Human Anatomy Final PDF

Human Anatomy Mr. Hartel Directional Analysis The Standard Anatomical Position A position of reference Topographic anatomy in which the patient is refers to superficial facing you with their landmarks that allow arms are at their sides one to perform a with their palms...

Human Anatomy Mr. Hartel Directional Analysis The Standard Anatomical Position A position of reference Topographic anatomy in which the patient is refers to superficial facing you with their landmarks that allow arms are at their sides one to perform a with their palms facing proper physical forward assessment. Body Planes & Directions Frontal (coronal) Plane = Divides the body into an Anterior (front) and Posterior position (back) Sagittal Plane = Divides the body into a left and right. It makes an imaginary line called the midline *when moving away from the midline we refer to that as a lateral movement Transverse Plane = Divides the body into a Superior (top) and Inferior (bottom) position  Distal = Away from the point of attachment Proximal = Towards the point of attachment Deep = Deep into the tissues of the body Superficial = Towards the surface of the tissues of the body Anterior (Ventral) = Front of the body Directional Posterior (Dorsal) = Back of the body Superior = Above a structure of the body Terms Inferior = Below a structure of the body Medial = Towards the middle or midline section of the body Lateral = Away from the middle or midline section of the body Apex = The tip of a structure in the body Palmar = palms of the hand Plantar = bottom of the feet Axillary = Armpit area Body Cavities Patient Positioning Supine Prone Trendelenburg Reverse Trendelenburg Fowlers, Semi or High Lithotomy's Shock Position Left/Right Lateral Recumbent The Skeletal System Skeletal System Axial Skeleton Overview Foundational Skeleton Skull, Spinal Column, and Thoracic Cage Physiology Provides the body with its structure and shape Protects Organs Appendicular Skeleton Facilitates movement The arms and legs along with their connection Stores Calcium points The pelvis Creates Blood Cells Joints (articulations)  Foramen Magnum = Large opening at the base of the skull where the spinal cord leaves the brain Occipital = Bone at the back of the skull Temporal = Bone on the sides of the skull Parietal = Bones on the top of the skull Cranium Frontal = Bone on the front of the skull Maxilla = Top of your jaw Mandible = Bottom of your jaw Zygomatic = Cheek bones Nasal = Bone at the top of your nose Orbitals = Eye socket bones Mastoids = Bones behind your Ears Axial Skeleton Mastoid Process  Spinal Column Vertebrae = Spinal bones stacked together, to support your posture and sheath your spinal cord. Cervical Spine = C1-C7 Located in your Spinal neck Thoracic Spine = T1 – T12 Located in Column your Chest Lumbar Spine = L1 – L5 Located in your lower back Sacral Spine = S1-S5 Fused with your pelvis Coccyx Spine – C1-C4 Fused at your Tail Bone Thorax Your thorax (rib ribcage) houses your Heart, Lungs, Esophagus, and Great Vessels (Aorta & Vena Cava) 12 Pairs or Ribs - 1-7 True Ribs - 8-10 False Ribs - 11,12 Floating Ribs Sternum = Located in the midline portion of the thorax. Manubrium = Upper portion of the Sternum Xiphoid Process = Lowest Point of the Sternum  Joints / Articulations Joints consist of two bones meeting and connecting via Ligaments, Tendons and Cartilage. Symphysis = Joints that have very limited motion and are connected by fibrous connective tissue one Example would be the pubis synthesis. Sacroiliac = Joins the Iliac Crest to the Sacrum in the pelvis Articular Cartilage = Covers the ends of bones at joint capsules to provide smooth frictionless movement Synovial Membrane & Fluid = The membrane lines the joint capsule and produces a lubricating fluid to aid in movement. Ball in Socket = Allows almost 360 rotation, located at the shoulder and hip. Hinge = Allow flexion and extension only at the joint site, located at one's elbow, knee and fingers. Shoulder Girdle Where the scapula, clavicle and humerus come gather to facilitate movement of the upper extremities. Clavicle = Collar bone, the most common broken bone in the body. Scapula = Shoulder Blade located on the posterior portion of the thorax Sternoclavicular Joint = connects the Clavicle to the Sternum Acromioclavicular Joint = Connects the clavicle to the Acromion Process of the Scapula Glenohumeral Joint = Ball in Socket Joint of the Scapula and Humerus. The Upper Extremity Arm Humerus = Upper Arm Ulna = Bone that connects to the elbow, located on the pinky side of the forearm Radius = Bone that is larger on the distal forearm and is located on the thumb side of the forearm Wrist & Hand Carpals = Wrist Bones Metacarpals = Palm Bones Phalanges = Finger Bones Pelvis The pelvis supports the entire spinal column and protects your reproductive organs, decending aorta, inferior vena cava and bladder. Ilium = Flat most portion of the pelvis Iliac Crest = Top portion of the ilium, you can palpate the Iliac crest Ischium = Bottom bone of the pelvis Pubis = Front portion of the pelvis that fuses at the pubis synthesis. Fractures of the pelvis can lead to life- threatening bleeding.  Lower Extremities The lower extremeties consist of the Thigh, Shin and Foot Femur = Largest bone in the body, thigh bone -Femoral Head -Greater Trochanter -Lesser Trochanter Patella = Kneecap, Can become dislocated Tibia = Larger bone of the shin, has a T shape Fibula = Smaller bone of the shin, Shin fractures usually occur in a Tib-Fib combination. Tarsals = Ankle bones, one of the most common areas for a sprain Metatarsals = Top of the foot bones Calcaneus = Heel bone, where the Achilles tendon connects Phalanges = The toes. Muscular System Musculoskeletal System Overview Musculoskeletal System Physiology Muscle Types Contraction and relaxation of this Skeletal Muscle = Striated muscles system allows one to manipulate their that facilitate voluntary movement. environment Smooth Muscle = Muscles Movement produces head and keeps that facilitate involuntary movement us warm, when we got cold our such as sphincter muscles, digestive muscles involuntarily shake and muscles and blood vessel muscles. produce heat to maintain homeostasis Cardiac Muscle = Exclusive to the heart, these muscles are conductive, Muscles protect the organs and involuntary and are constantly at work. structures beneath them They facilitate movement of blood in our circulatory system and the Muscle Movements contents in our digestive system. Voluntary = Movement one can control Involuntary = Movement one cannot control Muscles to Memorize (Part 1) Biceps = Anterior Humerus – Flexes Arm Triceps = Posterior Humerus – Extends Arm Pectoral = Anterior Thorax – Flexes and Rotates Arm Latissimus Dorsi = Posterior Thorax – Extends and Rotates Arm Rectus Abdominis = Anterior Abdomen – Flexes and Rotates Spine Tibialis Anterior = Anterior Tibia – Points foot toward head Gastrocnemius = Posterior Tibia – Points foot away from head Quadriceps = Anterior Femur – Extends Lower Leg Biceps Femoris = Posterior Femur – Flexes Lower Leg Gluteus = Posterior Pelvis – Extends and rotates thigh Muscles to Memorize (Part 2) Intercostal – Between Ribs – Moves ribs for breathing Hamstrings – Behind Thighs – Flexes knee, Extends Hip Sartorius – Front of Thigh – Abducts thigh, Flexes Leg Sternocleidomastoid – Sides of Neck – Turns and Flexes Head Trapezius – Upper Back & Neck – Extends Head, Moves Shoulder Deltoid – Shoulder – Abducts Arm Exterior Oblique – Sides of Body – Twists Trunk, Flexion of Trunk Movement Types Abduction – Move extremity away from your side Adduction – Move extremity back to your side Circumduction – to rotate extremity in circular cone fashion Rotation – to move extremity 360 deg Plantar Flexion – point foot down Dorsiflexion – point foot up Pronation – Flip hands down Supination – Flip hands up Flexion – to decrease the angle deg of a joint (bending) Extension – to increase the angle deg of a joint (extending) Respiratory System  Upper Airway Nasopharynx = Back of the Nasal Cavity which is located above the roof of your mouth Oropharynx = The back of your mouth where your uvula and tonsils are located. Pharynx = The back of your throat, splits in half to become your trachea and esophagus Mouth = Where mechanical digest occurs and your tongue sits. Has a hard and soft pallet. Epiglottis = leaf shaped flap that protects the trachea from food and liquids entering it. Larynx = Often called your "voice box", it is where your vocal cords are located. On the outside it has the Thyroid Cartilage or "Adams Apple"  Lower Airway Cricoid Cartilage = Just below the thyroid cartilage is the palpable Cricoid Cartilage. ALS will sometimes ask for Cricoid pressure when performing Intubation. Trachea (windpipe) = Approx. 5 cm in diameter tube that is lined with cartilaginous rings. These rings protect the trachea from collapsing. Bronchi = The Trachea splits in half to become your Left and Right Bronchi, that travel to each lung Carina = The point at which the bronchi split in half Bronchioles = Each Bronchi split and divide to become smaller tubes called bronchioles. They will eventually split and lead to 700 million grape like sacs called alveoli. Alveoli = At the very end of the airway is your alveoli sacs. This is where respiration occurs, which is the exchange of O2 and CO2, along with other gasses.  Lungs The Lung is divided into lobes. The right lung has 3 lobes: upper, middle and lower. Whereas the Left lung only has 2 lobes. The lungs are unable to expand by themselves they must do so with the aid of your diaphragm, a dome shape muscle that facilitates ventilation. Pleura = Around each lung is a lubricated tissue called the pleura, the pleura facilitates the expansion of the lungs to make sure it follows the anatomy of the thoracic cavity - Visceral Pleura = Pleura that lines the lungs - Parietal Pleura = Pleura that lines the chest wall Plueral Space = Is the space between the visceral and parietal pleura. Between them is what we call the potential space... Normally there is no space between the visceral and parietal pleura, it is very tight together. ***Only when blood or air enter the pleural space is when the surfaces separate  The Breathing Process The primary muscle involved in breathing is the Diaphragm which is controlled by the phrenic nerve. - Breathing is both a voluntary and involuntary process. During inhalation (inspiration) the diaphragm descends into the abdominal cavity, the ribs expand with the intercostal muscles, cervical and pectoral muscles expand the thoracic cavity to ensure all dimensions are expanding. Ventilation and Respiration are two separate independent functions Ventilation = simple movement of air between the lungs and its environment. Respiration = is the process of gas exchange (O2 & CO2) between the alveoli and capillaries.  Respiration Provides oxygen to the cells and removes carbon dioxide waste Diffusion: the passive process in which oxygen molecules move from areas with a higher concentration to areas of lower oxygen concentration. Brain Stem Controls Breathing: Medulla Oblongata – Initiates ventilation cycles (stimulated by elevated CO2 levels) Pons – Helps control and augment respirations during emotional or physical stress.  Ventilation The simple movement of air in and out of the lungs Visibly see rise and fall of the chest and/or abdomen Tidal Volume = amount of air moved into or out of the lungs during a single breath. Inspiratory Reserve Volume = deepest breath you can take with a normal breath. Expiratory Reserve Volume = maximum amount of air you can breathe out after a normal breath Residual Volume = remainder of gas that stays in the lungs after a breath. Respiratory Rate = Breaths per minuet Dead Space = the portion of the respiratory system that has no alveoli and where little or no exchange of gas between air and blood occurs Ex: Mouth, Trachea, Bronchi, Bronchioles Minuet Volume = Respiratory Rate X Tidal Volume... Typically estimated during an assessment. If the patient is breathing at a rate of 20 breaths per minuet but very little air is being exchanged that indicates a low minuet volume and is considered inadequate breathing. Find the Tidal & Minuet Volume Respiratory Rate of 14  Inadequate Breathing Labored Breathing = Labored breathing requires effort and may involve the accessory muscles of the chest, neck, and abdomen. The person may also be breathing much slower (fewer than 12 breaths/min) or much faster (more than 20 breaths/min) than normal. Normal Respiratory Ranges Adults 12-20 Breaths/Min Children 12-40 Breaths/Min Infants 30-60 Breaths/Min Signs/Symptoms of Inadequate Breathing: Muscle retractions (clavicles & ribs) common in children Pale and/or cyanotic skin, diaphoretic skin, Tripod position Agonal Respirations = These are gasps that mimic respirations, found in patients in cardiac arrest. These gasps are not adequate breathing, artificial ventilations and most likely chest compressions will be needed.  Respiratory Compromise Respiratory compromise is the inability of the body to move gas effectively and or regulate oxygen and carbon dioxide levels. Hypoxia: decreased level of oxygen in the body Hypercarbia: elevated level of carbon dioxide in the body  Ventilation/Perfusion (V/Q) Ratio Ventilation/perfusion mismatch The V/Q ratio describes how much gas is being moved effectively through the lungs and how much blood is flowing around the alveoli where gas exchange (perfusion occurs). A mismatch occurs when one of those two variables is abnormal. Respiratory compromise can occur. Pulmonary Embolism, blood clot blocks pulmonary arteries, prevents blood flow to the alveoli. Therefore, gas is not exchanged… thus the Q portion is abnormal Pulmonary Edema, swelling or fluid in the lungs, gas is unable to move into efficiently into the alveoli from the lung, blood is not able to receive oxygen… thus the V portion is abnormal.  V/Q Compromise Impaired Ventilation Impaired Respiration Blocked airway Change in atmosphere Impairment of the muscles of High altitudes breathing Impaired movement of the gas Airway obstructed across cell membrane physiologically (asthma)  Effects of Respiratory Compromise Oxygen Depletion: As respiratory compromise occurs, oxygen levels in the body decrease, while carbon dioxide levels rise. Brain Response: The brain detects the elevated carbon dioxide levels and responds by signaling the body to increase the respiratory rate. Increased Breathing Rate: This increase in respiration aims to expel excess carbon dioxide and restore balance. Acidosis Risk: If the respiratory rate does not increase sufficiently or fails to regulate carbon dioxide, the blood becomes more acidic (a condition known as acidosis). Declining Oxygen Levels: Simultaneously, falling oxygen levels trigger the brain to send additional signals to breathe faster and deeper. Shift to Anaerobic Metabolism: Without enough oxygen, cells are forced to switch from aerobic metabolism (which requires oxygen) to anaerobic metabolism (which does not). This process is less efficient and can lead to a buildup of lactic acid, worsening the condition. Summary of Respiratory Compromise Category Problem Effect Damage to the Spinal Cord Irregular Respirations Inability to Exhale Elevated C02 Levels in Blood Inability to Inhale Low 02 Levels in Blood Ventilation Chest Injuries Low Tidal Volume Airway Compromise Slow Respiratory Rate/ALOC Overdose Respiratory Arrest ALOC Pulmonary Edema Prevents Gas Exchange in Alveoli Respiration Mucus build up or Infection Obstructs Blood Flow to Alveoli Pulmonary Embolism Low O2 Levels in Air Affects Diffusion of Gas Oxygenation Increased CO2 Levels in Air Inability for RBC’s to Carry O2 Toxins in Air (CO) Circulatory System  Circulatory System Overview Complex arrangement of connected tubes, including the arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins It is a closed system with connection points happening at capillary sites between arterioles and venules. There are 2 circuits: Systemic Circulation (Circulation in the Body) = In the systemic circulation blood passes through the tissues and organs, it gives up oxygen and nutrients and absorbs cellular wastes and carbon dioxide. Many cellular wastes are eliminated in passages through the liver and kidneys. Pulmonary Circulation (Circulation in the Lungs) = In the pulmonary circulation blood passes through the lungs, it is refreshed with oxygen and gives up carbon dioxide.  The Pump Contracts about 100,000 times a day Pumps about 2,000 gallons of blood a day Located in-between the lungs Four tissue layers of the heart Pericardium Epicardium Myocardium Endocardium  The Pump Interventricular Septum = Muscular wall that separates the heart into a Right and Left side and prevents Deoxygenated blood from mixing with Oxygenated blood. The left side is more muscular. Atria = Upper Chambers of the Heart Ventricles = Lower Chambers of the Heart Valves = Facilitate the flow of blood, prevents regurgitation. Tricuspid = Right Atrium to Right Ventricle Pulmonary Semilunar = Right Ventricle to Pulmonary Arteries Bicuspid (mitral) = Left Atrium to Left Ventricle Aortic = Left Ventricle To Aortic Arch Chordae Tendineae = Bands of fibrous tissue that attache to the valves in the heart and prevent inversion of the valves.  The Major Pump Vessels Superior & Inferior Vena Cava = Delivers deoxygenated blood to the Right Atrium Left and Right Pulmonary Arteries = Brings deoxygenated blood to the Lungs for Respiration Pulmonary Veins = Returns oxygenated blood to the Left Atrium Aorta = Largest Artery in the body, pumps oxygenated blood to all to organs in the body. Coronary Veins = Takes deoxygenated blood from the myocardium Coronary Arteries = Brings oxygenated blood to the myocardium  Heartbeat Heart Rate = How many times your heart beats per minuet Normal heart rate for an adult is 60-100 HR An athlete may have a normal heart rate of 45-60 HR Stroke Volume = The amount of blood moved in one beat Cardiac Output = Amount of blood moved in one minute (CO = HR x SV) Example: 90 HR x 65mL/beat = 5,850 mL/min or 5.85 L/min  Electrical Conductivity of the Heart Contractions of the heart can be divided between two electrical processes. Depolarization = The first electrical process is depolarization, during which the electrical charges on the surface of the muscle cells change from positive to negative. Repolarization = The second is repolarization, during which the heart returns to its resting state and the positive charge is restored to the surface. The current starts high in the atria and ends in the ventricles. Sinoatrial Node = Pacemaker of the heart, sends out electrical impulse to the AV node which contracts the atria Atrioventricular Node = Group of nerve cells located between the atria and ventricles, carries electrical signal to the bundle of HIS Bundle of HIS = Stems from the AV node and carries the electrical signal through the L and R Bundle Branches which travel down the Interventricular Septum Purkinje Fibers = Bundle Branches subdivide in to the purkinje fibers at the apex of the heart. They spread through the ventricles and myocardium to contract the ventricles. PQRST Wave PQRST Segments and Intervals  Pipes - Arteries Carry blood away from the heart and to all body tissues Arterioles = Small arteries Aorta branches into your: Coronary Arteries = Supply the Heart with Blood Carotid Artery = Supply the Head with Blood Hepatic Artery = Supply the Liver with Blood Renal Artery = Supply the Kidney with Blood Mesenteric Arteries = Supply the Digestive system with Blood Subclavian Arteries = Supply your upper extremities with Blood Femoral Arteries = Supply your lower extremities with Blood Arteries are pressurized and contract in order to circulate blood (your pulse you feel is your arteries contracting) Easiest Artery to feel is your Carotid Find These (Besides Femoral)  Pipes - Veins Return blood back to the heart (typically deoxygenated blood) The Vena Cava, Aorta, Pulmonary Arteries and Veins are collectively known as the great vessels Your body's ability to change blood flow is critical to survival (dilation and constriction) Systemic Vascular Resistance (SVR) = The state of your blood vessels (how dilated or constricted they are). It is the resistance to blood flow within all the blood vessels except the pulmonary vessels. Pipes- Capillaries The site where arterioles and venules connect Very fragile division of the arterial system that allow contact between blood and tissues Oxygen and Nutrients can pass between capillaries and tissue cells Allow blood to move between them a single blood cell at a time  Blood Erythrocytes = Red Blood Cells that contain hemoglobin (protein responsible for carrying O2) Leukocytes = White Blood Cells that fight infection in the body Platelets = Essential in the blood for initial blood clotting which stops bleeding. Plasma = 92% Water, 7% Protein (albumin), 1% O2, CO2, N, Cellular Waste, Hormones. Spleen Solid organ located in the LUQ Although Lymphatic it is highly vascular and is vulnerable to blunt trauma Digests RBC's and recycles hemoglobin One of the most frequently injured organs due to blunt trauma, leads to significant internal bleeding.  Blood Pressure Blood Pressure (BP) = force exerted against the walls of the arteries with every contraction of the ventricles. The pressure wave keeps blood circulating in the body. Systole (Pumping Pressure) = Systolic Pressure happens when the left ventricle contracts and forces blood into the Aorta. Diastole (Resting Pressure) = Diastolic Pressure is the time between contractions when the ventricle is relaxed and filling with blood. Values  Perfusion The Circulatory system is automatically adjusted and readjusted constantly so that 100% of the blood vessels contain 100% blood Perfusion = Circulation of blood in an organ or tissue. When perfusion is adequate the cells metabolic needs are met. Loss of blood pressure is an indication that blood is no longer adequately perfusing to every organ in the body Hypoperfusion = inadequate perfusion... also called SHOCK Shock (hypoperfusion) can happen with large blood loss, vessel adjustment failure, or pump failure.  A condition in which organs and tissues receive an inadequate flow of blood and oxygen (perfusion) - Can occur due to inadequacy of the Shock central or peripheral circulation. (Hypoperfusion) Impaired oxygen delivery causes cellular hypoxia. Leads to anaerobic metabolism, lactic acid production, and organ dysfunction. Shock is categorized into several types depending on the cause.  Types of Shock Type Description Causation (Examples) Hypovolemic Shock due to blood loss, Low Trauma, Severe Vomiting or volume shock Diarrhea (Substantial Dehydration) Cardiogenic Impaired Heart Function, Pump Myocardial Infarction, Tachycardia, Failure Bradycardia Obstructive Blocked Blood Flow to for from Tension Pneumothorax, Pericardial the Pump Tamponade, Pulmonary Embolism Anaphylactic Severe Allergic Reaction, Pipes Severe Allergic Reaction… Bees, Dilate (Vasodilation) Nuts Septic Severe Infection, Pipes Dilate Severe Infection… Pneumonia, (Vasodilation) Meningitis Neurogenic Spinal Cord Injury / Brain Injury High Energy Trauma to the Spinal Pipes Dilate (Vasodilation) Cord  The Nervous and Circulatory System Sympathetic Nervous System = Sends commands to adrenal glands where epinephrine and norepinephrine are secreted to stimulate the heart and blood vessels. Epinephrine (adrenaline) and Norepinephrine (noradrenaline) enable the body to cope with a stressor which improve our fight or flight abilities. Alpha-Adrenergic Receptors = Found in blood vessels, when stimulated they constrict thereby increasing blood pressure Beta-Adrenergic Receptors = Found in the heart and lungs. Beta-1- stimulates the heart to increase heart rate and to squeeze harder with every contraction Beta-2 - Stimulates the Bronchi which allow the lungs to dilate which allows for better ventilation which increases respiration. Together Alpha and Beta receptors prepare the body for a fight or flight response. Parasympathetic Nervous System = Causes the heart to slow down and beat mor weakly. Rest and Digest. The Nervous System  Neurological Systems Divided into 2 portions Central Nervous System (CNS) = The Brain and Spinal Cord Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) = The nerves that branch out from the brain and spinal cord.  CNS – The Brain Cerebrum = called gray matter, largest part of the brain and is divided into lobes Cerebellum = Involved with coordination and homeostasis Brain Stem: Midbrain, Pons, Medulla Oblongata Reticular Activating System = located in the midbrain, keeps one awake. Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) = The fluid that surrounds the brain and spinal cord. Filters out toxins and impurities. It also acts as shock absorption. Structures and Functions of the Brain (CNS) Occipital Lobe = Vision, stores visual memories Parietal Lobe = Sense of touch, stores touch/texture memories Temporal Lobe = Hearing, Smell, Language, stores sound and odor memories Frontal Lobe = Voluntary muscle control, storage of those memories Prefrontal Area = Judgement, predicts consequences of actions, performs abstract intellectual function Limbic system = Basic emotions, basic reflexes Diencephalon Thalamus = Relays information between important and routine signals Hypothalamus = Complex emotions, temperature control, communicates with endocrine system (hormones) Midbrain = Level of consciousness, Muscle tone, posture Pons = Respiratory patterns, depth of breathing Medulla Oblongata = Heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate.  PNS The nerves that branch out from the spinal cord. Your PNS has two portions involved with it that maintain homeostasis. Somatic Nervous System = Regulates Voluntary Processes Autonomic Nervous System = Regulates Involuntary Processes Sympathetic Nervous System (fight or flight) Parasympathetic Nervous System (rest & digest) 2 Branches of nerves Sensory Nerves = Carry information from the body to the CNS Motor Nerves = Carry information from CNS to the muscles Integumentary System  Epidermis = outermost layer, at the base is the Layers germinal layer which is constantly producing new layers. The stratum corneal layer is where the skin cells go to die. and Dermis = "the true skin" contains many unique structures: Sweat glands, sebaceous glands, hair follicles, erector pillae muscle, sensory nerves, Function capillaries Subcutaneous = The deepest layer which is besides the muscle tissue. Contains adipose tissue and large blood vessels. Involved in temperature regulation, first line of defense against infection, keeps us hydrated, produces vitamins. Skin Eruptions  Macule - Flat spots on skin. Such as freckles Papule - Firm raised areas such as pimples Skin Vesicle - Blisters or fluid filled sacs Pustule - Pus-filled sacs such as those seen in Eruptions acne Crusts -Areas of dried pus and blood, commonly called scabs Wheals - Itchy, elevated areas with an irregular shape. Hives, Bug Bites Ulcers - A deep loss of skin surface that may extend into the dermis Cyst - A closed sac with a distinct membrane that develops abnormally Macule Papule Crusts Wheals Vesicles Cysts Ulcers BURNS 1 st deg Burns 1st Degree Burn (Superficial) Involves the Epidermis 2 nd deg Burns 2nd degree (Partial Thickness) burn involves the epidermis and dermis of the skin 3 rd deg Burns 3rd degree burn (Full Thickness) burn involves all three layers of the skin 4th Degree Burns Most sever and life-threatening burns. These burns go past the skin and into muscle and bone tissues. Digestive System  Basic Function Processes the food that nourishes the body Mechanical Digestion = Chewing our mouth does and churning the stomach does to physically break down food. Chemical Digestion = Enzymes & fluids that break down food in the body on a chemical level We divide up the abdomen into 4 quadrants Right Upper Quadrant = Liver, Gallbladder, part of the colon, Left Upper Quadrant = Stomach, Spleen, part of the colon Right Lower Quadrant = Large Intestine, Small Intestine, Appendix, Female Reproductive Organ Left Lower Quadrant = Large Intestine, Small Intestine, Female Reproductive Organ GI - Anatomy Mouth = Mechanically digests food, begins the chemical breakdown process with saliva Esophagus = Moves food from the mouth into the stomach Stomach = Performs mechanical and chemical digestion (turns food into chyme) Pancreas = Creates enzymes for protein, carbohydrate and fat breakdown. Secretes Insulin to absorb glucose Gallbladder = Storage of bile Liver = Produces bile, assists with protein, carbohydrate and fat metabolism in the blood stream, filters out waste Small Intestine = Major site for chemical absorption of nutrients, absorbs water, fats, proteins, carbohydrates and vitamins Large Intestine = Water absorption, formation of feces, bacterial digestion of food Appendix = 3-to-4-inch tube that opens into colon, easily obstructed which causes inflammation. Endocrine System Endocrine Anatomy and Physiology Similar to the nervous system the endocrine system controls body functions using chemicals (hormones) instead of electrical impulses. Hormones stimulate or have an inhibiting effect on the body’s organs and organ systems. Examples would be Epinephrine & Insulin Endocrine System Anatomy and Physiology Adrenal = regulates stress response, fight-or-flight response Makes Epinephrine, Norepinephrine & Cortisol Ovaries = regulates sexual function, characteristics, and reproduction in women Makes Estrogen Testes = regulates sexual function, characteristics, and reproduction in men Makes Testosterone Pancreas = regulates glucose metabolism and other functions Makes Insulin & Glucagon Pituitary = regulates all other endocrine glands Makes multiple hormones Thyroid = regulates metabolism Makes Thyroxine Lymphatic System Lymphatic Anatomy and Physiology The Lymphatic system supports the circulatory system and immune system Relies on smooth muscle instead of a pump to move lymph Lymph is a thin, tan colored fluid that transports materials from lymph tissue into the central venous system via thoracic ducts. Lymph vessels form a network throughout the body Lymph Nodes are tiny, oval shaped structures that filter Lymph, ultimately to rid the body of harmful materials. Structures of the Lymphatic system include: Spleen, Lymph Nodes, Lymph, Lymph Vessels, and the Thymus Gland Urinary System Urinary Anatomy and Physiology Controls the discharge of waste materials filtered from the blood The Kidneys are solid organs that filter out your blood by removing waste and balancing water and salt. The Ureters, Bladder and Urethra are hollow organs that facilitate urination. Main Functions: Maintain and electrolyte balance in the body, Filter and eliminate waste, Control pH balance. Reproductive System  Male Reproductive System The male reproductive system consists of the testicles, epididymis, vasa deferentia, prostate gland, seminal vesicles, and penis. The System Lies outside the pelvic cavity (except for the prostate gland and seminal vesicles) Produces sperm and sex hormones Penis is also part of the urinary system (contains the urethra)  Female Reproductive System The female reproductive system consists of the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, and vagina. The system is contained entirely within the pelvic cavity (except the clitoris and labia) Produces egg cells (ovum) and sex hormones  Life Support Chain Cells are the foundation of the human body. All cells in the body require oxygen, nutrients, and removal of waste. The respiratory and circulatory systems are the carrier of these supplies and wastes. If interference occurs, cells become damaged and die.  Metabolism Cells use oxygen to take available nutrients and turn them into chemical energy through metabolism. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) Used to store energy Aerobic (with air) metabolism uses oxygen. Body prefers it because oxygen produces 15 times the amount of ATP. C02 and H20 are the waste products of this energy consumption The brain and heart require constant supplies of oxygen, their cells will begin to die with a lack of oxygen lasting 4 to 6 minuets Most cells switch to anaerobic metabolism when oxygen is limited, think long term exercises like running a marathon & high intensity exercises like lifting weights. Lactic acid is a damaging waste product of this process.  Metabolism Movement of oxygen, waste, and nutrients occurs by diffusion. pH is critical to diffusion, your pH in your blood should be between 7.35 and 7.45 pH is a measure of acidity or alkalinity. The body expends a large amount of energy to maintain normal pH. The waste products of cells are often acidic, such as CO2. CO2 is transported by combining water to create C2HO3