Htfbuyggh.docx

Anatomy & Physiology Final Review [Chapter 1:] The Basics - Study of Structures: 1. Anatomy - Study of how structures function: 2. Physiology - Planes: 1. Coronal: frontal 2. Sagittal: Runs vertically from top to bottom and separates the body from left to right 3. Midsagittal...

Anatomy & Physiology Final Review [Chapter 1:] The Basics - Study of Structures: 1. Anatomy - Study of how structures function: 2. Physiology - Planes: 1. Coronal: frontal 2. Sagittal: Runs vertically from top to bottom and separates the body from left to right 3. Midsagittal: Midline of the body 4. Parasagittal: Sagittal planes that are uneven (not down the midline) are also called this 5. Transverse: Horizontally cut in half - Directional terms: 1. Anatomical position: facing forward, arms at side with palms facing forward and feet positioned slightly outwards 2. Medial position: toward the midline of the body 3. Lateral Position: away from the midline of the body 4. Proximal Position: ONLY FOR APPENDICULAR REGION and closer to the connection to the body 5. Distal position: ONLY FOR APPENDICULAR REGION and farther from the connection to the body 6. Superior: ONLY FOR AXIAL REGION and closer to the top of the head 7. Inferior: ONLY FOR AXIAL REGION and farther away from the top of the head 8. Superficial: Closer to the surface 9. Deep: farther from the surface - Anatomical Cavities: 1. Dorsal Cavity: Cranial and Vertebral cavity and both lined by meninges 2. Ventral/Thoracic Cavity: a. Has 2 pleural cavities lined by pleural membranes b. Pericardial cavity lined by pericardial membranes c. Mediastinum that is the space between the pleural cavities 3. Abdominopelvic Cavity: a. Abdominal cavity lined by peritoneum b. Pelvic cavity lined by peritoneum - Serous Membranes: 1. Parietal: lines the cavity 2. Visceral: lines the organ 3. Pericardial membranes surround the heart 4. Pleural membranes surround the lungs 5. Peritoneal membranes surround many of the abdominopelvic organs - [Homeostasis]: steady internal environment in which the body works best - [Negative feedback]: process the body uses to reverse the direction of movement away from homeostasis. -Example: Body temperature and getting too hot or being too cold - [Positive Feedback:] process the body uses to increase the movement away from homeostasis. -Example: Childbirth and the body releasing oxytocin - [Signs:] Objective measures that can be seen -Example: vital signs, temperature - [Symptoms]: subjective and based on what the patient experiences -Example: headache, pain - Inflammation: The body's normal response to injury and disease -Signs: 1\. Redness 2\. Heat 3\. Pain 4\. Swelling 5\. Loss of function - Immune, genetic, and Mental Disorders: 1. Hypersensitivities: An over reaction of the immune system to an allergen 2. Immunodeficiency: Lower immune system leaving the body susceptible to diseases 3. Autoimmune disorders: Inability of the immune system to distinguish between self and non-self - Treatments: 1. Palliative: make patient comfortable when there is no cure 2. Curative: treatment to cure disease 3. Therapeutic: to restore normal function 4. Preventive: steps can be taken to prevent disease from happening [Chapter 2:] Our bodies are organized in a hierarchy, from simplest to most complex -Chemical-organelles-cells-tissues-organs-organs systems-organism - Metabolism: total of chemical reactions in the body (reactants to products) - 4 types of Organic Molecules: a. monosaccharides (Glucose)- major fuel for cells b. disaccharides (Sucrose) c. polysaccharides (glycogen) a. amino acids are the building blocks and the building blocks are called nucleotides - Functions of Cell Membrane: 1. To give cell Structure 2. Define extracellular vs intracellular 3. To regulate what goes in and out of the cell - Passive vs Active Transport: 1. Passive: moves material from areas of HIGH concentration to areas of LOW concentration with NO ENERGY required 2. Methods: a. Filtration- forces smaller molecules in a solution through a membrane due to greater hydrostatic pressure b. Simple diffusion- Net movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration (happens in gases and liquids) (happens in living and nonliving systems) -depends on temp, molecular weight, concentration gradient, and membrane surface area c. Facilitated diffusion- For molecules that cannot diffuse directly through the cell membrane (common for glucose and amino acids) d. Osmosis- Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane - Water always diffuses from a hypotonic solution to a hypertonic solution 3. Active: moves materials across a cell membrane from areas of low concentration to high concentration - Requires energy - Performs as sodium-potassium pump - Types of bonds: 1. Covalent bond: atoms that share 2. Ionic bond: atoms that transfer - [Hypertonic Solution:] a solution that is more concentrated - [Hypotonic Solution]: a solution that is less concentrated - [Endocytosis]: moving particles inside the cell - [Exocytosis]: moving particles outside the cell [Chapter 3]: The Integumentary system is composed of skin, hair, nails, and glands - Layers of the epidermis and dermis: -Epidermis: Superficial Layer-Stratified squamous epithelial tissue 1\. Deepest: Basale-simple cuboidal epithelial and actively divides to make new tissues 2\. Spinosum: superficial to Basale 3\. Granulosum: superficial to Basale 4\. Lucidum: FOUND ONLY IN THICK SKIN 5\. Corneum: composed of dead, keratin-filled cells that flake off -Dermis: "TRUE SKIN" 1\. nerve endings 2\. hair follicles: Arrector Pilli Muscle-goose bumps 3\. blood vessels 4\. glands -Cutaneous (A. Sebaceous and B. Sweat) 5\. Papillae 6\. Fibers -loose/areolar CT over dense irregular CT - [Hypodermis:] Below the dermis and NOT part of the skin -made up of mostly ADIPOSE tissue -attaches the skin to the body - Cell types: 1. Keratinocytes: cells that produce keratin (waterproof protein) 2. Melanocytes: produce melanin 3. Tactile cells: receptors for fine touch 4. Dendritic cells: Immune system cells that alert the immune system about the pathogen invaders - Regeneration v Fibrosis: 1. Regeneration: Skin can heal by this- Normal function returns -Stratum basale cells reach contact inhibition before fibroblasts fill area with scar tissue 2\. Fibrosis: Skin heal by this- normal functioning is replaced by scar tissue - Sebaceous and Sweat Glands: 1. Sebaceous: secretes oil 2. Sweat: a. Merocrine: all over the body and clear perspiration which cools the body b. Apocrine: located in axillary region and genital regions-THIS ACTIVATES DURING PUBERTY - Rule of Nines: Used to determine the extent of a burn - Burns: 1\. 1^st^ degree Burn: Epidermis only 2\. 2^nd^ degree Burn: Epidermis and Dermis 3\. 3^rd^ degree Burn: Epidermis, Dermis, and Hypodermis - Diagnostic Tests: 1. Skin Biopsy: removal of a piece of tissue or a sample of cells from a body so that it can be analyzed in a laboratory 2. Skin Scraping: the taking of skin cell scrapings so that the cells can be viewed under a microscope 3. Woods Light: the use of a black light to view pigment changes in the skin - Importance of Vitamin D: -Important for Calcium absorption - Functions of the skin: 1. Temperature 2. Pain 3. Pressure 4. Touch Chapter 4: The Skeletal System is composed of bones, cartilages, and ligaments. - It is a dynamic system that changes daily - Axial Skeleton: Bones of the head, neck, and trunk - Appendicular Skeleton: -Bones of the arms and legs -Bones of the girdles: attach arms and legs to trunk  - Types of Bones: 1. Long: longer than they are wide and have clubby ends -Example: tibia 2. Short: are cubelike -Example: carpal bones 3. Flat- Looks like they are a sheet of clay that has been molded -Example: Parietal bone 4. Irregular: have many projections and spines -Example: Vertebrae 5. Sesamoid: grow in tendons where there is a lot of friction -Example: Patella - [Foramen Magnum:] Big opening on Occipital Bone - \# of Vertebrae: there are 24 movable vertebrae -Spinal column is also made of a sacrum and a coccyx - Types of spinal curvatures: 1. Cervical curvature: C1-C7- like a C 2. Thoracic Curvature: T1-T12- like a backwards C 3. Lumbar Curvature: L1-L5- like a C 4. Sacral Curvature: Sacrum- like a backwards C - Atlas: Cervical Vertebra 1 -supports head - [Axis]: Cervical Vertebra 2 -serves as a pivot point for atlas - Ribs: there are 12 pairs and they are attached to thoracic vertebrae 1. 1-7: are true ribs and they are attached to sternum directly by costal cartilages 2. 8-12: are false ribs and they attach to costal cartilage of superior ribs 3. 11 & 12: pairs are floating and do not attach anteriorly, NO costal cartilages [Chapter 5:] Skeletal muscles are primary structures in the muscular system - Sarcolemma: the plasma membrane - The sarcoplasmic reticulum is the name given to the smooth ER in a muscle cell and stores: Ca2+ ions - Sarcomere: Each myofibril consists of repeating contractile units - Extends from Z line to Z line - Actin filaments-Thin: are attached to z lines and extend toward center of sarcomere but do not meet - Myosin filament-Thick: reside in the A band and DO NOT contact the Z lines - Tropomyosin is a thread that covers spots call active sites on actin were myosin molecules could grab hold - Troponin is a calcium regulatory molecule  - Sliding Filament Theory: muscle contraction that involves thick myofilaments grabbing thin myofilaments and pulling them toward the center of the sarcomere - As all the sarcomeres are shortened, so too is the muscle cell - Physiological Characteristics of Muscle: 1. Excitability: A muscle cell can be stimulated by a nerve to contract 2. Conductivity: The stimulation from the nerve moves quickly along the length of the muscle cell 3. Contractility: A muscle cell can shorten with force -MUSCLES CAN ONLY PULL; THEY CAN'T PUSH 4\. Extensibility: A muscle cell can be stretched -Muscles are stretched by the contraction of other muscles 5\. Elasticity: If a muscle cell is stretched, it will return to it's original shape [Chapter 6:] CNS and PNS -Central Nervous System: Brain and spinal cord -Peripheral Nervous System: Located outside the nervous system 1\. consists of nerves and sensory receptors a\. Receptors b\. Effectors - Myelin Sheath:  an insulating layer, or sheath that forms around nerves, including those in the brain and spinal cord. -It is made up of protein and fatty substances.  - Types of Neurons: 1. Multipolar Neurons: -Several dendrites -single axon -neurons whose cell bodies are located in the brain and spinal cord are multipolar neurons 2\. Bipolar Neurons: \- Dendrite \- Axon 3\. Unipolar Neurons: \- single process extending from the cell body \- process divides into two branches extending in opposite directions \- branches function as a single axon \- unipolar neurons are sensory from the skin and organs - Neuroglia of the CNS: 1. Astrocytes: form the blood-brain barrier 2. Oligodendrocytes: form myelin 3. Ependymal cells: produce CSF 4. Microglia: seek out and fight pathogens - Neuroglia in the PNS: 5. Schwann Cells: form myelin 6. Satellite Cells: control the environment for ganglia - Afferent: Sensory division -carries impulses from sensory receptors TO the CNS - Efferent: Motor division - Carries impulses AWAY from CNS to effectors - 2 divisions: a. Somatic: voluntary control of skeletal muscle b. Autonomic: involuntary control of cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands - 4 parts of brainstem: 1. Medulla oblongota: -ascending(sensory) and descending(motor) information passes through -contains centers to regulate HR, respiratory rate, and BV diameter -the emetic center 2. Pons: large bulge on the anterior surface of the brainstem between medulla oblongota and midbrain -serves as bridge for motor tracts to the cerebellum 3. Midbrain: has 4 bulges called colliculi, on it's posterior surface -2 superior colliculi important for VISUAL reflexes -2 inferior colliculi important for AUDITORY reflexes 4. Reticular formation: group of cells bodies called nuclei in CNS and ganglia in PNS are scattered through the brainstem -important for arousal -responsible for sleep wake cycles - Functions of CSF: 1. Provides buoyancy 2. Provides protection 3. Facilitates chemical stability 4. Provides nutrients - [Sympathetic Nervous system:] a network of nerves that prepares the body for stressful situations, such as danger or fight-or-flight responses. - [Parasympathetic Nervous System:] your parasympathetic carries signals that relax those systems. (Rest and Digest) - Meninges: 3 fibrous membranes 1. Dura mater: -tough outermost layer -attached to cranial bones -forms protective tube in vertebral canal -Epidural Space 2\. Arachnoid Mater: -middle layer -thin, weblike, avascular -does not penetrate smaller depressions like pis \- Subarachnoid space (filled with CSF) 3. Pia Mater: -thin, innermost layer -adheres to the CNS structure surfaces -contain BV to nourish brain and spinal cord [Chapter 8:] Endocrine and nervous system are used for communication to maintain homeostasis - Hypothalamus and its relationship to pituitary gland: -They are connected by a stalk called the infundibulum -Hypothalamus creates oxytocin and ADH -Posterior pituitary stores the oxytocin and ADH - [Target tissue:] a tissue with receptors for a specific hormone -Receptors for hormones can be on the cell membrane or inside the cell -water soluble hormones bind to receptors outside the cell -lipid soluble hormones (steroids) bind receptors inside the cell - Categories of Hormones: 1. Steroids: derives from cholesterol -Example: Estrogen and cann pass through cell membrane 2. Amino Acid Derivatives: derives from amino acids(building blocks of protein) -Example: Epinephrine-cannot pass through cell membrane -Example: Insulin - Up/Down Regulation: 1. [Up Regulation:] increase in the number of receptors for a given hormone 2. [Down Regulation:] decrease in the number of receptors for a given hormone - Hormone categories of Adrenal Cortex: 25 different hormones classified in 3 major categories 1. Mineralocorticoids 2. Glucocorticoids 3. Androgens - Adrenal Medulla: SNS (Fear, Pain, Stress)-Pancreas - [Insulin:] lowers blood glucose (Endocrine Function)-Pancreas - [Glucagon:] Raises blood pressure (Endocrine Function - [Calcitonin]: lowers blood calcium by stimulating calcium deposition by OSTEOBLASTS in bones - [Oxytocin:] Cause or strengthen labor contractions-Posterior Pituitary - [Thyroid Hormone:] T4 and T3-Thyroid gland 1. Increases metabolism 2. Promotes protein synthesis 3. Enhances neuron function - [Diabetes Mellitus:] Problem with insulin in blood glucose regulation 1. Type 1 2. Type 2 - [Cushing's Syndrome:] health problems related to excessive cortisol levels in the blood, due to hypersecretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone - [Parathyroid Gland: ] 1. Small glands on posterior surface of thyroid gland 2. 2 glands on each lobe 3. Parathyroid Hormone: Increases the concentration of blood calcium levels in 3 ways: 1. Promotes calcium removal from bones by osteoclasts and inhibits calcium deposition by osteoblasts 2. Inhibits excretion of calcium by kidneys 3. Promotes calcium absorption into blood by intestine [Chapter 11:] Lymphatic System: Maintains fluid levels in our body by removing all fluids that leak out of our BV - Forms of Acquired Immunity: 1. Passive: through someone or something else 2. Active: Body creates its own immunity 3. Naturally: through naturally occurring means 4. Artificial: not acquired naturally 5. Natural Active: Exposure to infectious agent 6. Artificial Active: vaccines 7. Natural Passive: Maternal Antibodies (Placenta) 8. Artificial Passive: Antiserum (antivenom serum) - Lymph and flow of lymph: -Lymph: derived from plasma-clear, watery fluid found in lymphatic vessels -Flow of lymph: Washes over tissues to deliver nutrients, remove wastes, cell debris, bacteria, viruses, and loose(possible cancerous cells) -lymph is returned back to blood stream by open-ended lymph vessels through the skeletal muscle action (PUMPING MECHANISM) - Lymphoid Organs: 1. Tonsils: Found around the pharynx to guard against pathogens entering the body -pharyngeal: posterior wall of nasopharynx -lingual: base of tongue 2. Thymus: T cells mature in this organ -Childhood: most active and time-period where it is largest -Adulthood: atrophies and functions more slowly - Functions of Lymphatic system: 1. Maintains fluid levels in our body tissue by removing all fluids that leak out of our BV 2. Lymph vessels act as DRAINS to collect excess tissue fluid and return it to the venous blood 3. It returns certain substances (proteins, fats, etc.) to the general circulation - Lines of Defense: 1^st^ and 2^nd^ line are nonspecific defense 1. External barriers are such as skin and mucosa 2. Inflammation, fever, antimicrobial proteins, Natural Killer Cells, Phagocytes 3. Specific Immunity +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Skin | Keratin is tough protein that | | | bacteria cannot easily break | | | through | | | | | | Dry, with few nutrients for | | | bacteria and other pathogens | | | | | | Has acid mantle, which makes it | | | inhospitable for bacteria and | | | other pathogens | +===================================+===================================+ | Mucous Membrane | Traps microbes | | | | | | Mucus, tears, and saliva contain | | | lysosomes to destroy pathogens | | | | | | Deep to mucous membrane is loose | | | areolar CT with fibers to hamper | | | progress of pathogens | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Inflammation | Limit spread of pathogens to | | | remove debris, damaged tissue, | | | and to initiate tissue repair | | | | | | Involves release of vasodilators | | | from damaged tissue and basophils | | | and the margination, diapedesis, | | | and chemotaxis of leukocytes that | | | phagocytize pathogens along the | | | way. CAN FORM PUS | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Antimicrobial Proteins | Interferon- produced by virally | | | infected cells so that other | | | healthy cells will make antiviral | | | proteins | | | | | | Complement system-20 inactive | | | proteins that, when activated, | | | can destroy pathogens in several | | | ways: | | | | | | 1. Cytolysis 2. Opsonization | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Fever | Defense initiated by pyrogens | | | from macrophages that cause the | | | hypothalamus to reset the body's | | | temp | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Natural Killer Cells | Nonphagocytic lymphocytes that | | | police blood and lymph | | | | | | Can kill cancer and | | | virus-infected cells | | | | | | Attack cells that lack "self" | | | cell-surface receptors | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ Specific Immunity: +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Humoral-B Cell | Makes B cell antibodies | | | | | | Develop and mature in bone marrow | | | | | | Antigen stimulation: | | | | | | 1\. Plasma cells-produce | | | antibodies | | | | | | 2\. Memory cells-retains memory | | | of antigen so can respond to | | | future exposures of recognized | | | antigen | | | | | | -Primary immune response: 1^st^ | | | time you are introduced to | | | pathogen and response is slow-3 | | | to 6 days for activation and 10 | | | more for peak antibody production | | | | | | -Secondary Immune response: | | | subsequent time exposed to same | | | pathogen and faster response: 2-5 | | | days for peak exposure | +===================================+===================================+ | Cellular-T cell | 2 types based on the type of | | | receptor displayed on their | | | surface | | | | | | 1. CD4 cells- Helper T cells, | | | regulatory T cells, memory T | | | cells | | | | | | 2. CD8 cells: Cytotoxic T cells, | | | memory T cells | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Antigen-Presenting Cells | Engulf an antigen and present its | | | fragments | | | | | | B cells | | | | | | Dendritic cells-found in CT and | | | epidermis: catch an antigen, | | | travel to lymphatic system, | | | present it to a T cell | | | | | | Macrophages-part of both innate | | | and adaptive systems, do not | | | retain any memory- must | | | reactivate with each encounter | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ - Dendritic cells-found in CT and epidermis: catch an antigen, travel to lymphatic system, present it to a T cell - Natural Killer Cells: -Nonphagocytic lymphocytes that police blood and lymph -Can kill cancer and virus-infected cells -Attack cells that lack "self" cell-surface receptors - Lymphatic System Disorders: 1. Lymphoma: cancer that affects WBC and can develop in the organs of lymphatic system a. Hodgkins-presence of abnormal B cells called Reed-Sternberg cells b. Non-Hodgkins- Abnormal B cells and T cells but no Reed-Sternberg cells 2. Multiple Myeloma: Cancer of the plasma cells in bone marrow forming tumors in bone 3. Splenomegaly: Enlargement of spleen that can be caused by any number of pathological conditions, including anemia, cancers, and certain infections 4. Allergies: hypersensitivities to a pathogen that may have immediate or delayed side effects - Autoimmune Disorders: result of the immune system attacking self-antigens -Rheumatoid arthritis -Graves' Disease -Myasthania Gravis - [Mimicry:] One molecule is so similar in structure to another molecule that it is mistaken for the other molecule - Immunodeficiency Disorders: -Congenital: from birth -Acquired: AIDS(final stage of HIV) -Kaposi sarcoma -affects ability to fight opportunistic infections [Chapter 13]: - Mechanical: Physical breakdown of food in into smaller pieces - Chemical: Splitting of complex, nonabsorbable food molecules into small, absorbable nutrient molecules by hydrolysis -Enzymes that speed up the reaction and enable digestion to occur - What causes the pyloric sphincter to open? - The Pyloric sphincter remains closed until the contents of the stomach reaches 2 - Enzymes in Saliva: 1. Amylase: partially digests carbs 2. Lingual Lipase: breaks down fats, or lipids in foods 3. Mucus: mixes with food and makes it easier to swallow 4. Lysozymes: 1^st^ line of defense against bacteria trying to enter the body 5. Antibodies: help identify people who have beem exposed to a virus and develop an immune response - Parts of Small Intestine: Has duodenum, jejunum, and ileum -All parts have smooth muscle in their walls and lined by villi -Endocrine cells of duodenum secrete secretin and cholecystokinin -The ileocecal valve controls movement of materials from small intestine to the colon - Anatomy of the Stomach: -Stomach has 3 layers of smooth muscle in its walls and each oriented in a different direction -The lining of the stomach has RUGAE for more surface area to accommodate gastric pits that lead to gastric glands - [Secretin:] tells the pancreas to release bicarbonate Ions to neutralize the chyme in the duodenum (chyme is acidic when leaves the stomach BUT becomes Alkaline in the small intestine) - [Cholecystokinin:] secreted by endocrine cells in the duodenum in response to the presence of lipids - [Chyme:] Once gastric secretions are mixed with bolus, it is turned into chyme and this happens with digestion in the stomach - [Segmentation:] ensures all contents of small intestine come in contact with villi for absorption - [Peristalsis:] Series of involuntary muscle contractions that moves the bolus through the esophagus - Functions of the Digestive System: 1. Ingestion 2. Digestion 3. Absorption 4. Defecation - Regions of the Colon: Also called Large Intestine 1. Appendix is on Cecum 2. Made up of cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, and rectum - Sphincters: 1. Pyloric sphincter remains closed until the pH of the stomach contents reaches 2 (in between stomach and duodenum) 2. Hepatopancreatic sphincter controls the opening of the common bile duct to the duodenum 3. Internal anal sphincter and is controlled by the autonomic nervous system(involuntary) 4. External anal sphincter and is controlled by the somatic nervous system(voluntary) 5. Cardiac sphincter/Lower esophageal: prevent stomach contents from flowing back up into the esophagus and is controlled by the autonomic nervous system(involuntary) - Hepatitis: 1. A-causes liver disease 2. B-transmitted by contacted with blood or bodily fluids, sexual contact, mother-newborn, shared needles 3. C-causes chronic infection; spreads by contact with infected blood an sharing needles [Chapter 14:] The skin, liver, and kidneys remove metabolic wastes - Effects of aging on the urinary System: 1. Size of the kidneys and the number of nephrons decrease 2. Glomerular filtration rate and reserve capacity decrease 3. Drugs are cleared less efficiently 4. Responsiveness to ADH is decreased 5. 80% of elderly men experience benign prostatic hyperplasia, which makes micturition difficult 6. Elderly women often experience incontinence due to weakened pelvic floor muscles - Functions of the kidneys and urinary system: -Kidneys: 1\. excretion of wastes through urine 2\. regulation of blood volume 3\. delivery of urine from the body 4\. control of urine production -Urinary System: 1\. Removal of metabolic wastes 2\. Maintenance of body's fluid and electrolyte balance 3\. Maintenance of body's acid-base balance 4\. Regulation of Blood Pressure - Hormones that regulate urine volume: 1. ADH: controls whether more or less water is absorbed than normal -increases water reabsorption -High blood water concentration means less ADH production and Low water concentration means more ADH production 2. Aldosterone: regulates sodium ion reabsorption in distal convoluted tubule -creates osmotic gradient for more water to follow by osmosis 3. ANH: Dilates the afferent arterioles while constricting the efferent arterioles in the kidney -inhibits production of renin by juxtaglomerular apparatus -inhibits secretion of ADH from posterior pituitary -inhibits from sodium absorption in the nephron directly - Impact of Diuretic Drugs: Diuretics increase urine production -Alcohol inhibits secretion of ADH -Caffeine increases blood flow to kidney, increases GFR, and decreases sodium reabsorption -Diuretic drugs mostly inhibit the active reabsorption of sodium - Organs that do Excretion: 1. Skin 2. Lungs 3. Liver 4. Kidneys - From the Urinary System: 1. Kidneys: 3 layers 1. Renal capsule 2. Renal cortex 3. Renal medulla -pyramids are in the renal medulla -calyces collect urine from pyramids and deliver to renal pelvis -renal sinus is the space occupied by renal rtery, renal vein, and renal pelvis 2. Ureters: retroperitoneal and deliver urine from renal pelvis to ureinary bladder 3. Urethra: delivers urine from bladder to outside -male is longer and female is shorter -surrounded by external urinary sphincter as it passes through pelvic floor -male is divided into 3 sections: 1. Prostatic 2. Membranous 3. Penile 4. Urinary Bladder: storage sac with smooth muscle in its walls -Trigone: triangular area of bladder floor and is defined by openings to ureters and urethra -base of the bladder, the detrusor muscle thickens to form the internal urinary sphincter - [Respiratory Acidosis:] System cannot eliminate sufficient CO2 - [Respiratory Alkalosis:] Decreased kidney elimination of hydrogen ions or increase production of acidic substances that metabolize - [Metabolic Acidosis:] System eliminates too much CO2 due to hyperventilation - [Metabolic Alkalosis:] Loss of acid usually due to excessive vomiting - [Filtration:] happens in the renal capsule -materials move from glomerulus to glomerular capsule by filtration -GFR: increased by high BP, decreased by low BP -materials moved are: 1\. water 2\. glucose 3\. amino acids 4\. Some nitrogenous wastes 5\. mineral salts - Reabsorption: happens along the renal tubule -materials move from tubules to the peritubular cavities -materials moved are: 1\. 100% of glucose 2\. 100% of amino acids 3\. variable amounts of mineral salts 4\. water - Secretion: happens along the renal tubule -materials move from peritubular capillaries to the tubules -materials moved are: 1\. nitrogenous wastes 2\. excess hydrogen ions 3\. excess potassium ions 4\. some drugs -secretion of hydrogen ions helps to maintain the acid-base balance -normal range is: 7.35-7.45 - Nephron and its components: -A nephron has 2 basic parts: 1. the renal corpuscle: composed glomerulus and glomerular capsule 2. the renal tubule: composed of the proximal convoluted tubule, nephron loop, and distal convoluted tubule -The renal corpuscle and convoluted tubules are located in the renal cortex -nephron loop and collecting duct are located in the pyramid -juxtaglomerular apparatus is located between the afferent arteriole, efferent, arteriole, and distal convoluted tubule - Components of urine flow: 1. Glomerular capsule 2. Proximal convoluted tubule 3. Nephron loop 4. Distal convoluted tubule 5. Collecting duct 6. Minor calyx - Blood flow to a nephron: flows from renal artery, to smaller arteries, to afferent arteriole, to glomerulus, to efferent arteriole, to peritubular capillaries, to venules, to larger veins, and to the renal vein - [Glomerulonephritis:] can be acute or chronic 1. Acute: usually occurs after a severe infection and results in protein and WBC in the urine 2. Chronic: results in thickening of the filtration membrane in the nephron and may lead to kidney failure - [Renal Failure:] usually begins as azotemia, a renal insufficiency characterized by nitrogen wastes in blood -Treatment: dialysis or transplantation - [Kidney Stones:] calcium or uric acid precipitates that may block the flow of urine in the ureters