for as long as this doubt cannot be rejected on the base of evidence. ❖ The quality of crew performance depends on the social competence of individual team members. ❖ The effectiveness of the individual on the ability to balance that dictates individual’s needs and demand of reality.  15 Cockpit Design and Procedures The SHELL Model 16 ❖ Developed in 1972 by psychologist Edwards: ▪ S = Software ▪ H = Hardware ▪ E = Environment ▪ L = Live-ware (Self) ▪ L = Live-ware (Others) Cockpit Design and 17 Procedures The SHELL Model S = Software. Procedures, Manuals, Checklist layouts, Symbology, Computer programs, Maps and charts. H = Hardware. Design of Flight Decks, The physical structure of the aircraft, Presentation of instruments, Positioning and operating sense of controls. E = Environment. The conditions both inside and outside the cockpit. L = Live-ware (Self). At the centre of the model is the pilot. L = Live-ware (Others). Represents other humans whether inside or outside the aircraft. Live ware and Environment 18 ❖ The pilot’s interaction with other people (Live ware – Live ware) is subject, as we have seen, to many variations such as personality, behaviour, ability and performance. ❖ Man has adapted the environment to match human requirements in the air through systems such as pressurisation, soundproofing and air conditioning to control temperature and humidity (Live ware - Environment). Hardware – Design of Flight Decks ❖ The cockpit of a modern aircraft will be designed around the eye datum , also known as the design eye position or eye line reference. – This is one of the most important features of the flight deck. ❖ A basic feature of a cockpit design is that the pilot should be able to view all important displays within the aircraft and maintain an adequate view of the world outside without the need to make more than the minimum of head movements.  19 Source: Airbus, 2018 A view from proper eye datum View if below eye datum Hardware – Design of Flight Decks 20 Aircraft Windows ❖ External vision is of great importance but the size and shapes of windows will be determined by aerodynamic and weight restrictions. ❖ Large windows will need to be of thicker glass and require stronger and thicker frames; a compromise must be reached whereby reasonable external vision is obtained without too great a weight penalty. Cockpit view of Cirrus SR22 Cockpit view of Beechcraft King Air 90 Hardware – Design of Flight Decks Design of Cockpit Seats 21 ❖ Pilots will be spending a longer time in the seat and it is of the utmost importance that the seating is comfortable and adjustable to the individual pilot’s size and shape. ❖ Flight deck seating must have a lumbar support to maintain the natural spine shape and thereby reduce the chances of lower back pain caused by a failure of the shock absorbing discs between the vertebrae. ❖ Additionally, the seat should, if possible, be isolated from vibration of the airframe. ❖ Thus the main considerations in the design of cockpit seats are: ▪ Lumbar Support. ▪ Vibration absorption. ▪ Long-term comfort. ▪ Anthropometric data. ▪ ‘G’ force protection. ▪ Securing the pilot. Cockpit seats of Cirrus SR22 Hardware – Cockpit Displays 22 Presentation Requirements ❖ There is basic choice of a digital or analogue display. ❖ Experiments have shown that for the display of purely quantitative information, amounts of fuel in a tank for example, then digital displays give the Glass Cockpit – Digital displays better results. ❖ For displaying qualitative or comparison information then an analogue display provides more easily assessed information. ❖ If the end point of a display, such as an altimeter, is important then moving tape displays should not be used. Conventional Cockpit – Analogue displays Hardware – Cockpit Displays 23 Standardisation ❖ The most important requirement in display and control design is that of standardisation. ❖ It allows the pilot to make an easy transfer from one aircraft type to another with minimum training time and expense. ❖ Standardisation can also prevent accidents due to the transfer of procedures between aircraft types and models. ❖ Total standardisation is, however, not possible and would inhibit new design technology, but it should certainly be the goal for all similar types within an operating fleet. Hardware – Cockpit Displays Conventional Analogue Standard ‘T’ Display 24 ❖ An aircraft using conventional displays will usually have a standard ‘T’ lay out in which the most important instrument, the artificial horizon or attitude indicator, is at the centre. ❖ The other primary flight instruments, altimeter, airspeed indicator and direction indicator, are grouped around it. The standard ‘T’ Conventional Display Hardware – Cockpit Displays 25 Combination of Analogue and Digital Displays ❖ It is practicable to combine both digital information and analogue information in a single instrument, as seen in Figure below, in which the thousands and hundreds of feet are displayed digitally. ❖ The hundreds of feet are also shown by a single pointer. The use of a single moving pointer against a fixed scale will give a much better mental picture to the pilot when approaching the end of the scale, i.e. approaching the ground. Combination of Analogue and Digital ❖ This form of display is also excellent for showing small changes such as when levelling off or departing inadvertently from the selected altitude. Hardware – Cockpit 26 Displays Glass Cockpit Displays ❖ Basic presentation is maintained to some extent in the modern ‘glass cockpit’, in which the instruments are displayed on a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). ❖ The attitude may be presented in the traditional way but other items, such as speed and altitude, may be displayed on moving tape displays, with a conventional compass card, or as a digital A ‘Glass Cockpit’ Flight Display utilising Tapes display readout. Hardware – Cockpit Displays 27 Engine Instruments ❖ As well as the primary engine instrument a number of instruments are required to display secondary information. ❖ There are a number of different possible configurations, two of which are shown in Figure. Possible Engine Instrument Layout Hardware – Cockpit Displays Engine Instruments 28 ❖ There are advantages and disadvantages to each layout. ❖ The ideal layout could have a bank of instruments below the primary instruments, but the cockpit space may not allow this. ❖ In Figure, the layout at A might be preferable, but this type of layout could only be used with an even-engined aircraft and not a three-engined aeroplane. Possible Engine Instrument Layout ❖ As the purpose of these instruments is to warn of possible problems and guide the pilot to the correct identification of the engine concerned, a great deal of research is needed to identify the best layout for each aircraft type. Hardware - Controls 29 ❖ Standardization. For example, to operate a manual valve, rotation should be: ▪ Clockwise to close. ▪ Anti- clockwise to open. ❖ Frequency of use. Controls should be located such that they are within easy reach envelope of all designed users of the aircraft. Controls that are used frequently or for protracted periods should be located so that they do not require an awkward or fatiguing posture of the pilot. ❖ Sequence of use. Controls that are frequently used in a given order should be laid out so that the sequence of use is represented in the layout of the controls. ❖ Importance. Important controls must be located in easily reached and unobstructed positions. ❖ Visual/Tactile dissimilarity. Switches and knobs that control different functions should not look or feel the same thus reducing the chances of inadvertent operation. Software – Checklists and Manuals 30 ❖ Main Requirements: ▪ Unambiguous. ▪ Easy to read. ▪ Kept to a manageable size for easy use on the flight deck. ▪ Fullest use is made of good cross-referenced indexing and colour coding of pages by topic. ▪ Division of pages with protruding thumb-locators. ▪ Amount of information presented is relevant to the needs of the pilot. ▪ Presented in easily understood language. ▪ Text: Size should be kept well above the minimum required for bare legibility since it may have to be read in poor lighting conditions by a crew that already has a high workload Type face should maximise legibility A mix of upper and lower case together with bold and italics should be used with care to maximise clarity and emphasis Software – Checklists and Manuals 31 ❖ Use of Colour. ▪ Colour is a preferable way of categorizing information and giving importance to different sections of text, but the legibility of different text/background may well vary under varying light conditions. ▪ For example, red text on a white background may become effectively invisible under red light. ❖ Checklists - Design usage. ▪ The maximum benefit is obtained from checklists when the pilot adheres to the designed procedure. ▪ If the checklist calls for a challenge and response, then this is the way it should be used. Software – Checklists - Sources of Errors 32 ❖ Common problems are listed below: ▪ A major source of error in using routine checklists is that they may be responded to automatically rather than diligently. ▪ It is tempting for pilots to regard a rapid dismissal of checklist items as indicative of their skill and familiarity with the aircraft. ▪ The progress of the checklist is interrupted by an external event (radio call, for example), when items may be omitted, or ▪ Simply because a pilot, using his thumb as a marker, adjusts his grip on the checklist items may be missed. System Failures 33 ❖ The human contribution to the failures with modern technological systems can be divided into two types: Active and Latent Failures. The distinction between the two is: ▪ Who made the error and/or, ▪ How long these errors take to appear. Active Failures/Errors ❖ Active errors/failures are committed at the human-system interface (i.e. in the cockpit, in the cabin or at the Air Traffic Controllers desk) and have an immediate effect. System Failures 34 Latent Errors/Failures ❖ Latent Errors/Failures are normally the results of decisions taken by designers, manufacturers and Senior Management. ❖ These people are usually a long way removed from the immediate system. However, the consequences of their actions or decisions, which have been dormant - perhaps for a long time - may have sudden and disastrous results. ❖ An example of Latent Failure was the Mount Erebus crash, where an aircraft data- base had an unnoticed waypoint error of 2°W. This was sufficient for the aircraft to hit a mountain in poor visibility. ❖ Rushed or incomplete preparation is another example of latent failure. System Tolerances 35 Murphy’s Law (Sod’s Law) ❖ If something can go wrong, it will! ❖ For example: if a system can be operated incorrectly, sooner or later it will be. Error Tolerance ❖ Aviation systems, whether aircraft, organisational or procedural, must be error- tolerant. ❖ It ensures that no error has serious implications to the overall safety or conduct of the system. ❖ An example of this would be an automatic system that prevents an aircraft moving outside its flight envelope regardless of the orders the pilot enters through the controls. Design-Induced Errors 36 ❖ These errors are those made by aircrew as a direct result of poor or faulty design of any part of the aircraft. ❖ The philosophy which will underpin all future EASA design efforts - especially those in the field of avionics and automation - will be based upon: ▪ Detectability. ▪ Tolerance. ▪ Recoverability. ❖ Systems will be expected to detect errors made by aircrew, tolerate them and, as far as possible, recover from these errors.  37 Thank you Dr Ivan Sikora Twitter: @Master_Mentor SKYPE: IvanS_Office WordPress: ivansikora.wordpress.com herts.ac.uk References 38 ▪ Airbus. (2018) 'Are You Properly Seated?', Safety First, 25, pp. 7-13. ▪ EASA Part-FCL/eRules, August 2020, Subpart C. ▪ Human Performance and Limitations, CAE Oxford ATPL Series Books. (Including pictures) ▪ Human Factors and Pilot Performance, Volume 6, Air Pilot’s Manual, Pooley’s 2nd Edition 2003. ▪ Human Factors Flight Safety, Jeremy M Pratt, Airplan Flight Equipment Ltd, 2nd Edition 2003. Images are from www.google.com for illustration purposes.