HSP 11 Exam Notes (3) PDF

HSP Exam Review Sheet January 2025 Location and Time: Tuesday, January 21st, 2025 at 12:40 p.m. to 2:20 p.m. in our classroom #131. Format of the Exam: -​ Multiple choice = 15 Marks -​ 2 ID and Give Significance = 2x5 marks each = 10 Marks -​ 1 Essay Question. You respond to the quote/sta...

HSP Exam Review Sheet January 2025 Location and Time: Tuesday, January 21st, 2025 at 12:40 p.m. to 2:20 p.m. in our classroom #131. Format of the Exam: -​ Multiple choice = 15 Marks -​ 2 ID and Give Significance = 2x5 marks each = 10 Marks -​ 1 Essay Question. You respond to the quote/statement given. Do you agree or disagree with it? Use evidence from TWO of the SIX – SEVEN areas of reference = 20 marks Total: 45 Marks What to study: -​ Impact of various anthropological studies (Goodall, The Kung, etc.) -​ All Famous Theorists/Theories in all 3 disciplines (Know their stages of Development for a particular few) -​ Conformity -​ Socialization (isolates, ferals, etc.) and agents of Socialization -​ Culture – why need it, where do we get it from? -​ All types of Conditioning, who invented it, what came of it, Behaviourism -​ Impact of Groups, Group Behaviour, Types of Groups, Institutions Impact of various anthropological studies (Goodall, The Kung, etc.) Jane Goodall and Chimpanzee Research Who: British primatologist Jane Goodall began studying chimpanzees in 1960 at Gombe Stream National Park, Tanzania. Key Findings: 1.​ Tool Use: Observed chimpanzees using sticks to fish termites, breaking the belief that tool use was unique to humans. ➔​ Example: Chimps customized sticks by stripping leaves to make them more effective. 2.​ Social Structures: Documented grooming behaviors as stress relievers and alliance builders. ➔​ Example: Grooming helped dominant males maintain power. 3.​ Aggression: Revealed chimpanzees engage in territorial warfare, showing parallels to human conflicts. 4.​ Emotional Similarities: Observed mourning behaviors, emphasizing the emotional depth of primates. Impact: Her work blurred the line between humans and other primates, advancing theories on evolution and conservation. The !Kung People of the Kalahari Desert Who: The !Kung San, a hunter-gatherer society in Southern Africa, were studied by anthropologists like Richard B. Lee in the 1960s-70s. Key Findings: 1.​ Egalitarian Society: Decision-making was collective, with temporary leadership based on expertise. ➔​ Example: Elders advised on disputes but had no authoritative power. 2.​ Gender Roles: Women’s foraging contributed 70% of dietary calories, showing their key role in survival. 3.​ Resource Sharing: Food was distributed equally to ensure group cohesion. 4.​ Nutrition: Their varied diet disproved assumptions about scarcity in hunter-gatherer societies. Impact: They challenged stereotypes of "primitive" societies and offered insights into sustainable living. Margaret Mead’s Studies in Samoa Who: Margaret Mead, an American anthropologist, studied Samoan culture in the 1920s. Key Findings: 1.​ Adolescence: Found that Samoan youth experienced less stress than Western teens due to permissive attitudes toward sexuality and clear social roles. 2.​ Cultural Relativism: Demonstrated that culture, not biology, plays a critical role in shaping behavior. ➔​ Example: Samoan teenagers avoided the familial and social conflicts common in the West. Impact: Mead popularized cultural anthropology and inspired debates about cultural interpretations. Bronisław Malinowski and the Trobriand Islanders Who: Malinowski, a Polish-British anthropologist, conducted fieldwork in the Trobriand Islands during WWI. Key Findings: 1.​ Kula Ring: A ceremonial exchange system emphasized social relationships over material gain. 2.​ Functionalism: Proposed that cultural practices meet individual and societal needs. ➔​ Example: Fishing rituals provided psychological assurance. 3.​ Participant Observation: Advocated long-term immersion to understand cultures deeply. Impact: Established participant observation as a key method in anthropology and illustrated the symbolic nature of economic systems. Franz Boas and Cultural Relativism Who: Franz Boas, "Father of American Anthropology," worked in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Key Findings: 1.​ Cultural Relativism: Argued that cultures should be understood in their own context, rejecting ethnocentric judgments. ➔​ Example: Boas documented the languages and customs of the Inuit and Kwakiutl. 2.​ Opposition to Racial Determinism: Emphasized the influence of environment and culture on behavior rather than biology. Impact: Boas reshaped anthropology, laying the foundation for modern cultural studies and inspiring a new generation of anthropologists. All Famous Theorists/Theories in all 3 disciplines Anthropology Franz Boas (1858–1942) Theory: Cultural Relativism Key Contributions: 1.​ Cultural Relativism: Advocated understanding cultures on their own terms instead of judging them by Western standards. ➔​ Example: His work with the Inuit and Kwakiutl demonstrated how environmental adaptation shapes culture. 2.​ Opposition to Racial Determinism: Rejected biological determinism, emphasizing culture and environment in shaping human behavior. 3.​ Four-Field Approach: Pioneered anthropology’s division into archaeology, linguistics, physical anthropology, and cultural anthropology. Impact: Boas established modern cultural anthropology, inspiring students like Margaret Mead and Ruth Benedict to explore cultural diversity and challenge stereotypes. Bronisław Malinowski (1884–1942) Theory: Functionalism Key Contributions: 1.​ Participant Observation: Emphasized long-term fieldwork and immersion in communities for accurate cultural insights. 2.​ Functionalism: Suggested that cultural practices serve essential roles in fulfilling societal and individual needs. ➔​ Example: Studied the Trobriand Islanders' Kula Ring, showing how ceremonial exchanges reinforced social bonds. 3.​ Rituals and Uncertainty: Highlighted the role of rituals, such as fishing practices, in providing psychological reassurance during uncertain tasks. Impact: Malinowski shaped modern anthropology by introducing rigorous methodologies and exploring the functionality of cultural systems. Margaret Mead (1901–1978) Theory: Cultural Determinism - how we’re raised makes us who we are Key Contributions: 1.​ Coming of Age in Samoa (1928): Demonstrated that adolescence is shaped more by cultural context than biological inevitability. ➔​ Example: Samoan youth experienced smoother transitions to adulthood due to clear societal expectations and openness toward sexuality. 2.​ Gender Studies: Highlighted how cultural norms define gender roles, inspiring future research on gender equality. Impact: Mead’s accessible writing popularized anthropology, emphasizing the importance of culture in shaping human behavior. Sociology Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) Theory: Structural Functionalism Key Contributions: 1.​ Social Facts: Defined norms, values, and institutions as "social facts" that influence individual behavior. ➔​ Example: Religious rituals, like communal worship, reinforce collective consciousness. 2.​ Division of Labour: Distinguished between mechanical solidarity (traditional societies) and organic solidarity (modern societies). 3.​ Study of Suicide: Identified social causes of suicide, categorizing types like egoistic, altruistic, and anomic. 4.​ Structural Functionalism: Theory that sees society as an interconnected system with each part having a different function while still working together. Impact: Durkheim established sociology as an academic discipline, highlighting the importance of social cohesion in maintaining societal order. Max Weber (1864–1920) Theory: Social Action and Rationalization Key Contributions: 1.​ The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism: Argued that Protestant work ethics influenced the development of modern capitalism.  2.​ Social Actions: Classified actions into categories like traditional, value-rational, and instrumental-rational. 3.​ Iron Cage of Rationalization: Warned about the dehumanizing effects of bureaucracy and excessive rationalization in modern society. Impact: Weber broadened sociological theory, emphasizing the role of ideas, values, and individual actions in shaping society. Karl Marx (1818–1883) Theory: Conflict Theory Key Contributions: 1.​ Class Struggle: Analyzed conflicts between the bourgeoisie (capitalists) and proletariat (workers) under capitalism. ➔​ Example: Predicted that capitalism would lead to inequality, eventually sparking a socialist revolution. 2.​ Alienation: Highlighted how workers are alienated from the products they create due to exploitative labor systems. 3.​ Historical Materialism: Suggested that economic conditions and material needs drive societal changes. Impact: Marx’s ideas laid the foundation for critical sociology, influencing movements for economic and social justice worldwide. Psychology Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) Theory: Psychoanalysis Key Contributions: 1.​ Unconscious Mind: Proposed that behavior is influenced by unconscious thoughts and desires. 2.​ Defense Mechanisms: Introduced strategies like repression, projection, and denial to explain how individuals manage anxiety. 3.​ Psychosexual Stages of Development: Suggested that personality develops through five stages, with each stage focused on a different erogenous zone.  1.​ Oral Stage (0–1 year): Focus on feeding; fixation may result in habits like smoking or overeating. 2.​ Anal Stage (1–3 years): Focus on toilet training; fixation may result in being overly orderly or messy. 3.​ Phallic Stage (3–6 years): Focus on genital awareness and resolving the Oedipus/Electra complex. 4.​ Latency Stage (6–12 years): Social and intellectual development; sexual urges are dormant. 5.​ Genital Stage (12+ years): Sexual maturity and establishment of mature relationships. Impact: Freud’s theories introduced a framework for understanding human behavior and the unconscious mind, forming the basis for psychoanalysis. Erik Erikson (1902–1994) Theory: Psychosocial Development Key Contributions: 1.​ Expanded Freud’s ideas by focusing on social and emotional development throughout the lifespan. 2.​ Proposed eight Psychosocial Stages of Development, each marked by a specific conflict that influences personality: 3.​ Trust vs. Mistrust (0–1 year): Learning to trust caregivers for basic needs. 4.​ Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1–3 years): Developing independence; success leads to confidence. 5.​ Initiative vs. Guilt (3–6 years): Exploring new activities and asserting control; success leads to initiative. 6.​ Industry vs. Inferiority (6–12 years): Mastering skills and gaining a sense of competence. 7.​ Identity vs. Role Confusion (12–18 years): Developing a sense of self; failure can lead to confusion about future roles. 8.​ Intimacy vs. Isolation (18–40 years): Forming close relationships; success leads to strong bonds. 9.​ Generativity vs. Stagnation (40–65 years): Contributing to society and future generations. 10.​ Integrity vs. Despair (65+ years): Reflecting on life with a sense of fulfillment or regret. Impact: Erikson’s work emphasized the lifelong nature of development and inspired approaches to education, therapy, and parenting. Jean Piaget (1896–1980) Theory: Cognitive Development Key Contributions: 1.​ Suggested that cognitive abilities develop through interaction with the environment. 2.​ Proposed four Stages of Cognitive Development: 1.​ Sensorimotor Stage (0–2 years): Understanding the world through sensory input and motor actions; object permanence develops. 2.​ Preoperational Stage (2–7 years): Engaging in symbolic play and egocentric thinking; struggle with conservation concepts. 3.​ Concrete Operational Stage (7–11 years): Logical reasoning develops, but thinking is limited to concrete objects and situations. 4.​ Formal Operational Stage (12+ years): Abstract reasoning and hypothetical thinking emerge. Impact: Piaget revolutionized understanding of child development, shaping educational practices to focus on hands-on learning and developmental readiness. Conformity Definition: Conformity is the act of adjusting one’s behavior, beliefs, or attitudes to align with group norms or societal expectations. It arises from real or perceived social pressure and plays a crucial role in group cohesion and social behavior. Key Types of Conformity 1.​ Normative Conformity: -​ Definition: Conforming to gain social approval or avoid rejection. ➔​ Example: Dressing like peers to fit in or avoid being teased. ❖​ Theorist: Solomon Asch. 2.​ Informational Conformity: -​ Definition: Occurs when individuals conform because they believe others have more accurate information, especially in ambiguous situations. ➔​ Example: Following others during an emergency when unsure of the correct action. ❖​ Theorist: Muzafer Sherif. 3.​ Identification: -​ Definition: Adopting the behavior or beliefs of a group to feel a sense of belonging. ➔​ Example: Supporting a sports team because your social group does. ❖​ Theorists: Henri Tajfel and John Turner (Social Identity Theory). 4.​ Internalization: -​ Definition: The deepest form of conformity, where individuals genuinely adopt the group’s beliefs or behaviors as their own. ➔​ Example: Converting to a religion after joining a religious group. ❖​ Theorist: Herbert Kelman. Key Studies on Conformity 1.​ Solomon Asch’s Conformity Experiments (1951) -​ Objective: Investigated how individuals respond to group pressure when the group’s judgment is clearly incorrect. -​ Method: Participants were asked to match line lengths in a group where confederates (actors) intentionally gave wrong answers. Findings: ➔​ 75% of participants conformed at least once to the incorrect group judgment. ➔​ Conformity decreased significantly if one confederate gave the correct answer. -​ Impact: Highlighted normative social influence and the power of group pressure.  2.​ Muzafer Sherif’s Autokinetic Effect Experiment (1935) -​ Objective: Studied how group norms develop in ambiguous situations. -​ Method: Participants estimated the movement of a stationary light (an optical illusion) individually and in groups. Over time, their estimates converged to form a group norm. -​ Findings: Individuals relied on others’ judgments in uncertain situations, demonstrating informational social influence. -​ Impact: Showed how social norms emerge and influence behavior. 3.​ Stanley Milgram’s Obedience Study (1963) -​ Objective: Examined obedience to authority and its overlap with conformity. -​ Method: Participants, acting as "teachers," were instructed to deliver electric shocks to a "learner" (a confederate) for incorrect answers. Findings: ➔​ 65% of participants delivered the maximum shock level, despite visible distress. -​ Impact: Demonstrated the extent of conformity to authority figures and provided insights into historical atrocities. Factors Influencing Conformity 1.​ Group Size: Conformity increases with group size, peaking at 4-5 members. 2.​ Unanimity: If one person dissents, conformity decreases significantly. 3.​ Cohesion: People conform more in groups they feel connected to. 4.​ Status: Higher-status individuals or groups exert greater influence. 5.​ Cultural Context: Collectivist cultures (e.g., Japan, China) exhibit higher conformity than individualist cultures (e.g., the U.S.). Real-World Applications of Conformity 1.​ Social Movements: Mass participation, like in climate change activism, often stems from both informational and normative conformity. 2.​ Workplace Norms: Employees adopt behaviors, dress codes, and communication styles to fit into corporate cultures. 3.​ Consumer Behavior: Marketing campaigns leverage conformity by promoting trends and societal expectations. Socialization (isolates, ferals, etc.) and agents of Socialization Definition Socialization is the lifelong process by which individuals learn and internalize the norms, values, behaviors, and roles required to participate in their society. It is critical for forming identity, building social skills, and understanding cultural norms. Impact of Socialization 1.​ Development of Identity: -​ Socialization shapes self-concept by teaching individuals who they are and their role in society. ➔​ Example: Gender roles are introduced early through family, peers, and media, teaching children what behavior is deemed "appropriate" for their gender. ❖​ Impact: Without proper socialization, individuals may struggle to form a cohesive identity, as seen in cases of isolates and feral children. 2.​ Cultural Transmission: -​ It is the mechanism through which cultural values, traditions, and beliefs are passed down to the next generation. ➔​ Example: Family rituals, religious practices, and language preservation maintain cultural continuity. ❖​ Impact: Ensures the survival of cultural heritage and prevents cultural erosion. 3.​ Social Cohesion: -​ Socialization instills shared norms and values, which create a sense of belonging and maintain societal order. ❖​ Impact: A well-socialized society experiences less conflict and greater cooperation because individuals understand and follow collective rules. 4.​ Preparation for Roles: -​ Individuals are socialized into various societal roles (e.g., student, worker, parent), equipping them with the skills needed for social integration. ➔​ Example: Schools prepare students for the workforce by teaching discipline, time management, and teamwork. ❖​ Impact: Promotes economic productivity and societal stability. 5.​ Resilience in Crisis: -​ Strong socialization can help individuals navigate crises by fostering adaptability and support networks. ➔​ Example: Peer and family support during adolescence helps mitigate mental health challenges. ❖​ Impact: Reduces the likelihood of social alienation or deviant behaviors. Isolates and Feral Children: Case Studies of Poor Socialization 1.​ Isolates: -​ Lack of human contact results in developmental delays and impaired social functioning. ➔​ Example: Anna (USA, 1930s): Severely neglected, she lacked motor skills, language, and the ability to form relationships. After rescue, limited improvements highlighted the importance of early socialization. ❖​ Impact: Demonstrates the critical period for language acquisition and emotional bonding. 2.​ Feral Children: -​ Raised without typical human contact, often by animals or in extreme isolation. ➔​ Example: Genie (USA, 1970): Confined for 13 years, Genie could acquire vocabulary but failed to develop grammar, supporting the Critical Period Hypothesis. ❖​ Impact: Reinforces the idea that early social interaction is essential for cognitive and linguistic development. Agents of Socialization and Their Impact 1.​ Family: -​ Role: Shapes early development and identity through primary interactions. ❖​ Impact: Provides emotional security and foundational skills. Poor family socialization, such as neglect or abuse, can lead to psychological disorders and social withdrawal. 2.​ Peers: -​ Role: Teach cooperation, conflict resolution, and independence during adolescence. ❖​ Impact: Peer groups influence identity and social skills. Excessive peer pressure can lead to risky behaviors, while supportive peers enhance resilience and self-esteem. 3.​ Education: -​ Role: Introduces societal norms, discipline, and critical thinking. ❖​ Impact: Schools help integrate diverse groups, fostering shared cultural values. A lack of access to quality education perpetuates inequality and limits social mobility. 4.​ Media: -​ Role: Shapes perceptions of societal norms, ideals, and values on a large scale. ❖​ Impact: Positive portrayals in media can inspire inclusion and acceptance, while harmful stereotypes may perpetuate discrimination and unrealistic standards. 5.​ Religion: -​ Role: Instills moral values, community, and rituals. ❖​ Impact: Religion provides a sense of purpose and community. It can unify diverse groups or, conversely, create divisions when cultural conflicts arise. Broader Impacts of Socialization 1.​ Prevention of Deviance: -​ Socialization helps individuals understand societal norms, reducing antisocial behaviors. ➔​ Example: Criminal rehabilitation programs often focus on resocializing offenders by teaching societal norms and behaviors. 2.​ Economic Growth: -​ Proper socialization prepares individuals for workforce integration, promoting economic productivity. ➔​ Impact: Countries with robust educational and social systems often enjoy higher standards of living. 3.​ Globalization and Multiculturalism: -​ As societies become more interconnected, socialization includes learning to navigate diverse cultural norms. ➔​ Impact: Promotes tolerance and global citizenship, but poor integration efforts can result in cultural clashes. Culture – why need it, where do we get it from? Definition: Culture refers to the shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviors, and artifacts that members of a society use to interact with their world and one another. It is transmitted from generation to generation through socialization. Why Do We Need Culture? 1.​ Foundation for Identity: -​ Culture provides individuals with a sense of identity by defining norms and values. ➔​ Example: National traditions, such as Canada Day, give individuals a sense of belonging to their country. 2.​ Social Cohesion: -​ Shared cultural practices promote unity and cooperation within a society. ➔​ Example: Religious rituals like Ramadan or Christmas celebrations foster community bonds. ❖​ Impact: Reduces conflicts by creating common ground and mutual understanding. 3.​ Guidance for Behavior: -​ Culture provides rules and norms that guide acceptable behavior and help individuals navigate their society. ➔​ Example: Greeting customs vary across cultures; in Japan, bowing is a sign of respect, while in the West, handshakes are common. ❖​ Impact: Prevents chaos and ensures smooth social interactions. 4.​ Adaptation to the Environment: -​ Culture helps societies adapt to their physical and social environments. ➔​ Example: Inuit communities developed warm clothing and igloos to survive harsh Arctic conditions. ❖​ Impact: Facilitates human survival in diverse environments. 5.​ Transmission of Knowledge and Innovation: -​ Culture ensures the preservation and advancement of knowledge, skills, and technology. ➔​ Example: Written languages and oral traditions allow the transfer of stories, history, and scientific discoveries. ❖​ Impact: Enables societal progress and evolution over time. 6.​ Expression and Creativity: -​ Culture allows individuals to express themselves through art, music, literature, and rituals. ➔​ Example: Indigenous dances and storytelling convey historical and spiritual meaning. ❖​ Impact: Encourages individuality while fostering a collective identity. Where Do We Get Culture From? 1.​ Family: -​ The primary agent of cultural transmission, families instill language, traditions, and values. ➔​ Example: Parents teaching children about religious holidays or traditional cuisine. 2.​ Education: -​ Schools formalize the teaching of cultural knowledge, such as history, language, and civic values. ➔​ Example: Learning about significant historical events like Canada’s Confederation or global human rights movements. 3.​ Peers: -​ Friends and social groups influence language, behaviors, and trends. ➔​ Example: Adolescents often adopt slang or clothing styles from peer groups. 4.​ Media: -​ Mass media spreads cultural values and trends across large audiences. ➔​ Example: Globalization has popularized Western movies, music, and fashion worldwide. ❖​ Impact: Media fosters cultural exchange but can also lead to the dominance of certain cultures over others. 5.​ Religion and Spirituality: -​ Provides moral frameworks, rituals, and a sense of purpose. ➔​ Example: Buddhism emphasizes mindfulness and meditation, influencing cultural practices across Asia. 6.​ Institutions and Social Structures: -​ Governments, legal systems, and social organizations reinforce cultural norms and values. ➔​ Example: National holidays and public policies reflect a society’s priorities and shared identity. 7.​ Environment and Geography: -​ Geography shapes cultural practices by determining available resources and challenges. ➔​ Example: Mediterranean cultures emphasize olive oil and seafood due to the region’s climate and geography. 8.​ Historical Events: -​ Major events like wars, colonization, or migration shape cultural identity and values. ➔​ Example: Post-WWII Japan rebuilt its culture around peace and technological innovation. The Dynamic Nature of Culture 1.​ Evolving Over Time: -​ Culture changes as societies adapt to new challenges and influences. ➔​ Example: The rise of digital technology has transformed communication and media consumption globally. 2.​ Globalization: -​ Increased cultural exchange has blended traditions and introduced multiculturalism. ➔​ Example: Fusion cuisines like Korean tacos showcase the merging of diverse cultural influences. 3.​ Resistance and Preservation: -​ Some communities actively preserve their cultural heritage in response to globalization. ➔​ Example: Indigenous peoples safeguarding their languages and traditions from extinction. Impact of Culture on Society 1.​ Maintaining Order: -​ Shared norms reduce conflicts and provide stability. ➔​ Example: Laws rooted in cultural values ensure fairness and protect rights. 2.​ Facilitating Innovation: -​ Encourages creative problem-solving by building on collective knowledge. ➔​ Example: Cultural emphasis on education in East Asia contributes to technological advancements. 3.​ Promoting Diversity: -​ Culture fosters a rich tapestry of traditions and ideas, enriching human experiences. ❖​ Impact: Acknowledging cultural differences leads to tolerance, empathy, and global harmony. All types of Conditioning, who invented it, what came of it, Behaviourism Conditioning: Refers to the process by which learning occurs through associations, reinforcements, or consequences. It is a foundational concept in the field of Behaviourism, a school of psychology focused on observable behaviors rather than internal mental states. Types of Conditioning 1. Classical Conditioning -​ Who Invented It? Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936), a Russian physiologist. -​ Definition: Learning occurs by associating a neutral stimulus with a naturally occurring stimulus, resulting in a conditioned response. Key Experiment: -​ Pavlov’s dogs learned to salivate (conditioned response) at the sound of a bell (neutral stimulus) when it was repeatedly paired with food (unconditioned stimulus). Key Concepts: 1.​ Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally triggers a response (e.g., food causing salivation). 2.​ Unconditioned Response (UCR): The automatic response to the UCS (e.g., salivating when food is present). 3.​ Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, through association, triggers a learned response (e.g., a bell). 4.​ Conditioned Response (CR): The learned reaction to the CS (e.g., salivating at the sound of the bell). ➔​ Example: Pavlov's Experiment: Pavlov rang a bell (CS) before presenting food (UCS). Over time, the dogs began salivating (CR) at the sound of the bell alone. Impact: -​ Introduced the concept of associative learning, which is widely applied in therapy, education, and advertising (e.g., jingles creating positive associations with products). 2. Operant Conditioning -​ Who Invented It? B.F. Skinner (1904–1990), an American psychologist. -​ Definition: Learning occurs through consequences, such as rewards or punishments, which influence the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Key Experiment: -​ Skinner’s Box: Animals learned to press a lever to receive food (reinforcement) or avoid a mild electric shock (punishment). Key Concepts: 1.​ Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of a behavior. -​ Positive Reinforcement: Adding a positive stimulus (e.g., giving a reward for a good grade). -​ Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., stopping a loud noise when a task is completed). 2.​ Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behavior. -​ Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant consequence (e.g., giving extra work for bad behavior). -​ Negative Punishment: Taking away something desirable (e.g., revoking privileges for breaking rules). 3.​ Schedules of Reinforcement: -​ Continuous: Rewarding a behavior every time. -​ Intermittent: Rewarding behavior sporadically (e.g., fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-interval). ➔​ Example: A student studies harder after being praised for good grades (positive reinforcement). Impact: -​ Operant conditioning underpins behavioral therapies, parenting techniques, and workplace motivation systems. 3. Observational Learning (Modeling) -​ Who Popularized It? Albert Bandura (1925–2021), a Canadian psychologist. -​ Definition: Learning occurs by observing and imitating the behavior of others. Key Experiment: -​ Bobo Doll Experiment: Children exposed to adults behaving aggressively toward a Bobo doll were more likely to imitate the aggressive behavior. Key Concepts: -​ Attention: Observing the model’s behavior. -​ Retention: Remembering the behavior. -​ Reproduction: Imitating the behavior. -​ Motivation: Having a reason to imitate, often influenced by rewards or punishments observed. Impact: -​ Demonstrated the role of media and environment in shaping behaviors, such as aggression or prosocial actions. Behaviourism Definition: A psychological perspective focusing on observable behaviors and rejecting introspective methods. It emphasizes that behavior is shaped by environmental stimuli rather than innate traits or unconscious processes. Key Figures and Contributions: 1.​ John B. Watson (1878–1958): -​ Known For: Founding Behaviourism and conducting the “Little Albert” experiment, showing how fear can be conditioned in humans. ➔​ Example: Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat after associating it with a loud noise. ❖​ Impact: Highlighted that emotions like fear are learned, not inherent. 2.​ B.F. Skinner: -​ Expanded Behaviourism by introducing operant conditioning, emphasizing reinforcement and punishment as tools for behavior modification. -​ Advocated for its application in education and social systems.  3.​ Ivan Pavlov: -​ While Pavlov did not consider himself a behaviorist, his discovery of classical conditioning became a foundational element of Behaviourism. Impact of Behaviourism: -​ Education: Techniques like positive reinforcement are widely used in classrooms to encourage participation and good behavior. -​ Therapy: Behavioral therapies, such as systematic desensitization, help treat phobias by gradually reducing anxiety through exposure to fear-inducing stimuli. -​ Parenting and Training: Operant conditioning informs effective parenting strategies and animal training. Applications of Conditioning 1.​ Advertising: Associating products with positive emotions (e.g., a luxury car in a scenic setting). 2.​ Workplace Productivity: Implementing reward systems to enhance performance. 3.​ Healthcare: Using rewards to encourage healthy behaviors, such as smoking cessation or exercise. 4.​ Behavior Modification: Applied in managing disorders like ADHD or Autism Spectrum Disorder through reinforcement-based therapies. Impact of Groups, Group Behaviour, Types of Groups, Institutions Impact of Groups -​ Social Identity Theory: Developed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner, this theory emphasizes that people derive part of their identity from the groups they belong to, influencing self-esteem and behavior. -​ Reference Groups: These are groups that individuals refer to when evaluating their own qualities, circumstances, attitudes, values, and behaviors. They can be groups one aspires to join or feels rejected by. Group Behaviour -​ Conformity: As demonstrated by Solomon Asch's experiments, group pressure can lead individuals to conform to incorrect norms, highlighting the power of group consensus. -​ Groupthink: Coined by Irving Janis, it describes a situation where the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives, leading to irrational decisions. Types of Groups -​ Primary Groups: Characterized by close, personal relationships, as theorized by Charles Cooley. These include family and close friends, which are crucial for emotional and social support. -​ Secondary Groups: These are larger, more impersonal groups focused on achieving specific goals, such as work organizations or clubs. -​ In-groups and Out-groups: An in-group is a group to which an individual feels they belong, while an out-group is one they do not identify with, often viewed with competitiveness or hostility. Institutions -​ Formal Institutions: These include organized entities like governments, educational systems, and religious organizations that regulate behavior and maintain social order. -​ Informal Institutions: These consist of unwritten social norms and practices, such as family traditions or cultural customs, which influence behavior in a less structured way. -​ Functionalist Perspective: This perspective, linked to sociologists like Emile Durkheim, views institutions as structures that fulfill necessary functions for the stability and continuity of society.