HSP3U1 Psychology Exam Notes PDF

HSP3U1 - Psychology Introduction to Psychology -​ Psychology: Study of the mind, thoughts, and behaviours; why living things behave the way they do. Psychodynamic Theory -​ An approach to therapy that focuses on resolving a patient’s conflicted conscious and unconscious feeli...

HSP3U1 - Psychology Introduction to Psychology -​ Psychology: Study of the mind, thoughts, and behaviours; why living things behave the way they do. Psychodynamic Theory -​ An approach to therapy that focuses on resolving a patient’s conflicted conscious and unconscious feelings -​ Based on Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory that human behaviour is influenced by early childhood -​ Unconscious mind is accessed through free association: writing words that you associate another word with -​ Unconscious mind: information processed that we are not aware of -​ Conscious mind: information that we are aware of -​ Sigmund Freud: Introduced the concept of three parts of the conscious mind: id, ego, superego (psychoanalytic theory) -​ Ego: Rational thinking (reality principle), id: instinctual thinking (pleasure principle), superego: moral centre (finalizes decisions) -​ Karen Horney: Refer to chart below -​ Carl Jung: Believed in two parts of the unconscious (personal and collective) -​ Personal unconscious: unique to each individual, collective unconscious: inherited from ancestors -​ Contributed to understanding of personality (introversion, extraversion) Behaviourism -​ Focus on observable behaviours (putting feelings aside) -​ Behaviours are caused as a result of being conditioned to do so -​ Changing behaviours causes reconditioning the patient -​ Ivan Pavlov: Responsible for classical conditioning -​ Unconditional stimuli result in unconditional responses -​ Associating things through learned responses (conditioned responses): classical conditioning -​ B.F. Skinner: Responsible for operant conditioning -​ Concerned with observable behaviour and how rewards/punishments influence behaviour Cognitive -​ Cognition: Mental processes in the brain associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering (how the brain learns) -​ Coupled with behavioural psychology to treat those with mental health disorders -​ Albert Bandura: Part of the cognitive revolution (social-cognitive theory, takes person’s background into account) -​ Researched how the same situation provoked different responses from different people or the same person -​ Believed people learn behaviour by watching and intimidating others -​ Jean Piaget: Developed the Stages of Cognitive Development -​ People develop certain cognitive abilities when developing through adulthood -​ Erik Erikson: Refer to chart below Summary Chart of Psychologists Psychologist Country School of Thought Main Ideas Sigmund Freud Austria Psychodynamic Father of psychology, conscious/unconscio us mind, id, ego, superego Karen Horney Germanyb Psychodynamic Feminine psychology, believed women were pushed by society to depend on men Carl Jung Switzerland Psychodynamic Personal and collective (unconscious mind), introversion/extravers ion Ivan Pavlov Russia Behavioural Discover of classical conditioning (ringing bell experiment) B.F. Skinner United States Behavioural Observable behaviours > mental processes behind them, operant conditioning Albert Bandura Canada Cognitive Cognitive revolution, social-cognitive theory, Bobo doll experiment Jean Piaget France Cognitive The Stages of Cognitive Development, cognitive abilities developed throughout adulthood Erik Erikson Germany Cognitive Child development/ego, Erikson’s Stages of Psychological Development Influential Psychological Experiments Asch’s Conformity Study -​ People are more likely to conform when there is more pressure to do so -​ People care more about agreeing with others than being right Kitty Genovese’s Murder Case -​ Many witnesses, nobody comes to help -​ “Bystander Effect”: The more bystanders present, the less likely any will come to help -​ Led to mandation of alerting authorities to minimize chances of nobody calling for help Little Albert Experiment -​ Conducted by John Watson -​ Classical conditioning can develop an irrational fear -​ Classical conditioning works on humans Stanford Prison Study -​ Done by psychologist Philip Zimbardo -​ Intended to study behaviour of normal individuals when assigned a role of prisoner/guard -​ After a few days, prison guards became verbally abusive towards inmates -​ Participants broke down mentally, cancelling the experiment -​ Human behaviour is situational; people will conform to certain roles if conditions are right Stanley Milgram Experiment -​ “Teachers” would give fake shocks to actors who pretended that they were actually happening -​ Many of the participants would continue to give shocks when the authority figure made them do so -​ Humans will obey authority and will do so even if it goes against their morals Ethical Issues in Psychology Ethics -​ Respect for the Dignity of Persons: -​ Psychological knowledge is not misused to infringe on human rights. Informed consent is granted before experiments -​ Responsible Caring: -​ Avoid any harm to clients, avoid experiments that cause more harm than good, only harm animals if no other option is available -​ Integrity of Relationships: -​ Avoid exploiting any relationships at the expense of the best interest of their clients -​ Responsibility to Society: -​ Acquire knowledge of a culture, social structure, and customs of a community before any experiment Unethical Experiments -​ Note: Little Albert, Stanford Prison Experiment, and the Stanley Milgram Experiment are included in “Influential Psychological Experiments” -​ Landis’ Facial Expressions Experiment: -​ Carney Landis wanted to see if certain facial expressions were common in everyone -​ Situations got increasingly more tense -​ Showed no proof of common facial expressions, rats killed for no reason -​ The Monster Study: -​ Wendell Johnson conducted a speech experiment on children -​ People who stuttered stop stuttering, people who never stuttered began stuttering -​ Showed that people develop a stutter instead of being born with one -​ Learned Helplessness: -​ Mark Seligman and Steve Maier experimented on three groups of dogs -​ Different groups received different levels of shock -​ The group that was most harmed began to give up trying to escape the box  -​ David Reimer: -​ Bruce Reimer gets his genitals burned off and is raised as a female -​ He discovers he is biologically male and commits suicide shortly after -​ Dr. John Money claimed that gender is a matter of socialization, despite there being no evidence -​ Monkey Drug Trials: -​ Conducted by C. R. Schuster and T. Thompson to understand the effects of drug and alcohol abuse -​ Monkeys and rats injected drugs and became highly addicted to them -​ Resulted in broken limbs and dead animals as a result of the drugs -​ The Aversion Project: -​ Attempted to remove homosexuality from the armed forces -​ Performed sex-change operations on around 900 gay and lesbian soldiers -​ The conductor, Dr. Aubrey Levin, faced over 20 charges of sexual assault -​ The Surrogate Mother Experiment: -​ Conducted by Dr. Harry Harlow to understand the effects of social isolation -​ Infant monkeys separated from their mothers after birth -​ Showed little results, other than that attachment does not depend on only feeding Negative Automatic Thought Patterns -​ Many people share common negative thinking patterns when approaching negative situations Common Patterns: -​ All-or-nothing thinking: Black-and-white thinking, either a complete success or failure -​ Overgeneralization: Single negative event means a never-ending pattern of defeat -​ Mental filter: Only thinking about a single negative detail -​ Disqualifying the positive: Positive experiences “don’t count” -​ Jumping to conclusions: Negative interpretation despite no factual evidence, anticipation that things will end up badly -​ Catastrophizing/minimization: Exaggerating small flaws to make them big -​ Emotional reasoning: Assumption that negative emotions are reality -​ Labelling: Attaching negative labels to yourself/other people -​ Personalization: Blaming yourself for things you aren’t responsible for Methods of Reappraisal: -​ Positive reframing: Seeing the good in challenging situations by thinking more positively -​ Examining the evidence: Thinking about how rational your feelings are -​ Identifying extreme language: Rephrasing your thoughts with less emphasis -​ Questioning biases: Examining the views that may make you believe the way you do -​ Changing perspectives: Talking to others about the situation and seeing their thoughts about it Elizabeth Loftus: Memory TED Talk -​ Loftus studies false memory (memories of things that never happened) -​ 300 Americans have been convicted of crimes they didn’t commit -​ Memory is unreliable as it is reconstructive, meaning it can change -​ Memories are constructed from associations made through related scenarios visualized in the past -​ People’s memory can change depending on the information they receive -​ In the 1990s, therapy was flawed as patients were developing false memories -​ Imagination, dream interpretation, hypnosis: methods of psychotherapy that caused false memories Psychodynamic theory: -​ Mention of past experiences, childhood, attachment styles -​ Issues in the unconscious mind happens due to unresolved issues in the childhood Cognitive Psychology -​ Emphasis on what someone is thinking about HSP3U1 - Sociology Introduction to Sociology: Social institutions: -​ Consists of a group of people who have come together for a common purpose fulfilling the needs of society -​ Are ESSENTIAL to a society’s needs and help build it -​ Govern the behavior and expectations of individuals -​ Ex. government, school, legal system, etc. Social Variables -​ Outline how people are different from one another (ex. culture, religion, nationality) What is Sociology: -​ Examines patterns in social variables, institutions and interactions -​ Closely related to: -​ Anthropology -​ Economy -​ Philosophy -​ Political Science -​ Psychology -​ Social Work Origins of Sociology, Ibn Khaldun: -​ Tunisian historian -​ Considered the first sociologist, but wouldn’t have considered himself one -​ Main Focus: how societies worked -​ Introduction to History: his book examined different types of societies and their histories, cultures and economies -​ Developed a systematic approach to studying different types of societies such as tribes, cities, nations, and economies Development of Modern European Sociology -​ Emerged as an area of academic interest in Europe during 1808 -​ Specifically in Germany, France and Britain -​ Society was changing: increased efficiency, more people living in cities, worse living conditions, more jobs and access to resources, etc. What Was Happening in Society? 1.​ Industrial Revolution -​ Factories were mass producing products in factories -​ Dramatic social changes 2.​ Urbanization -​ Migration from rural to urban centres in search of work in factories 3.​ Population Increase -​ Advances in medicine, better access to foods 4.​ Changes in Class Structure -​ Lower, middle, and upper classes emerged due to capitalism Herbert Spencer: ​ Was influenced by biologist Charles Darwin and theory of Evolution ​ First used the term “Survival of the Fittest” to justify social inequalities  ​ Believed those with wealth and power deserved it because they were the fittest members of society ​ Founder of Social Darwinism ​ These ideas were used to justify: ○​ Genocides ○​ Nationalism ○​ Colonialism ○​ Eugenics ○​ Race Studies ​ Believed poor were deficient in some way, that it’s not the system–victim blaming ​ Believed rich were deserving of their money even if they obtained it doing wrongful acts Types of Sociology: -​ There are several schools of thought in sociology depending on their application and perspectives -​ Can focus on historical, political, economic, feminist perspectives -​ 2 Ways to distinguish types of sociology: 1.​ Sociology by approach, traditional (what the theory does) 2.​ Sociology by audience (who’s it for?) -​ In line with modern sociology -​ Focus on subject truths—postmodernism -​ One’s experiences are important Sociology by Approach 1.​ Structural Functionalism 2.​ Conflict Theory 3.​ Symbolic Interactionism 4.​ Feminist Theory— postmodern (subjective) Structural Functionalism - MACRO (Big Idea) -​ Identifies different structures in society (family, religion etc) -​ Ex. Family serves a function—care for family members, instills values, love -​ Describes the functions the structure performs in society -​ Similar to studying biology–study the structures of the body and what the body parts do -​ Sociologists in this school include: -​ Emile Durkheim -​ Robert Merton -​ Talcott Parsons -​ Most contemporary sociologists don’t use structural functionalism because it doesn’t help explain conflict, social change fully Robert Merton -​ Enhanced functionalism by noting there are 3 types of functions any structure can produce  1.​ Manifest Function–intended and easily recognized -​ Ex. What are the functions of school? 2.​ Latent Function–unintended and unrecognized -​ Ex. What are the unintended functions of school? 3.​ Latent Dysfunctions–unintended and produce negative consequences -​ Ex. What are some unintended and possible negative consequences of school? Conflict Theory -​ Assumptions: -​ Conflict systems have existed in every society -​ Contestation– “who does this function best serve?” -​ Change–society either will or should be changed Symbolic Interactionism: -​ Looks at meaning of daily social interactions of individuals -​ Small scale view of society, focuses on small group interactions instead of larger societal structures/institutions Feminist Sociology - MACRO -​ Analyzes theories from a female perspective -​ Many types of feminism like radical and Black -​ Address discrimination against women and misogyny (hatred towards women) -​ Looks at how and why women are perceived as unequal to men often by studying sex and gender -​ Examines the system of patriarchy (male domination) -​ You don’t need to be a woman to be a feminist or to use feminist theory Global Societal Issues Particular to Women -​ Rape as a weapon of war (against women and children) -​ Child marriages–girls are unable to mentally deal with the traumas -​ Lack of freedom in certain patriarchal societies—most societies are patriarchal -​ Lack of educational opportunities—gender violence, women don’t feel safe (sexual harassment) -​ Violence—femicide (Murdered and Missing Indigenous Women, abortion of female fetuses -​ Sex Trade Workers/Sexual slavery Forms of Oppression: Introduction: -​ Stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination grow from the unequal distribution of power -​ Creating powerful and powerless groups in society  -​ Allowing the oppression of one in favour of the other -​ All of the players in the groups create or “socially construct”, their own realities of those relationships Social Construction: -​ Social construction of reality is a sociological theory -​ Suggests that way we choose to act/react in a situation is shaped by interactions in the past with others -​ How we see a situation depends on the interactions we have with those involved -​ Also depends on how they relate to our own beliefs, values, and experiences -​ Ex.Muslims; A third of Ontarians have a positive impression of the religion and more than half feel its mainstreams doctrines promote violence -​ Islam is the most likely to be viewed by the respondents as a promoter of violence Power: -​ Refers to the ability to get your own way, even in the face of adversity -​ Those who hold power in society are able to label, stereotype, and discriminate against weaker people or groups, whether that weakness is real or perceived Stereotypes: -​ Are ‘mental cookie cutters’ – they force a limited number of characteristics to all members of a group(could be positive or negative) -​ May be based on fact, but often are overgeneralized and applied to an entire segment of the population -​ People with power impose stereotypes on those who are powerless -​ We use stereotypes because it's easy; we do not have to think -​ Eg. Metal music-rowdy, senior citizens-frail/weak -​ Learnt through the media, such as television, magazines, movies, and the Internet Prejudice: -​ Is similar to stereotypes but it involves judging someone before getting to know them -​ When people are prejudiced, they have ‘ready made’ ideas usually negative - about a group of people, based on their characteristics Ethnocentrism: -​ Assumes that the standards of your own culture are universally normal and superior to other cultures Discrimination: -​ Prejudice often leads to discrimination -​ It’s the unequal treatment of individuals or groups based on their characteristics 1.​ Direct Discrimination: -​ A person’s deliberate exclusion of another individual or groups  -​ Based on race, ethnicity etc. -​ Ex. Hall owner refuses to rent to facility to a gay couple for their wedding 2.​ Systemic Discrimination: -​ Systemic or institutionalized discrimination refers to the policies of the dominant group’s institutions -​ And the behaviour of individuals who control these policies having harmful or undesirable effects on members of a minority group. Ex. Police and minority groups -​ We may not be conscious of it - “unintentional effect” of everyday practices -​ Deeply ingrained in our culture - we don’t see it Oppression: -​ Describes policies, practices, norms, and traditions that exploit one group at the expense of another -​ Occurs when institutional and social powers support prejudice -​ Ex. Suffrage movement - women getting the right to vote 1.​ Exploitation -​ Unfair use of people’s time or labor -​ Failure to compensate them fairly(ex. Workers in a sweatshop) 2.​ Marginalization -​ The exclusion that forces minority groups to the fringes of society -​ Most commonly based on race; ex. Indigenous peoples 3.​ Powerlessness -​ When the dominant group leaves the subordinate group with little to no access to the rights and privileges -​ The subordinate group comes to believe they deserve this unfair treatment -​ Described as living in a “culture of silence” 4.​ Cultural Imperialism -​ When the dominant group has made their beliefs and values the norms of a society -​ Ex. Heterosexuality, and Christianity 5.​ Violence -​ Is the worst form of oppression instilling fear in some groups -​ Ex. gays, blacks The Isms 1.​ Ableism -​ Refers the attitudes and behaviours that assign inferior status and value -​ Imposed on individuals who have developmental, emotional, physical, and psychiatric disabilities 2.​ Ageism -​ The stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination against individuals or groups because of their age 3.​ Classism -​ The systemic oppression of subordinate classes by dominant groups -​ Done in order to gain advantages and strengthen their own positions -​ Ex. Belief that one occupation is better than another 4.​ Hetereosexism -​ The belief in the superiority of heterosexuality, as a way of life -​ Leads to oppression of any non-heterosexual forms of behaviour, identity,relationship, or community 5.​ Racism -​ The assertion of one group over others based on biological or cultural traits -​ Accompanied by power to put these beliefs into practice by minority men and women -​ Oppresses or privileges one group over another 6.​ Sexism -​ Attitudes and behaviours based on the belief that one gender is superior to the other -​ Results in discrimination or devaluing of that gender and roles related to it 7.​ Sizeism -​ Refers to discrimination against people based on their body, size, height, and weight -​ Generally seen as prejudice against those who are overweight Marketplace Investigation: Are we racist 1.​ What does research suggest about rentals to minorities in Canada? -​ Rental managers are less eager to talk to minorities. 2.​ In what ways are potential renters treated differently? -​ Minorities are more commonly discriminated against, they are given fewer options when renting. They are charged more compared to people who are not minorities. 3.​ What does research suggest about minority group shopping? -​ Minority groups are followed around under the assumption that they will steal. They are commonly checked on my employees to inspect them 4.​ In what ways are customers given ‘extra attention’ -​ Customers are followed, watched and treated differently based on their race. Minorities have a harder time shopping without facing a degree of discrimination. 5.​ How do people ‘show’ they hold racist views today? -​ Racist views are shown from subconscious implications rather than explicit comments. -​ Backhanded compliments -​ Racially profilled 6.​ What types of discrimination do muslim women face in the episde. -​ They are called terrorists -​ Called by racial slurs -​ Insuleted for wearing a hajab 7.​ What was the resume test method of the expirment set up by Marketplace? -​ All subjects apply for a job under their real name and a fake alias -​ Other detail reminded the same 8.​ What were the findings of an American study about names on resumes? -​ People with white names received drasticly faster responses from employers.  9.​ What hiring practices are employed by the Toronto Symphony? -​ Blind Recruitment 10.​ How was the hiring practise effective explain: -​ Employers cannot see the applicant, meaning that the hiring process depends fully on talent rather than looks. 11.​What other institutions have applied this strategy? Explain: -​ Civil services, law schools 12.​What were the results of the resume test? -​ Western sounding names received better response Empires Of Dirt 1.​ How banks made money from slavery. -​ 16.5 billion british pounds was given to slave owners (not the slaves) as compensation -​ British banks loan money to a US plantation owner to buy slaves/ equipment -​ Slaves helped build the city of London -​ Slavery built the financial institution that we use today. 2.​ How Britian stole 45 trillion dollars from India’s train system. -​ Railways were the site for mass slaugther -​ Trains were used to transport exploited resources (cotton, coal) around india -​ Britian made India buy trains from london which was more expensive -​ Essesntailly britain created a system to take away resources from India whilst charing them for it. -​ 4 million bengalis starved to death during ww2 3.​ How Britan got china hooked up on Opium -​ Britain wanted silk, ceramics, and tea in exchange for opiumm -​ 15m people were addicted to opium by 1290 -​ 300 tonnes of apium in 1800; 3500 tonnes in 1840 -​ banned by chinese emperors on 2 separate occasions -​ Wars begin when Ching destrays traded opium -​ China was forced to legelize opium transportation -​ Britain stops importing opium when it is no longer profitable 4.​ How the British Empire Exported Homophobia  -​ Britich Pennal Code: being gay is illegal in 30 former British colories -​ Gay sex punishable by denth -​ Lesbicnism was not banned as woren were not thught of at the time -​ Pakistan Guyama, Kenya, Singapore and Ghana still dont have equality today. 5.​ The Disturbing History of Tobacco -​ 25m lbs of tobacco produced / year for sale all over europe by the 1680’s -​ All tobacco groun by slaves -​ Life expectancy on a Scottish-owned plantation: 7 years -​ Slaves forced to speck Gaelic -​ Glasgow made massive profit off tobacco imports -​ American independence destroyed Glasgaw tobacco lords -​ Streets named after former tobacco lords 6.​ Should Museums Return Thier Stolen Objects? -​ British soldiers masscarred -​ Shrunken heads were displayed to present an idea of white superiority -​ Europeans believed that shrunken heads were war trophies -​ Totem pole bought for $36 as they thought it was unlucky -​ Stolen items in museums enforce the idea that Europe was better than the countries they stole from 7.​ The Dark Secret Behind the Royal Family’s Wealth -​ Royal family hides their wealth from the public -​ British monarch exempt from paying most taxes -​ Slave trade was cruricil for the royal familys wealth -​ Historic royal residents were funded by slavery -​ Many countries demand an apology / reparations -​ The Queen's death opened an opportunity to right historic wrongs 8.​ Did the Royal Family Steal this $400 million Diamond -​ Koh-i-Noor, a large diamond mined in South India during the 13th century -​ UK claims that the diamond was gitted to Quen Victoria -​ India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Iran demand its return, Britan has rejected them all -​ Koh-i-Nur labelled as a "symbol of conquest" with “ a turbulent history” on the royal palaces velo- Site 9.​ Is this Royal Club Just Empire in Disguise? -​ Commonwealth keeps alive the legacy of atrocities commited during British Colonialsim -​ Millions of pounds from the late Queens private estate had been invested offshore but never disclosed  -​ Many countries aiming to disband from the Commonwealth after the Queens death Socialization Family ​ Cultural capital: The non-financial assets that help people succeed in the world ​ Gendered socialization: Starts upon parents deciding a gendered name ​ Race socialization: The process of learning behaviours, values, and attitudes associated with racial groups ​ Class socialization: Similar to race socialization, but impacted depending on social class ​ Anticipatory socialization: The social process where people learn to take on the values and standards groups that they plan to join School ​ Hidden curriculum: An education in norms, values, and beliefs that are passed along during schooling ​ 4 peer group categories at school: Nerds, jocks, leading crowd, burnouts Total Institution ​ A process in where: ○​ Places are cut off from the outside world and face strict rules regarding behaviour (military, boarding school, etc.) ○​ Residents are controlled in all aspects ○​ Previous identities replaced with new norms ○​ Residents are forced to conform and behave formally ○​ Residents undergo rituals that strip previous identity Sociology: An Introduction Primary and Secondary Agents of Socialization Primary Agent: Family ​ Responsible for providing basic human needs ​ Starts immediately after birth  ​ Teaches right and wrong ​ Present during early years of life Secondary Agent: School ​ Happens upon entering school ​ Teaches students necessary curriculums as well as the hidden curriculum (models certain behaviour indirectly) ​ Teaches essential skills (teamwork, obedience, punctuality, and competitiveness) Secondary Agent: Peer Groups ​ Can become more influential than parents during adolescence ​ Teaches communication, collaboration, and compromise ​ Provides opportunity for people to learn other social and ethnic backgrounds ​ Teaches social relationships Secondary Agent: Workplace ​ Becomes important during adulthood ​ Similar to school ​ Teaches adults the role of a parent: to make money and support family ​ Preparation experiences include: take your kid to work day, part-time jobs, co-op Secondary Agent: Media ​ TV, radio, movies, books, internet ​ Influential during childhood socialization ​ Too much consumption of media results in less social skills and relationships ​ Advertises others’ values towards children ​ Exposes people to other cultures and ideas Secondary Agent: Religion ​ Provides moral codes and standards that members are expected to follow ​ Teaches importance of responsibility and charity (monetary donations) Significant Sociologists Sociologist Country of Significant Ideas Most Significant Origin Contribution Auguste Comte France Society constantly Positivism: the strict changes; people struggle application of the to adapt. Most changes scientific method to were positive to society attain data to understand society Emile Durkheim France Society functions logically Sociological method and protects the interests and foundation of of its members structural Society constantly functionalism diversifies Structured theories under the foundation of structural functionalism Emerging diversity allows groups to work together more productively Commiting suicide is highly personal; the causes are deeply rooted in society Talcott Parsons United States If something exists in Social phenomena many societies, it must and relationships serve a necessary explained by their purpose purpose in society People must act according to their and others’ values to create societal stability Strong desire to get along and cooperate to achieve goals based on shared values Karl Marx Germany Factory owners exploited Principles of workers for profit communism: Societal development highlights the class driven by living conditions struggles and and class struggles revolution that Predicted class conflicts influenced political would lead to revolution, movements transitioning society from capitalism to communism Dorthey Smith Canada Women systematically Advocated for a excluded and alienated in society that is more male-dominated societies inclusive to women Culture favours men and opposes womens’ interests  Women deprived of authority and voice Max Weber Germany Rationalization (social Bureaucracy: a large actions motivated by administration that benefit or efficiency, rather pursues a wide than morality, custom, or variety of goals emotion) (lessen tensions in Capitalist system traps society) individuals Bureaucracy > revolution: -​ People given specialized tasks -​ Everyone treated equally -​ Recognized that this would not be realistic Charles Cooley United States Relationship between Looking-glass self: individuals and society the way one’s sense (interconnected, both of self is mirrored and studied simultaneously) reflected by others (in Primary group (most other words, an important interactions, avatar) family/friends) Primary group interactions are crucial to develop social identity George Herbert United States Symbols, language, Founding theorist for Mead communication in human symbolic interaction relationships (looking-glass self) Believed in looking-glass self People assume a variety of social roles; learning which “mask” to wear early on Wright Mills United States Sociological imagination: Sociological -​ Required to imagination: the understand the ability to connect society in which we individual live in experiences to social -​ Without it, realities individuals cannot understand themselves nor their role in society  -​ Provides insight to recognize the larger forces at work within society Implicit Bias ​ Implicit bias: Beliefs or attitudes towards things we are not fully conscious of. A preference for or against a person or group of people ​ Implicit biases run at the subconscious level and are contrary to conscious beliefs ​ Implicit biases are often counterintuitive from each other from a conscious and unconscious level ​ Mental associations: Behaviours and attitudes that we associate with words ​ Studying biases provide an expanded diagnosis of the problem, but the tools are used to address bias are flawed as they only address explicit biases instead of implicit biases ​ Habitual processes and internal motivation help to reduce implicit biases ​ Guilt: Something wrong that you can address ​ Shaming hinders growth and rises feelings of unworthiness