Highway and Railroad Engineering PDF

HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING Engr. Crispin S. Lictaoa Civil Engineering School of Engineering and Technology  GRADING SYSTEM PRELIM GRADE/MIDTERM GRADE/FINAL GRADE CLASS STANDING (40%) Quizzes ……………………………………. 40% Seatworks ……………………………….. 30%...

HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING Engr. Crispin S. Lictaoa Civil Engineering School of Engineering and Technology  GRADING SYSTEM PRELIM GRADE/MIDTERM GRADE/FINAL GRADE CLASS STANDING (40%) Quizzes ……………………………………. 40% Seatworks ……………………………….. 30% Assignments…………………………….. 30% MAJOR EXAM (PE/ME/FE) (60%) SEMESTRAL GRADE = (PG + MG + FG ) / 3  CLASSROOM POLICY 1. Be punctual, 20 minutes late is considered absent. 2. Follow the required format/ instructions during examinations. 3. Use permanent black ink pen and short bondpaper (8.5” x 11”) 4. Submit exam/requirements on time. 5. Avoid noise during discussions. 6. NO CHEATING during examinations COURSE OUTLINE COURSE OUTLINE  MODULE 1 ✓ Importance Of Transportation ✓ Different Modes Of Transportation ✓ Characteristics Of Road Transport ✓ Scope Of Highway And Traffic Engineering  IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORTATION ❑ Economic Growth: Facilitates Trade: Efficient transportation systems are essential for the movement of goods and services, allowing businesses to reach broader markets and lowering production costs through economies of scale. Reduces Costs: Efficient transportation reduces the cost of goods by lowering the expenses associated with logistics and distribution. Enhances Productivity: Efficient transportation allows for quicker movement of goods and people, which increases overall productivity in the economy. ❑ Social Integration: Connects Communities: Transportation links urban, rural, and remote areas, fostering social inclusion, cultural exchange, and better access to essential services like healthcare and education. Access to Services: Reliable transportation improves access to essential services, including healthcare, education, and employment, thus improving the quality of life. ❑ National Security: Defense Mobility: A robust transportation system is vital for national defense, allowing for the rapid mobilization of troops and equipment during emergencies. Emergency Response: Transportation infrastructure is crucial for effective disaster response, enabling the quick delivery of aid and evacuation of affected populations. ❑ Environmental Impact: Sustainable Development: Modern transportation systems are increasingly focused on reducing their environmental impact through the use of cleaner technologies and promoting sustainable transport modes. Green Innovation: Advances in green transportation technologies, such as electric vehicles and high-speed trains, contribute to reducing the carbon footprint of transportation. DIFFERENT MODES OF TRANSPORTATION ❑ Road Transport: Vehicles: Cars, buses, trucks, motorcycles. Flexibility: Road transport offers high flexibility with door-to-door service and is easily accessible, making it ideal for short to medium distances. Infrastructure: Includes roads, highways, bridges, tunnels, and parking facilities. ❑Rail Transport: Vehicles: Trains, subways, trams. Efficiency: Rail transport is highly efficient for long- distance travel and the movement of large volumes of goods and passengers. Infrastructure: Includes rail tracks, stations, tunnels, and bridges. ❑Air Transport: Vehicles: Airplanes, helicopters, drones. Speed: The fastest mode of transport, especially over long distances, making it essential for international travel and time-sensitive goods. Infrastructure: Includes airports, air traffic control systems, and maintenance facilities. ❑Water Transport: Vehicles: Ships, ferries, boats. Capacity: Water transport is ideal for bulk goods and international trade, providing a cost-effective solution for transporting large quantities of goods. Infrastructure: Includes ports, harbors, docks, and canals. ❑Pipeline Transport: Materials: Used for transporting liquids and gases, such as oil, natural gas, and water. Reliability: Offers a continuous, reliable flow of materials over long distances. Infrastructure: Includes pipelines, pumping stations, and storage facilities. ❑ Intermodal Transport: Combination: Involves using two or more modes of transport in a single journey, optimizing the strengths of each mode (e.g., combining rail and road transport). Efficiency: Enhances efficiency and reduces costs, especially for long-distance and international shipments. CHARACTERISTICS OF ROAD TRANSPORT ❑Flexibility: Adaptability: Road transport can reach almost any location, providing door-to-door service, which is not possible with other modes like rail or air transport. Wide Coverage: A dense network of roads connects urban, rural, and remote areas, making it accessible to everyone. ❑ Cost-Effectiveness: Low Capital Cost: Road transport generally requires lower initial investment compared to other modes such as railways and airports. Economical for Short Distances: Ideal for transporting goods and passengers over short to medium distances, where other modes might be less cost-effective. ❑Speed and Convenience: Quick Transit: Provides relatively fast transport for short distances with minimal waiting times, making it highly convenient. Ease of Use: Suitable for carrying a variety of goods and passengers with flexibility in scheduling. ❑High Accessibility: Direct Routes: Roads often provide direct routes to destinations, reducing travel time. 24/7 Availability: Road transport is typically available around the clock, unlike some other modes that may have limited operating hours. ❑ Adaptability: Variety of Goods: Capable of carrying a wide range of goods, including perishable items, fragile goods, and hazardous materials. Passenger Transport: Equally suitable for both individual and mass transit, providing flexibility in travel.  SCOPE OF HIGHWAY AND TRAFFIC ENGINEERING  HIGHWAY ENGINEERING ❑ Planning: Route Selection: Involves analyzing and selecting the most efficient and cost- effective routes for new roads. Environmental Impact: Assessing and mitigating the impact of highway projects on the environment.  HIGHWAY ENGINEERING ❑ Design: Geometric Design: Involves the design of road layouts, including curves, slopes, and intersections to ensure safety and efficiency. Pavement Design: Focuses on determining the materials and structure of road surfaces to ensure durability and longevity.  HIGHWAY ENGINEERING ❑ Construction: Materials and Techniques: Selecting appropriate materials and construction techniques to ensure high-quality roads. Quality Control: Ensuring that construction standards are met through rigorous testing and inspections.  HIGHWAY ENGINEERING ❑ Maintenance: Repair and Rehabilitation: Regular maintenance to repair damaged roads and extend their lifespan. Upgrading: Modernizing existing roads to meet new traffic demands and safety standards  TRAFFIC ENGINEERING ❑ Traffic Flow Analysis: Study of Patterns: Analyzing traffic patterns to improve the efficiency of road networks and reduce congestion. Volume and Capacity: Assessing the capacity of roads to handle traffic volumes and implementing measures to optimize flow.  TRAFFIC ENGINEERING ❑ Signal Design: Traffic Signals and Signs: Designing traffic control devices such as signals, signs, and road markings to ensure smooth and safe traffic flow. Intelligent Transport Systems: Integrating technology such as smart traffic lights and real- time traffic monitoring systems to improve traffic management.  TRAFFIC ENGINEERING ❑ Safety Management: Accident Analysis: Studying road accidents to identify causes and implement measures to prevent them. Safety Measures: Implementing safety features such as guardrails, pedestrian crossings, and speed bumps to protect road users.  TRAFFIC ENGINEERING ❑ Sustainable Transport: Promoting Public Transport: Encouraging the use of public transportation to reduce traffic congestion and environmental impact. Non-Motorized Transport: Developing infrastructure for walking and cycling to promote healthier and more sustainable travel options.  REFERENCES Rodrigue, J.-P., Comtois, C., & Slack, B. (2016). The Geography of Transport Systems (4th ed.). Routledge. Khisty, C. J., & Lall, B. K. (2003). Transportation Engineering: An Introduction (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall. Wright, P. H., & Ashford, N. J. (1989). Transportation Engineering: Planning and Design (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. Papacostas, C. S., & Prevedouros, P. D. (2001). Transportation Engineering and Planning (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall. Garber, N. J., & Hoel, L. A. (2009). Traffic and Highway Engineering (4th ed.). Cengage Learning. Button, K. (2010). Transport Economics (3rd ed.). Edward Elgar Publishing. Black, W. R. (2003). Transportation: A Geographical Analysis. The Guilford Press.  MODULE 2 HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING  IMPORTANCE OF ROADS Economic Development: Roads enable efficient transportation of goods and services, reducing costs and increasing accessibility to markets, which is crucial for economic growth. Social Integration: Roads connect remote and rural areas to urban centers, providing access to education, healthcare, and other essential services. Tourism Development: Good road infrastructure enhances access to tourist destinations, boosting the local economy. Emergency Services: Roads facilitate rapid response by emergency services, which is crucial during disasters and emergencies.  CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS Based on Function: ❑ Arterial Roads: High-capacity roads connecting major urban centers. ❑ Collector Roads: Roads gathering traffic from local streets and directing it to arterial roads. ❑ Local Roads: Roads providing access to local areas such as residential neighborhoods. Based on Capacity: ❑ Highways/Expressways: Designed for fast movement over long distances with limited access. ❑ Major Roads: Roads with significant traffic, often serving as main routes. ❑ Minor Roads: Roads with lower traffic volumes, often in residential or rural areas.  CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS Based on Surface Type: ❑Paved Roads: Surfaced with asphalt or concrete, common in urban and high-traffic areas. ❑Unpaved Roads: Gravel or dirt roads, typically found in rural regions. Based on Area Served: ❑Urban Roads: Roads within cities, designed for higher traffic volumes. ❑Rural Roads: Roads outside of urban areas, connecting smaller communities.. ROAD PATTERNS ❑Grid Pattern: A systematic layout forming rectangular or square blocks, facilitating navigation and urban planning. ❑Radial Pattern: Roads radiating from a central point, common in cities with a historical core. ❑Ring Pattern: Concentric rings of roads surrounding a central area, used to manage traffic congestion. ❑Linear Pattern: Roads following a straight line, often used in geographically constrained areas  PLANNING SURVEYS FOR ROADS ❑ Traffic Surveys: Measure current and projected traffic volumes to determine the necessary road capacity. ❑ Topographical Surveys: Map land features to inform road design and alignment. ❑ Geological Surveys: Analyze soil and rock conditions to ensure the stability of road foundations. ❑ Environmental Surveys: Assess the environmental impact of road projects and plan mitigation measures. ❑ Land Use Surveys: Analyze current and future land use patterns to guide road development. ❑ Economic Surveys: Evaluate the costs and benefits of proposed road projects.  HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT Highway alignment refers to the positioning of the centerline of a road in both the horizontal and vertical planes. Proper highway alignment is crucial for ensuring safety, efficiency, and cost- effectiveness in road construction and use.  TYPES OF HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT ❑ Horizontal Alignment: This refers to the layout of the highway as seen from above, involving the positioning of curves, straight paths, and other elements in a plan view. Horizontal alignment aims to optimize the route while considering geographical constraints, minimizing land acquisition, and ensuring a smooth traffic flow. ❑ Vertical Alignment: This deals with the elevation of the road along its length, including the grading and slope of the highway. Vertical alignment is important for managing drainage, ensuring visibility, and maintaining the appropriate gradient for vehicles.  Factors Influencing Highway Alignment ❑ Topography: The natural lay of the land influences the path of the road. Roads often need to follow natural contours to minimize construction costs and environmental impact. ❑ Land Use: Existing land use patterns, such as residential, commercial, or agricultural areas, affect alignment decisions to minimize disruptions. ❑ Cost: The cost of construction, land acquisition, and maintenance are key considerations, influencing the choice between longer, more economical routes versus shorter, more expensive ones. ❑ Safety: Curves, slopes, and intersections must be designed to minimize accidents, with adequate sight distances and clear signage. ❑ Environmental Impact: Alignments are chosen to minimize environmental damage, including the impact on wildlife, water bodies, and natural habitats.  HIGHWAY SURVEYS ❑ Surveys are critical for gathering data needed to design and construct highways. ❑ They provide detailed information about the terrain, existing infrastructure, and environmental conditions.  TYPES OF HIGHWAY SURVEYS ❑ Reconnaissance Survey: The initial survey to gather general information about a large area to identify feasible routes. This survey is used to compare multiple potential alignments. ❑ Preliminary Survey: Conducted after the reconnaissance survey, this provides more detailed information about the selected route(s). It includes topographical features, soil conditions, and other relevant data. ❑ Detailed Survey: The final and most detailed survey, involving precise measurements of the alignment's location, elevation, and cross- sections. This survey is used to create the final design for construction.  SURVEY TECHNIQUES ❑ Topographic Survey: Involves mapping the land’s surface features, including elevations, natural obstacles, and existing structures. It is essential for determining the vertical alignment. ❑ Geological Survey: Analyzes the soil and rock composition of the area to assess its suitability for road construction. This survey helps in identifying potential issues like landslides or soil erosion. ❑ Hydrological Survey: Studies the water bodies, drainage patterns, and potential flood risks along the route. Proper drainage design is crucial for the long-term durability of the road. ❑ Traffic Survey: Estimates current and future traffic volumes to design the road capacity accordingly. This survey helps in determining the number of lanes, intersections, and other road features. ❑ Environmental Survey: Assesses the potential environmental impact of the highway, including effects on wildlife, water bodies, and local communities. This survey helps in planning mitigation strategies.  CONCLUSION Highway alignment and surveys are foundational elements in road construction, ensuring that roads are safe, efficient, and environmentally responsible. Proper alignment considers both horizontal and vertical factors, while various surveys provide the necessary data to design and construct highways that meet modern standards and future needs. REFERENCES: World Bank. (2020). "Roads and Highways: A Vital Instrument for Economic Development. Transport Research Laboratory (TRL). (2005). "The Role of Transport in Social Integration. United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). (2016). "Transport and Tourism.“ Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). (2017). "The Role of Highways in Emergency Response.“ American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). (2011). "A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets." International Road Federation (IRF). (2010). "Road Classification and Planning." U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT). (2019). "Roadway Surface Types.“ European Commission. (2014). "Urban and Rural Road Networks in Europe.“ Jacobs, J. (1961). "The Death and Life of Great American Cities.“ Kostof, S. (1991). "The City Shaped: Urban Patterns and Meanings Through History." Thames & Hudson. Mumford, L. (1961). "The City in History." Harcourt, Brace & World. Lynch, K. (1960). "The Image of the City." Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE). (2018). "Traffic Engineering Handbook.“.S. Geological Survey (USGS). (2012). "Topographic Mapping and Surveying.“ Geological Society of America (GSA). (2015). "Engineering Geology and Road Construction.“ Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2019). "Environmental Impact of Road Construction."  MODULE 2 HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING PART 2 CHAPTER 2 HIGHWAY TYPES / CLASSIFICATION Functional classification groups highways by the character of service they provide, and is primarily based on motor vehicle travel characteristics and the degree of access to adjacent properties. The six recognizable stages in motor vehicle travel include main movement, transition, distribution, collection, access and termination. Each of these stages is handled by a separate facility designed specifically for its function. CHAPTER 2 HIGHWAY TYPES / CLASSIFICATION The traffic characteristic which has the greatest effect on highway design is the volume of traffic. The design element which is the most affected by the volume of traffic is the number of traffic lanes. In modern practice, single-lane and 3-lane highways are considered inappropriate as parts of an improved highway system From the standpoint of engineering design and construction at least 2-traffic lanes should be considered in any proposed highway no matter how low the traffic volume may be. Highway types are therefore considered to be 2-lane, multi- lane (four or more lanes), undivided and multilane divided highways. HIGHWAY TYPES / CLASSIFICATION 2-LANE HIGHWAYS 2-lane highways constitute the majority of the total length of highways, varying from gravel or other loose surface roads to high type pavement. Lane Width or Carraigeway Width = 3.00 m to 3.65 m (Standard: 3.35 m) Factors to consider: traffic volume, design speed, character of terrain and economic consideration Shoulders = 3.00 m wide Note: narrow shoulder widths may be used in rugged terrain where traffic volume is low or when economic considerations govern.  2-LANE HIGHWAYS Climbing Lane (For grade > 6%) = 3.00 m to 3.35 m wide Note: If a hill is too steep and trucks going up make it even harder, it's a good idea to add an extra lane for those climbing trucks. This is especially needed when the number of trucks going up is 20% or more than what the road can normally handle. Design = Lane Width + Climbing Lane + 1.20 m Shoulder With Proper signages + markings The climbing lane should begin near the foot of the grade at a point determined by the speed of the trucks at the approach to the grade. Where practicable, the climbing lane should end at a point beyond the crest where the truck can attain a speed of 50 kph. UNDIVIDED HIGHWAYS (4 Lanes or More) The narrowest highway on which each traffic lane is intended to be used by traffic in one direction and passing is accomplished on lanes not subject to use by opposing traffic. The ability to pass without travelling in the lane of opposing traffic, results in a smoother operation and a large increase in highway capacity. Speed limit = 60 kph or less Note: they should feature prominent road marking to separate opposing streams. Adequate shoulders which encourage all drivers in emergencies to use them are essential Undivided highways are most applicable in urban and suburban areas where there is concentrated development of adjacent land. UNDIVIDED HIGHWAYS (4 Lanes or More) Superelevation or banking When a vehicle travels around a curve or on a sloped road, centrifugal force tends to push the vehicle outward. To counteract this force and keep the vehicle on the road, the road is designed with a slightly elevated outer edge compared to the inner edge. Superelevation runoff also known as "cross slope runoff" or "banking runoff," refers to the management of water that accumulates on the surface of a curved roadway or a sloped road during rainy or wet conditions. refers to the design considerations and methods used to ensure that water drains effectively from the road surface, preventing the buildup of water and maintaining safe driving conditions. This involve shaping the road surface, creating channels or gutters to direct water flow, and incorporating drainage systems to handle the runoff efficiently. DIVIDED HIGHWAYS Divided highways can have varying widths and pavement levels for better design and cost-efficiency. Climbing lanes on multilane roads might be needed if long uphill stretches reduce capacity by 30% or more compared to normal traffic. Designing divided highways with medians affects how superelevation runoff is managed: - The whole road, including the median, can be superelevated as one section. - The median stays flat, and the pavements rotate around it. - Each pavement can be treated differently for runoff, causing varying heights at the median edges.  DIVIDED HIGHWAYS Highways with widely separated roadways have advantages like easy vehicle operation, better drainage, and a nice look. Open views between separated roadways help show that they're meant for one-way traffic on long divided highways. A divided highway has separated roadways for traffic in opposite directions. It usually has two full lanes per direction and a wide median for safety. Divided highways are safer, more comfortable, and good for high- volume, high-speed traffic. Medians 1.20 m to 1.80 m wide are fine in rural areas, but wider medians, ideally 4.50 to 18.50 m, are better for separating traffic and planning intersections. CLASSIFICATION OF HIGHWAYS ACCORDING TO SYSTEM NATIONAL ROADS Public roads, declared as national roads by the President of the Philippines upon recommendation of the Secretary of Public Works and Highways satisfying the conditions set forth under Executive Order No.113, Establishing the Classification of Roads. National roads are divided into primary, secondary, and tertiary roads. Road Right of Way: Minimum of 20.00 meters. Width of Traveled Way for 2-lane roads: Minimum of 6.70 meters. Allowable Grade (slope): 6.0% is the highest allowed. CLASSIFICATION OF HIGHWAYS ACCORDING TO SYSTEM PROVINCIAL ROADS Provincial Roads connect municipalities, with the endpoint usually being a public plaza. They can also extend from a municipality or a provincial/national road to a public wharf or railway station. To receive national aid for maintenance, a provincial road needs to be officially recognized. The Secretary of the DPWH designates it upon the recommendation of the Provincial Board (Sangguniang Panlalawigan). Road Right of Way: Minimum of 15.00 meters. Width of Traveled Way: Minimum of 6.10 meters. Allowable Grade (slope): 6.0% is the highest allowed.  CLASSIFICATION OF HIGHWAYS ACCORDING TO SYSTEM CITY ROADS / MUNICIPAL ROADS City Roads are roads or streets located within the urban area of a city. They are not classified as provincial or national roads. Municipal Roads are roads or streets within the poblacion area of a municipality not classified as provincial or national roads. Road Right of Way: Minimum of 15.00 meters. Width of Traveled Way: Minimum of 6.10 meters. Allowable Grade (slope): 6.0% is the highest allowed. CLASSIFICATION OF HIGHWAYS ACCORDING TO SYSTEM BARANGAY ROADS Barangay Roads are roads found outside the central area of a municipality or the urban part of a city. These roads are also outside industrial, commercial, or residential subdivisions. NOTE: Access roads to subdivisions are not considered barangay roads. These roads work as feeders connecting Farm-to-Market roads and don't fall into the categories of national, provincial, city, or municipal roads. Road Right of Way: Minimum of 10.00 meters Width of Traveled Way: Minimum of 4.00 meters Allowable Grade (slope): Maximum of 10.0% CLASSIFICATION OF HIGHWAYS ACCORDING TO SYSTEM TOURISM ROADS Tourism Roads are roads that are specifically marketed for tourists. They might be existing roads promoted with signs and advertising, or they could be roads built for tourism purposes. Some Tourism Roads are designed to showcase unique natural beauty and might also be enjoyed by local residents. Tourism Roads are built to attract tourists and boost local economies. They can create jobs, improve community infrastructure, and help rural areas. Road Right of Way: Minimum of 15 meters. Width of Traveled Way: Minimum of 6.10 meters. Allowable Grade (slope): 6.0% is the highest allowed. CLASSIFICATION OF HIGHWAYS ACCORDING TO SYSTEM FARM-TO-MARKET ROADS Farm-to-Market Roads are roads that connect places where agricultural and fisheries products are produced, coastal landing points, and post-harvest facilities to markets, major roads, and highways. These roads are vital for transporting agricultural goods from their sources to markets and distribution points. Road Right of Way: Minimum of 6.00 meters. Width of Traveled Way: Minimum of 4.00 meters. Allowable Grade (slope): 10.0% is the highest allowed. ROAD CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PRIMARY FUNCTION EXPRESSWAYS These are divided arterial highways for through traffic, with full or partial control of access and generally with grade separations at major intersections. PARKWAYS Parkways are arterial highways for non-commercial traffic with full or partial control of access, usually located within a park or a ribbon of park-like development.  HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT Highway Alignment | The position or lay out of center line of the highway on the ground is called the alignment. It includes straight path, horizontal deviation, and curves. If improper alignment was executed, disadvantages could be: Increase in construction cost Increase in maintenance cost Increase in vehicle operation cost Increase in accident Once the road is aligned and constructed, it is not easy to change the alignment due to increase in cost of adjoining land and construction of costly structure. REQUIREMENTS OF HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT SHORT | It should be desirable to have a short alignment between two terminal stations. EASY | It should be easy to construct and maintain with minimum problem and easy for the operation of vehicles. SAFE | It should be safe enough for the construction and maintenance from the view point of stability of natural hill slope, embankment, and cut slope. It should also be safe for traffic operation. ECONOMICAL | Total cost including initial cost, maintenance cost, and vehicle operation cost should be minimum. FACTORS CONTROLLING ALIGNMENT OBLIGATORY POINTS Obligatory points through which alignment is to pass (bridge site, intermediate town, mountain pass, etc.) Obligatory points through which alignment should not pass (religious places, costly structure, unsuitable land, etc.) TRAFFIC Origin and destination survey should be carried out in the area and the desire line be drawn showing the trend of traffic flow. New road to be aligned should keep in view the desired lines, traffic flow patterns and future trends. FACTORS CONTROLLING ALIGNMENT GEOMETRIC DESIGN Design factors such as gradient, radius of curve and sight distance also govern the final alignment of the highway. Gradient should be flat and less than the ruling gradient or design gradient. Avoid sudden changes in sight distance, especially near crossings Avoid sharp horizontal curves Avoid road intersection near bend ECONOMY Alignment finalized based on total cost including initial cost, maintenance cost, and vehicle operation cost. OTHER CONSIDERATIONS Surface water and flood level, drainage, environmental, and political ADDITIONAL CARE IN HILL ROADS TOPOGRAPHICAL CONTROL POINTS The alignment, if possible, should avoid passing through marshy and low lying land with poor drainage, flood prone areas, unstable hilly features MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES Deep cutting should be avoided Earthwork is to be balanced (quantities for filling and excavation) Alignment should preferably be through better soil area to minimize pavement thickness Location may be near sources of embankment and pavement materials  ADDITIONAL CARE IN HILL ROADS STABILITY A common problem in hilly roads is land sliding The cutting and filling of the earth to construct the roads on hilly sides causes steepening of existing slope and affect its stability DRAINAGE Avoid the cross drainage structure The number of cross drainage structure should be minimum GEOMETRIC STANDARD OF HILLY ROAD Gradient, curve, and speed Sight distance, radius of curve GEOMETRIC STANDARD OF HILLY ROAD Total work to be done to move loads along the route taking horizontal length, actual difference in level between two stations, and the sum of the ineffective rise and fall in excess of floating gradient should kept as low as possible.  SAMPLE OBLIGATORY POINTS By indicating obligatory points, there will be specific attention given to their design, especially for minor roads and waterways.  References Hoel, L. A., Garber, N. J., & Sadek, A. W. (2008). Transportation Infrastructure Engineering: A Multi-Modal Integration. Khanna, S. K., Justo C. E. G., & Veeraragavan A. (2014). Highway Engineering. Nem Chand & Bros. Department of Public Works and Highways Bureau of Design (2015). Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards – Volume 4.  MODULE 2A HIGHWAY DESIGN DATA HIGHWAY DESIGN DATA 1. Field Survey Information and Field Investigations 2. Soil Investigations 3. Existing Pavement Evaluation 4. Drainage Recommendations 5. Design Controls 6. Requirements for Speedy Plan Preparation  FIELD SURVEY INFORMATION AND INVESTIGATION FIELD SURVEY INFORMATION AND INVESTIGATION Hills, valleys, steep slopes, rivers, and lakes can put restrictions on both the location and design of a highway. In flat areas, topography might not dictate location much, but it can still create challenges for certain design aspects like drainage and managing different grades. Elements like alignment, gradients, cross sections, and sight distance of a highway are influenced by the surrounding topography. For example, the presence of hills or steep slopes can impact how curves are aligned and how grades are managed. Even in flat areas, topography can affect design elements beyond just the location, highlighting drainage and grade separation issues. FIELD SURVEY INFORMATION AND INVESTIGATION HIGHWAY LOCATION | concerned with gathering of pertinent data for more effective highway planning, design, construction and operation. It consists mainly of reconnaissance, topographic surveys, establishment of horizontal and vertical controls, centerline staking, centerline profile and cross-sectional leveling, bridge site survey, parcellary survey, and other surveys related to highway engineering. Before a highway alignment is finalized in highway project, the engineering surveys are to be carried out. The various stages of engineering surveys are: Map study / Office Projection (provisional alignment identification) Reconnaissance survey Preliminary survey Utility Service Records Final Location Survey FIELD SURVEY INFORMATION AND INVESTIGATION MAP STUDY / OFFICE PROJECTION From the map alternative route that can be suggested in the office, if the topographic map of that area is available. The probable alignment can be located on the map from the following details available on the map Avoiding valleys, ponds, or lake Avoiding bend of river If road has to cross a row of hills, possibility of crossing through mountain pass Map study gives a rough guidance of the routes to be further surveyed in the field. FIELD SURVEY INFORMATION AND INVESTIGATION MAP STUDY / OFFICE PROJECTION Multiple route options are explored to find the most cost- effective alignment without requiring extensive surveys. This involves a trial and error approach to identify the optimal route considering factors like alignment, grades, sight distances, and compensation. Constraints such as curves, slopes, and ensuring good visibility are taken into account during this process. FIELD SURVEY INFORMATION AND INVESTIGATION RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY To confirm features indicated on map. To examine the general character of the area in field for deciding the most feasible routes for detailed studies. A survey party may inspect along the proposed alternative routes of the map in the field with very simple instrument like abney level, tanget clinometer, barometer, etc. To collect additional details from alternative routes during this survey: Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land, hill, permanent structure, and other obstruction Value of gradient, length of gradient and radius of curve FIELD SURVEY INFORMATION AND INVESTIGATION RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY Details to be collected from alternative routes during this survey are (cont.): Number and type of cross drainage structures High flood level (HFL) Soil characteristics Geological features Source of construction materials (stone quarries, water sources, etc.) Prepare a report on pros and cons of different alternative routes. As a result, few alternative alignments may be chosen for further study based on practical considerations observed at the site. FIELD SURVEY INFORMATION AND INVESTIGATION RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY Proposed Sites for Stream Crossings | The location of a highway when crossing a stream is important for several reasons. Different hydrologic and hydraulic factors come into play when crossing near the confluence of two streams compared to a single stream. In rural areas, there might be greater tolerance for higher backwaters than in urban places. Tidal areas introduce a unique set of hydraulic considerations. Whether the structure is a bridge or a culvert can affect the hydraulic analysis. Additionally, environmental factors like land use upstream and downstream, energy dissipation needs, debris control, and facilitating fish passage impact the extent of field investigations required for designing a specific solution. FIELD SURVEY INFORMATION AND INVESTIGATION PRELIMINARY SURVEY Objectives of preliminary survey are: To survey the various alternative alignments proposed after the reconnaissance and to collect all the necessary physical information and detail of topography, drainage, and soil. To compare the different proposals in view of the requirements of the good alignment. To estimate quantity of earthwork materials and other construction aspect and to workout the cost of the alternate proposals. FIELD SURVEY INFORMATION AND INVESTIGATION PRELIMINARY SURVEY Methods of preliminary survey are: Conventional approach | survey party carries out surveys using the required field equipment, taking measurement, collecting topographical and other data and carrying out soil survey. Modern rapid approach | by aerial survey taking the required aerial photographs for obtaining the necessary topographic and other maps including details of soil and geology. Finalize the best alignment from all considerations by comparative analysis of alternative routes. FIELD SURVEY INFORMATION AND INVESTIGATION PRELIMINARY SURVEY: HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT Horizontal alignment involves circular curves, transition curves, and tangents. It aims to ensure safe and uninterrupted travel at a consistent speed for extended road segments. Design considerations include safety, functional classification, desired speed, topography, vertical alignment, construction cost, cultural development, and aesthetics. Properly balancing these factors results in an alignment that is both safe and cost-effective, while also harmonizing with the land's natural contour. FIELD SURVEY INFORMATION AND INVESTIGATION PRELIMINARY SURVEY: VERTICAL ALIGNMENT Vertical alignment comprises gradients connected by vertical curves. Design controls involve safety, topography, functional classification, design speed, horizontal alignment, construction cost, cultural development, drainage, vehicular characteristics, and aesthetics. "Vertical alignment," "profile grade," and "grade line" are interchangeable terms. The land's topography affects alignment, with three common terrain classifications: level or flat Rolling mountainous FIELD SURVEY INFORMATION AND INVESTIGATION UTILITY SERVICE RECORD Utilities required for a project depend on its location and could involve: 1. Sanitary sewers 2. Water supply lines 3. Oil, gas, and petroleum pipelines 4. Overhead and underground power and communication lines, including fiber optic cables 5. Cable television lines 6. Wireless communication towers 7. Drainage and irrigation lines 8. Special tunnels for building connections FIELD SURVEY INFORMATION AND INVESTIGATION UTILITY SERVICE RECORD Consulting utility service providers and obtaining records for all services in a project area, including their precise locations and depths, brings benefits to both highway agencies and utilities: - Avoidance of unnecessary utility relocations - Reduction of unexpected conflicts with utilities - Enhancement of safety FIELD SURVEY INFORMATION AND INVESTIGATION FINAL LOCATION SURVEY The alignment finalized at the design office after the preliminary survey is to be first located on the field by establishing the center line. LOCATION SURVEY Transferring the alignment on to the ground. This is done by transit theodolite. Major and minor control points are established on the ground and center pegs are driven, checking the geometric design requirements. Center line stacks are driven at suitable intervals, say 50 m interval in plane and rolling terrains and 20 m in hilly terrain. FIELD SURVEY INFORMATION AND INVESTIGATION FINAL LOCATION SURVEY DETAILED SURVEY Temporary bench marks are fixed at intervals of about 250 m and at all drainage and under pass structure. Earthwork calculations and drainage details are to be workout from the level books. Cross-sectional levels are taken at intervals of 50-100 m in plane terrain, 50-75 m in rolling terrain, 50 m in built-up area, and 20 m in hill terrain. Detail soil survey is to be carried out. CBR value of the soils along the alignment may be determined for design of pavement. The data during detailed survey should be elaborate and complete for preparing detailed plans, design, and estimates of project. FIELD SURVEY INFORMATION AND INVESTIGATION DRAWINGS AND REPORTS FOR A HIGHWAY PROJECT Key map Map study Index map Reconnaissance survey Preliminary survey plans Location of final alignment Detailed plan and longitudinal Detailed survey section Material survey Detailed cross-section Geometric and structural Land acquisition plans design Drawings of cross drainage and Earthwork other retaining structures Pavement construction Drawings of road intersections Construction controls Land plans showing quarries, etc. FIELD SURVEY INFORMATION AND INVESTIGATION DRAWINGS AND REPORTS FOR A HIGHWAY PROJECT Key map | should show the proposed and existing roads, and important places to be connected. The size of the plan in general should not exceed 22 x 20 cm. Scale of the map is chosen suitably according to the length of road/highway. Index map | should show the general topography of the area or site. Details are represented using symbols. Index map should also be of suitable scale with size 32 x 20 cm. Preliminary survey plans | are plans showing details of various alternate alignments and all information collected should be drawn to a suitable scale of 10 cm = 1 km to 25 cm = 1 km. FIELD SURVEY INFORMATION AND INVESTIGATION DRAWINGS AND REPORTS FOR A HIGHWAY PROJECT Detailed plan | shows the ground plan with alignment and the boundaries. It shows contours at intervals of 1 to 2 meter in plain terrain and 3 to 6 meters in hilly terrain showing all details including existing structures. Scale of 1/2400 or 1/1200 is suitable for detailed plans. Size of drawing may be 60 x 42 cm approximately. Longitudinal sections | should be drawn to the same horizontal scale of the ground as in detailed plan. Vertical scale may be enlarged 10 times of the longitudinal scale. The longitudinal section should show details such as datum line, existing ground surface, and vertical profile of the proposed road and position of drainage crossings. FIELD SURVEY INFORMATION AND INVESTIGATION DRAWINGS AND REPORTS FOR A HIGHWAY PROJECT Detailed cross-section | are generally drawn to natural scale of 1 cm = 2.0 to 2.5 meter. It should be drawn every 100 meter or where there are abrupt changes in level. In hill roads, the cross-section should be drawn at closer intervals. The cross- section drawing should extend at least up to the proposed right of way. The cross-section number, the reduced distances, and the area of filling or cutting (or both) should be shown on cross-section drawing. Land acquisition plans | are usually prepared from the survey drawings for land acquisition details. These plans show all general details such as buildings, wells, nature of gradients, and other details required for assessing the values. The scale may be 1 cm = 40 meters or less. FIELD SURVEY INFORMATION AND INVESTIGATION DRAWINGS AND REPORTS FOR A HIGHWAY PROJECT Drawings of cross-drainage | are usually drawn to scale of 1 cm = 1 meter. For details of any complicated portion of the structure, enlarged scales up to 8 cm = 1 meter or up to half full size may be employed. However, the size of drawing should not exceed the standard size. Cross-section of streams should be to a scale of not less than 1 cm = 10 meters. Drawing of road intersections | should be prepared showing all details of pavement, shoulders, islands, etc. to proper scale. Land plans showing quarries | where quarries for construction materials are to be acquired for new projects, separate land plans should be prepared. The size of these maps and scales may be similar to those proposed under land acquisition.  SOIL INVESTIGATIONS SOIL INVESTIGATIONS The Geotechnical Engineer's focus is on confirming potential GeoHazards and collecting design information for road construction or enhancement. Detailed analysis of soil types along the road is vital to determine the appropriate investigation methods and equipment. Investigations must adhere to ASTM or AASHTO standards. Soil classification is conducted following the AASHTO system. TYPES OF SURVEYS 1. Subsurface Investigation 2. Subgrade Investigation 3. Widening of Existing Pavements 4. Sampling and Testing SOIL INVESTIGATIONS SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION Subsurface investigation involves examining the area beneath the subgrade level. Exploration depth along the road alignment depends on geological knowledge, soil surveys, prior investigations, and road configuration. In regions with simple conditions of light cut and fill, exploration should reach a minimum depth of 1.5 meters below the planned subgrade. In cases of deep cuts, substantial embankments over marshland, or indications of weak layers in the subsurface, exploration depth varies. Determination of depth takes into account existing topography and the characteristics of the subsoil. SOIL INVESTIGATIONS SUBGRADE INVESTIGATION Subgrade investigation examines the soil surface under the pavement. On existing roads, auger borings and test pits are conducted at suitable intervals along the road's centerline. Boring locations alternate between the center and edge of the pavement. Bore profiles are logged to determine pavement thickness, material condition, and subgrade soil type. Subgrade material samples are taken for on-site soil classification. Test pits are placed at intervals along the road, covering different subgrade soil types. SOIL INVESTIGATIONS SUBGRADE INVESTIGATION Pits are logged, with small samples taken for soil classification from all layers (base, sub-base, subgrade). In-situ density testing follows AASHTO T 191 standards for the subgrade layer. Large samples are taken for Moisture-Density-CBR relationship observation and other tests. Road raising or new construction needs sampling and testing of in- situ material and select fill source for proper subgrade data. High embankment or roadside cut sections (>3 m) require deep borings for geotechnical analysis (slope stability, settlement). Volume 2C provisions guide the formulation of the geotechnical investigation program. SOIL INVESTIGATIONS WIDENING OF EXISTING PAVEMENTS Widening existing pavements involves using the same method as described in Subsurface Investigation. Auger boring and classification of in-situ materials into groups are conducted. Representative test pits are taken, and in-situ and laboratory testing is done. Boring and test pit locations are usually beneath the shoulder in the widening area. Subgrade samples are taken below the level of the existing pavement. Pavement widening needs a design depth at least as thick as the existing pavement. SOIL INVESTIGATIONS SAMPLING AND TESTING: IN-SITU Pits and boreholes must be logged properly using the standard sheet from DGCS Volume 2C. Log details should include layer thickness, color, type, and visual description of each layer (e.g., asphalt, gravel, clay-loam, brown, yellow), depth below the surface, and water levels if present. For auger holes, take small samples of subgrade for on-site soil classification following AASHTO T 88 or T 27. In test pits, take small and large samples, perform an in-situ density test as per AASHTO T 191. SOIL INVESTIGATIONS SAMPLING AND TESTING: LABORATORY TESTS Subgrade samples from test pits and boreholes need the following laboratory tests: - Mechanical Analysis: AASHTO T 88 or 27 - Specific Gravity: AASHTO T 100 or 84 or 85 - Atterberg Limits: AASHTO T 89 or 90 - Moisture-Density Relationship: AASHTO T 180 or 99 - CBR% (California Bearing Ratio): AASHTO T 193 - Natural Moisture Content - Soil classification follows AASHTO M 145 guidelines. - All dry samples must be prepared in line with AASHTO T 87 procedures.  REFERENCES Department of Public Works and Highways Bureau of Design (2015). Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards – Volume 4. Hoel, L. A., Garber, N. J., & Sadek, A. W. (2008). Transportation Infrastructure Engineering: A Multi-Modal Integration. Khanna, S. K., Justo C. E. G., & Veeraragavan A. (2014). Highway Engineering. Nem Chand & Bros.  MODULE 3 DESIGN CRITERIA FOR HIGHWAYS AND RAILWAYS  DESIGN CRITERIA FOR HIGHWAYS Highway design involves the planning, geometric design, and construction of roads that ensure safety, efficiency, and comfort for road users. The design criteria are influenced by factors such as expected traffic volumes, environmental conditions, and the type of vehicles using the road.  Key Design Criteria for Highways 1.Design Speed: The maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a specific segment of the highway under ideal conditions. It influences the geometric features like curve radii, sight distances, and gradient. 2.Lane Width: Standard lane widths are typically 3.6 meters (12 feet) for highways, though this can vary based on traffic conditions and vehicle types. 3.Shoulder Width: The shoulder provides space for stopped vehicles and emergency use. Widths typically range from 2.4 to 3.0 meters (8 to 10 feet). 4. Sight Distance: The distance a driver can see ahead, which must be sufficient to stop or make decisions. It is crucial for safety, especially on curves and at intersections.  Key Design Criteria for Highways 5. Horizontal and Vertical Alignment: The layout of the highway in the horizontal plane (curves, tangents) and vertical plane (grades, slopes) is designed to ensure smooth traffic flow and safety. 6. Pavement Design: Involves the selection of materials and thickness for the pavement layers to withstand traffic loads and environmental conditions over time. 7. Intersection Design: The layout and control of intersections are crucial for safety. This includes considerations for turning lanes, signalization, and pedestrian crossings.  Design Criteria for Railways Railway design focuses on the efficient and safe movement of trains, considering factors like speed, load, track alignment, and environmental impacts.  Key Design Criteria for Railways 1.Track Gauge: The distance between the inner faces of the rails. Standard gauge is 1,435 mm (4 ft 8 1⁄2 in), but other gauges are used in different regions and for different types of railways. 2.Gradient and Alignment: Vertical and horizontal alignment of tracks must ensure smooth operation and safety, especially at high speeds. Gradients are typically kept low to minimize strain on locomotives. 3.Curve Radius: Larger radii are required for high-speed rail to minimize centrifugal forces and ensure passenger comfort. Minimum radii depend on train speed and track design. 4.Track Structure: The design of the track bed, including rails, sleepers (ties), and ballast, is critical for supporting train loads and ensuring track stability.  Key Design Criteria for Railways 5. Signaling and Control Systems: Modern railways rely on advanced signaling and control systems to manage train movements, ensure safety, and optimize traffic flow. 6. Environmental Impact: Railway design must consider environmental impacts, including noise pollution, land use, and effects on local ecosystems. 7. Station Design: Stations must be designed for efficient passenger flow, accessibility, and integration with other modes of transport.  References AASHTO. (2018). A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. Retrieved from AASHTO. FHWA. (2019). Pavement Design Guide. Federal Highway Administration. Retrieved from FHWA. AREMA. (2018). Manual for Railway Engineering. American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association. Retrieved from AREMA. UIC. (2016). Railway Track Design. International Union of Railways. Retrieved from UIC. ERA. (2017). ERTMS: European Rail Traffic Management System. European Railway Agency. Retrieved from ERA.  References EEA. (2019). Railway Environmental Impact Assessment. European Environment Agency. Retrieved from EEA. ITE. (2020). Intersection Design Handbook. Institute of Transportation Engineers. Retrieved from ITE.  MODULE 4 GEOMETRIC DESIGN FOR HIGHWAYS AND RAILWAYS  Geometric Design of Highways The geometric design of highways involves the physical dimensions and layout of roadways, including alignment, cross-sectional elements, and sight distance, to ensure safety and efficiency.  Geometric Design of Highways The geometric design of highways involves the physical dimensions and layout of roadways, including alignment, cross-sectional elements, and sight distance, to ensure safety and efficiency. Key Elements of Highway Geometric Design 1.Horizontal Alignment ❑ Tangents (Straight Sections): Straight portions of the roadway used to maintain high-speed travel. ❑ Curves: Used to change the direction of the road. Key factors include curve radius, curve length, superelevation (banking), and transition curves. 2. Vertical Alignment ❑Grades (Slopes): The slope of the road, crucial for maintaining vehicle speed, especially on uphill or downhill segments. ❑Vertical Curves: Provide smooth transitions between different grades, enhancing safety and comfort. Crest curves handle upward changes, while sag curves handle downward changes. 3. Cross-Section Elements ❑Lanes: Define the space for vehicle movement, typically 3.0 to 3.6 meters wide. ❑Shoulders: Provide recovery space for vehicles, improve sight distance, and offer space for emergency stops. ❑Medians: Separate opposing traffic flows, enhance safety, and reduce headlight glare. ❑Side Slopes and Drainage Ditches: Ensure proper drainage and prevent water accumulation on the roadway. 4. Intersection and Interchanges ❑At-Grade Intersections: Points where roads cross at the same level; design focuses on traffic control, turning lanes, and visibility. ❑Grade-Separated Interchanges: Structures like overpasses and underpasses used to separate conflicting traffic flows, typically found on freeways. 5. Sight Distance ❑ Stopping Sight Distance (SSD): The distance required for a driver to perceive a hazard and stop the vehicle safely. ❑ Passing Sight Distance (PSD): Required distance for a vehicle to safely overtake another vehicle on a two-lane road. 6. Clear Zones and Roadside Design ❑ Clear Zones: Safe recovery areas free of fixed obstacles. ❑ Roadside Barriers: Protect vehicles from hazardous drop- offs or obstacles. 7. Design Speed ❑ The speed selected as a basis for the geometric features of the road, influencing lane width, curve radii, and sight distances.  Geometric Design of Railways The geometric design of railways focuses on the layout and dimensions of the track, ensuring smooth and safe operations of trains. The design addresses horizontal and vertical alignment, cross-section, and station design.  Key Elements of Railway Geometric Design 1.Horizontal Alignment ❑ Tangents: Straight track segments that allow for maximum train speeds. ❑ Curves: Required to change direction; designed with appropriate radius, transition curves, and cant (superelevation) to manage centrifugal forces. 2. Vertical Alignment ❑ Grades: Longitudinal slopes of the railway track, kept as gentle as possible to minimize traction and braking requirements. ❑ Vertical Curves: Smooth transitions between grades to enhance passenger comfort and maintain train stability. 3. Track Cross-Section ❑ Rails: Steel tracks supported by sleepers, maintaining the gauge. ❑ Ballast: Crushed stone that provides stability, drainage, and load distribution. ❑ Subgrade: The foundational layer beneath the ballast that supports the entire track structure. 4. Stations and Platforms ❑ Station Layout: Designed for efficient passenger movement, train operations, and accessibility. ❑ Sleepers (Ties): Support the rails and maintain their position and gauge. ❑ Platform Design: Includes height, length, and width to ensure safe boarding and alighting from trains. 5. Turnouts and Crossings ❑ Crossings (Diamonds): Enable track intersections, allowing two tracks to cross without the need for level separation. 6. Safety and Signaling Systems ❑ Turnouts (Switches): Allow trains to change tracks, critical in junctions and yards. ❑ Geometric design integrates safety features and signaling systems to manage train movements, ensuring smooth and conflict-free operations.  References American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 7th Edition, 2018. Highway Capacity Manual (HCM), 6th Edition, 2016. Transportation Research Board, National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD), 2009 Edition. Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering, 2021. American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association. Design of Highway and Railway Geometric Elements, Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE), 2020. O’Flaherty, C. A., Highways: The Location, Design, Construction, and Maintenance of Road Pavements, 2002. Turner, D., and Ellis, M., "Railway Engineering: An Integral Approach", 2017.  Assignment # 2 Expound and discuss the following questions for at least 200 words each. Write your answers using pen (black ink) and paper (short bond paper). 1. What are the challenges in the utilization of highway infrastructures in the Philippines a) by the governing bodies b) passengers or commuters? 2. What are the challenges in the utilization of railroad infrastructures in the Philippines a) by the governing bodies b) passengers or commuters?  FORMAT __________________________________________________________________________ HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING TCIE 3-3 3-6pm Wed Room: 3105 ASSIGNMENT NO. 2 Dela Cruz, Juan P. Prof: Engr. Crispin S. Lictaoa BSCE 22-1-1234 Date: August 28, 2024 __________________________________________________________________________ 1. Write the question # 1 here. Answers: 2. Write the question # 2 here. Answers:  MODULE 4A HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT FIELD SURVEY INFORMATION AND INVESTIGATION PRELIMINARY SURVEY FIELD SURVEY INFORMATION AND INVESTIGATION PRELIMINARY SURVEY Objectives of preliminary survey are: To survey the various alternative alignments proposed after the reconnaissance and to collect all the necessary physical information and detail of topography, drainage, and soil. To compare the different proposals in view of the requirements of the good alignment. To estimate quantity of earthwork materials and other construction aspect and to workout the cost of the alternate proposals. FIELD SURVEY INFORMATION AND INVESTIGATION PRELIMINARY SURVEY Methods of preliminary survey are: Conventional approach | survey party carries out surveys using the required field equipment, taking measurement, collecting topographical and other data and carrying out soil survey. Modern rapid approach | by aerial survey taking the required aerial photographs for obtaining the necessary topographic and other maps including details of soil and geology. Finalize the best alignment from all considerations by comparative analysis of alternative routes. FIELD SURVEY INFORMATION AND INVESTIGATION PRELIMINARY SURVEY: HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT Horizontal alignment involves circular curves, transition curves, and tangents. It aims to ensure safe and uninterrupted travel at a consistent speed for extended road segments. Design considerations include safety, functional classification, desired speed, topography, vertical alignment, construction cost, cultural development, and aesthetics. Properly balancing these factors results in an alignment that is both safe and cost-effective, while also harmonizing with the land's natural contour. A. Circular Curves ❑ Simple Curve – a circular curve is an arc with a single constant radius connecting two tangents. The most common type of curve used in a horizontal alignment. ❑ Compound Curve - composed of two or more adjoining circular arcs of different radii. The centers of the arcs of the compound curves are located on the same side of the alignment. ❑ Broken-Back Curve - the combination of a short length of tangent between two circular curves. ❑ Reverse Curve - consists of two adjoining circular arcs with the arc centers located on opposite sides of the alignment. ❑ Note: Compound and reverse curves are generally used only in specific design situations such as mountainous terrain.  GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF ROADS is the branch of highway engineering concerned with the positioning of the physical elements of the roadway according to standards and constraints. The basic objectives in geometric design are to optimize efficiency and safety while minimizing cost and environmental damage. Geometric design also affects an emerging fifth objective called "livability," which is defined as designing roads to foster broader community goals, including providing access to employment, schools, businesses and residences, accommodate a range of travel modes such as walking, bicycling, transit, and automobiles, and minimizing fuel use, emissions and environmental damage.  GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF ROADS Geometric roadway design can be broken into three main parts: 1. Alignment 2. Profile 3. Cross-section  DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL ALIGMENT Horizontal Curves-provides a transition between two tangent lengths of roadway.  DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL ALIGMENT Types of Curves: 1. Simple Curve 2. Compound Curve 3. Reverse Curve 4. Spiral Curve  Simple Curve ❑ A simple curve is a circular arc, extending from one tangent to the next. ❑ The point where the curve leaves the first tangent is called the "point of curvature" (P.C.) ❑ The point where the curve joins the second tangent is called the "point of tangency" (P.T.). The P.C. and P.T. are often called the tangent points.  Simple Curve ❑ If the tangent be produced, they will meet in a point of intersection called the "vertex". ❑ The distance from the vertex to the P.C. or P.T. is called the "tangent distance". ❑ The distance from the vertex to the curve is called the "external distance" (measured towards the center of curvature). ❑ While the line joining the middle of the curve and the middle of the chord line joining the P.C. and P.T. is called the "middle ordinate". Simple Curve  Sample Problem Simple Curve A simple curve of the proposed extension of Aguinaldo Highway have a direction of tangent AB which is due north and tangent BC bearing N50°E. Point A is at the P.C. whose stationing is 20+130.46. The degree of curve is 4°. 1. Compute the long chord of the curve. 2. Compute the stationing of point D on the curve along a line joining the center of the curve which makes an angle of 54° with the tangent line passing thru the P.C. 3. What is the length of the line from D to the intersection of the tangent AB? Sample Problem Simple Curve  Sample Problem Simple Curve A simple curve have tangents AB and BC intersecting at a common point B. AB has an azimuth of 180° and BC has an azimuth of 230°. The stationing of the point of curvature at A is 10+140.26. If the degree of the curve of the simple curve is 4°: 1. Compute the length of the long chord from A. 2. Compute the tangent distance AB of the curve. 3. Compute the stationing of a point “X” on the curve on which a line passing through the center of the curve makes an angle of 58° with the line AB, intersects the curve at point “X”. Sample Problem Simple Curve  Sample Problem Simple Curve A simple curve connects two tangents AB and BC with bearing N85°30’E and S68°30E’ respectively. If the stationing of the vertex is 4+360.20 and the stationing of PC is 4+288.40. Determine the following: 1. Radius of the curve 2. External Distance 3. Middle Distance 4. Chord Distance 5. Length of the curve  Compound Curves ❑ Compound Curve consists of two or more consecutive simple curves having different radius, but whose centers lie on the same side of the curve, likewise any two consecutive curves must have a common tangent at their meeting point. ❑ When two such curves lie upon opposite sides of the common tangent, the two curves then turns a reversed curve. ❑ In a compound curve, the point of the common tangent where the two curves join is called the point of compound curvature (P.C.C.) Compound Curves  Sample Problem Compound Curve The long chord from the P.C. to the P.T. of a compound curve is 300 meters long and the angles it makes with the longer and shorter tangents are 12° and 15° respectively. If the common tangent is parallel to the long chord: 1. Find the radius of the first curve. 2. Find the radius of the 2nd curve. 3. If stationing of P.C. is 10+204.30, find the stationing of P.T. Sample Problem Compound Curve Sample Problem Compound Curve  Reversed Curves ❑ A reversed curve is formed by two circular simple curves having a common tangent but lies on opposite sides. ❑ The method of laying out a reversed curve is just the same as the deflection angle method of laying out simple curves. ❑ At the point where the curve reversed in its direction is called the Point of Reversed Curvature. ❑ After this point has been laid out from the P.C., the instrument is then transferred to this point (P.R.C.). With the transit at P.R.C. and a reading equal to the. total deflection angle from the P.C. to the PRC., the P.C. is backsighted. ❑ If the line of sight is rotated about the vertical axis until horizontal circle reading becomes zero, this line of sight falls on the common tangent. The next simple curve could be laid out on the opposite side of this tangent by deflection angle method. Reversed Curves Reversed Curves Reversed Curves Sample Problem No. 1 Reversed Curve Sample Problem Reversed Curve  Sample Problem No. 2 (Reversed Curve) Two converging tangents have azimuth of 300° and 90° respectively, while that of the common tangent is 320°. The distance from the point intersection of the tangents of PI of the second curve is 100m while the station of PI of the first curve is 10+432.24. If the radius of the first curve is 285.40m, determine the following: a. Radius of the second curve b. Stationing of PRC c. Stationing of PT  Midterm Seatwork No. 1 (30 points) Given the perpendicular distance between two parallel tangents equal to 6m, the central angle being equal to 7° and the radius of the curvature of the first curve equal to 163.8 meters. Find the radius of the second curve of the reversed curve. Illustrate the R.C.  MODULE 5 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF RAILWAYS AND PAVEMENTS The structural design of railways and pavements involves ensuring these systems can withstand loads and environmental factors while providing safety and durability. Railway Structural Design 1.Track Structure: ❑ Rails: Typically made of steel, rails must be designed to handle the dynamic loads from trains. They are laid on sleepers or ties. ❑ Sleepers/Ties: Wooden, concrete, or steel beams that support and maintain the gauge of the rails. ❑ Ballast: Crushed stone or gravel placed under and around the sleepers to support the load and facilitate drainage. ❑ Subgrade: The prepared ground or foundation that the track structure rests upon. It must be stable and capable of supporting the railway loads. 2. Track Geometry: ❑ Horizontal Alignment: Curves need to be designed to accommodate the centrifugal forces and ensure safe train operation. ❑ Vertical Alignment: Includes gradients and transitions that must be managed to prevent excessive wear and ensure safe acceleration and braking. 3. Load Considerations: ❑ Dynamic Loads: Trains exert dynamic loads that vary with speed, load, and track conditions. This needs to be accounted for in design. ❑ Static Loads: The static load from the weight of the rail and sleepers also needs to be supported by the subgrade. 4. Maintenance: ❑ Regular maintenance is crucial to address issues such as track deformation, ballast degradation, and rail wear. 5. Drainage: ❑ Proper drainage systems must be incorporated to prevent water accumulation, which can weaken the track structure and cause damage.  Pavement Structural Design 1. Pavement Layers: ❑ Surface Course: This is the top layer and must provide a smooth, skid- resistant surface. Materials include asphalt or concrete. The design involves selecting the appropriate mix and thickness to handle traffic loads and environmental conditions. ❑ Base Course: This layer distributes the loads from the surface course to the subbase. It typically consists of crushed stone or gravel. The design focuses on achieving the required strength and stability. ❑ Subbase: The subbase improves load distribution and provides additional support. It is often composed of granular materials that facilitate drainage. ❑ Subgrade: The natural soil or rock layer underneath the pavement. It must be adequately prepared and stabilized to support the pavement structure. Geotechnical analysis is used to assess the suitability of the subgrade. 2. Load Distribution: ❑ Traffic Loads: Pavements must be designed to support various vehicle loads, including heavy trucks and cars. Design methods like those outlined in the AASHTO (American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials) guide are used to determine the required pavement thickness and materials. ❑ Environmental Loads: Pavements must withstand environmental conditions such as temperature variations, precipitation, and freeze-thaw cycles. The design includes provisions for thermal expansion and contraction. 3. Design Considerations: ❑ Structural Capacity: The pavement must be designed to distribute loads to the underlying layers without causing excessive deformation. Structural capacity is determined based on expected traffic loads and material properties. ❑ Durability: The materials used must be durable enough to resist wear from traffic and environmental conditions. This includes selecting appropriate mixes and construction techniques. 4. Drainage: ❑ Pavement Drainage: Effective drainage systems are crucial to prevent water infiltration that can weaken the pavement. This includes designing appropriate cross-slopes and drainage channels. 5. Maintenance: ❑ Pavement Maintenance: Regular maintenance activities include crack sealing, pothole repair, and resurfacing to address wear and extend the pavement's lifespan.  References “Introduction to Railway Engineering” by Joseph A. Dyer. This book provides foundational knowledge on railway track design and maintenance. AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering: A comprehensive guide that covers various aspects of railway engineering, including track structure and geometry. “The Track and Track Work” by the International Union of Railways (UIC). This document offers detailed information on track design and construction standards. “Principles of Pavement Design” by E. J. Yoder and M. W. Witczak. This book covers the fundamental principles of pavement design and analysis. AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures: Provides guidelines for the design of pavement structures, including material selection and layer thicknesses. “Asphalt Pavements: A Practical Guide to Design, Production, and Maintenance” by Bob M. Green and R. L. Parsons. This guide offers practical insights into the design and maintenance of asphalt pavements.  MODULE 6 Failures, Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Transportation Structure “Transportation infrastructure, including railways and pavements, is subject to various types of failures over time. Understanding these failures, and implementing appropriate maintenance and rehabilitation strategies, is crucial for ensuring safety, reliability, and longevity.”  Railway Infrastructure Failures: ❑ Track Failures: These can include rail defects (e.g., cracks or breaks), misalignment, and excessive wear. Track failures can be caused by dynamic loads, poor maintenance, or material fatigue. ❑ Sleeper/Tie Failures: Wooden sleepers may decay, while concrete or steel sleepers can suffer from cracking or corrosion. Poor drainage or overloading can exacerbate these issues. ❑ Ballast Failures: Ballast can become degraded over time due to traffic loads, weather conditions, and poor drainage. This leads to track instability and misalignment. ❑ Subgrade Failures: Weak or unstable subgrade can lead to track settlement and deformation. This can be due to inadequate compaction, water infiltration, or soil erosion.  Pavement Failures: ❑ Cracking: Common types include transverse, longitudinal, and alligator cracks. Cracking can result from thermal stress, load-induced stress, or poor construction practices. ❑ Potholes: These are depressions or holes that form due to the combined effects of traffic loads and moisture infiltration. Freeze-thaw cycles often exacerbate pothole formation. ❑ Rutting: Permanent deformations in the wheel paths caused by the accumulation of plastic deformations in the asphalt layer. Rutting can be caused by heavy traffic loads and high temperatures. ❑ Settlement: Uneven settling or subsidence can occur due to inadequate compaction of the subgrade, changes in moisture content, or soil erosion.  MAINTENANCE 1. Railway Maintenance: ❑ Track Inspection and Repair: Regular inspections are conducted to identify defects in rails, sleepers, and track alignment. Maintenance tasks include rail grinding, replacing defective components, and adjusting track alignment. ❑ Ballast Maintenance: Periodic renewal of ballast is necessary to maintain track stability. This includes reballasting, tamping to restore proper track geometry, and ensuring effective drainage. ❑ Subgrade Stabilization: Techniques such as soil stabilization, drainage improvement, and reinforcing with geotextiles are used to address subgrade issues and prevent further settlement. 2. Pavement Maintenance: ❑ Crack Sealing: Applying sealant to cracks helps prevent water infiltration and further damage. This is a common preventive maintenance measure. ❑ Pothole Repair: Potholes are typically repaired using cold mix or hot mix asphalt. Proper preparation and compaction are essential to ensure durability. ❑ Surface Sealing: Applying a surface sealant or overlay can extend the life of the pavement by providing a new wearing surface and protecting against moisture and UV damage. ❑ Rejuvenation: For asphalt pavements, rejuvenating agents can be applied to restore the flexibility and reduce the effects of aging.  REHABILITATION 1. Railway Rehabilitation: ❑ Track Renewal: Involves replacing old rails and sleepers, and sometimes the ballast. This is often necessary when the track has reached the end of its service life. ❑ Subgrade Reconstruction: If the subgrade has deteriorated significantly, it may need to be reconstructed or reinforced to restore its load-bearing capacity. ❑ Upgrading Track Structure: This may include improving track geometry, adding additional support structures, or modernizing signaling and control systems. 2. Pavement Rehabilitation: ❑ Overlay: Adding a new layer of asphalt or concrete over the existing pavement can address surface distresses and improve the structural capacity. This is known as a surface or structural overlay. ❑ Full-Depth Reclamation (FDR): This involves milling the entire pavement layer, mixing it with stabilizing agents, and then re-laying it. FDR is used when the existing pavement is severely damaged. ❑ Pavement Reconstruction: This is a more extensive process that involves completely removing and rebuilding the pavement structure, including the base and subbase layers. ❑ Milling and Resurfacing: Milling involves removing the top layer of the pavement to a specified depth and then resurfacing it with new material. This method is often used to correct surface distresses and improve ride quality.  References “Introduction to Railway Engineering” by Joseph A. Dyer. This book provides an overview of railway track design, maintenance, and rehabilitation. AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering: This comprehensive guide covers track structure, maintenance practices, and rehabilitation techniques. “The Track and Track Work” by the International Union of Railways (UIC). Detailed information on track maintenance and failure management. “Principles of Pavement Design” by E. J. Yoder and M. W. Witczak. This book covers the design, failure mechanisms, and rehabilitation strategies for pavements. AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures: Offers guidelines on the design, maintenance, and rehabilitation of pavement structures. “Asphalt Pavements: A Practical Guide to Design, Production, and Maintenance” by Bob M. Green and R. L. Parsons. This guide includes practical insights on pavement maintenance and rehabilitation techniques.  MODULE 6A THEORIES AND PROCEDURES ON VISUAL ROAD CONDITION (ROCOND) ASSESSMENT Road Condition (RoCond) Survey Objectives: Record, describe and measure the condition of the road at the time of rating Provide a sequence of recorded condition that can be analyzed to indicate performance trends Provide condition data for analysis in the Pavement Management System (PMS), Routine Maintenance Management System (RMMS), and eventually for budgeting in the Multi-Year Programming System (MYPS).  Procedures in RoCond Assessment I. Survey Preparation Survey schedule and form a survey team. Survey instruments, survey forms, service vehicle, etc. Prepare survey gadgets, food and water. Survey Equipment: Measuring tools and Safety gears Service Vehicle Measuring Wheel/Measuring Crack Width Scale Tape Straight Edge, 1.2m long & Spray Paint (or other appropriate road Measuring Wedge Field Worksheets/pen or marking materials, e.g. Chalk, Charcoal) pencil Jackets/Long Sleeves Shirt Hats/Caps Rubber Shoes Safety devices for Traffic guide: Safety Vests Traffic Guidance Cones Appropriate Advance Warning Signs (Flags, Tarpaulin, etc…) Straight Edge and Measuring Wedge  Procedures in RoCond Assessment II. RoCond Survey Activities a) Ensure the observance of proper road safety precaution, before and during the survey.  Procedures in RoCond Assessment II. RoCond Survey Activities b) Establish RATING SEGMENTS along the entire road sections. c) Establish the GAUGING LENGTH for every rating segment created and mark every 100m distance thereafter within the segment. d) Mark the measured distances with paint along the edge of the pavement or other adjacent permanent references in increasing direction. These markings will be the basis of the conduct of surveys for the succeeding years to avoid re-measurement of distances and shorten the duration of survey. e) Start assessing, measuring and recording the distresses found along each segment in accordance with RoCond Procedures and Guidelines. Road Condition Survey Lane Designation: GENERAL RULE: Negative Direction Asphalt Surface Positive Direction If there are road Negative Direction widening in both outer lane. The designation of Positive Direction Lane number will change.  Elements of RoCond Assessment ✓ RATING SEGMENT ✓ GAUGING LENGTH ✓ ROAD DISTRESSES/DEFECTS I. RATING SEGMENTS Segmenting Procedure RATING GENERAL RULE: SEGMENT Assessment of segments designated as between consecutive kilometer posts of homogenous surface types but should not exceed 1300-meters. Segment 1 Concrete Surface L ≤ 1300m  Segmenting Procedure: RATING SEGMENT a.) If the distance between two (2) consecutive kilometer posts exceeds 1300m of homogenous surface type, adopt the 1000 meter rating segment and the remaining length should be considered as another segment.  Segmenting Procedure: RATING SEGMENT b.) Change in Surface Type  Segmenting Procedure: c.) Change in No. of Lanes  Segmenting Procedure: d.) Distinct change in the condition of pavement  Segmenting Procedure: e.) Segments of asphalt and concrete with length less than 50m are considered not assessable except for gravel/earth which are assessed (regardless of length). Segment 1 Segment 2 Segment 3 Segment 4 (not assessable) (assessable) Asphalt Concrete Earth Concrete Surface Surface Surface Surface L1 L2 200mm Width = 220mm Length = 13m Width = 210mm Length = 1m  EDGE BREAK Edge Break: 75 < 200mm Width = 150mm Length = 1m FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT (ASPHALT) EDGE BREAK FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DES FORM: (ASPHALT) 15 L  FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT PATCHES (ASPHALT) Defined as a successfully executed permanent repair with a surface condition similar to the surrounding pavement Assessed over the total area of segment Defective patches are not rated as patches but the defects within the patch are rated under the applicable defects (ex. Cracks, potholes/base failure) The length of patches is recorded per width category PATCHES FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT (ASPHALT) PATCHES FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DES FORM: (ASPHALT) 10  FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT POTHOLES/BASE FAILURE (ASPHALT) ❑ Defined as the holes of various shapes and sizes in the pavement surface reaching the base coarse/unbound layer. ❑ For rating purposes, severe cracking with base failure/settlement/ depression shall also be considered as potholes. Potholes/Base failures are recorded as the number of potholes equivalent to 0.25 m2 per pothole. The total area of potholes for the first 100m multiply by 4 to get the no. of potholes. Assessed over the total area of segment.  POTHOLES/BASE FAILURE FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT No. of Potholes = (ASPHALT) Area*4 Width 1.0m  POTHOLES/BASE FAILURE No. of Potholes = FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT Area*4 (ASPHALT) Width 1.5m  POTHOLES/BASE FAILURE Split or Cut the rating segment to separate the portion with base failure (at least 50m length) FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT (ASPHALT)  POTHOLES/BASE FAILURE FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DES FORM: (ASPHALT) SURFACE FAILURE Defined as loss of the wearing course layer. These failures can be caused by surface delamination or mechanical damage. Assessed over the total area of segment Surface Failures are recorded as the number of surface failures equivalent to 0.25 m2 per surface failures. The total area of surface failures multiply by 4 to get the no. of surface failures. FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT (ASPHALT)  FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT SURFACE FAILURE (ASPHALT) No. of Surface Failure = Area*4 Width Width 1m 0.5m Length 1m SURFACE FAILURE DES FORM: FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT (ASPHALT)  WEARING SURFACE This rating includes both Raveling and Bleeding Raveling is the loss or disintegration of stones, typically occurring in the wheel path Bleeding/Flushing is the occurrence of excessive bitumen on the surface of the pavement Assessed over the total area of segment FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT (ASPHALT)  FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT WEARING SURFACE (ASPHALT) Raveling Bleeding/Flushing Minor Wearing  FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT WEARING SURFACE (ASPHALT) SEVERITY: Minor 'M' = Surface still relatively smooth with only some loss of fine aggregate or in the case of bleeding there are some signs of excess binder. Severe 'S' = Surface rough or pitted with both fine and coarse aggregate lost or in the case of bleeding the surface is covered with excess binder with skid resistance poor. WEARING SURFACE FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DES FORM: (ASPHALT)  PAVEMENT CRACKING Assessed over the total area of segment Rated according to the type of cracking, i.e. Longitudinal, Crocodile, or Transverse Crackings Severity: Wide Cracks (>3mm) Narrow Cracks (3mm) or Narrow Cracks (99mm 2 - Depth of gravel 50mm - 99mm 3 - Depth of gravel 25mm - 49mm 4 - Depth of gravel 0mm - 24mm  UNPAVED ROAD B. Material Quality ⮚ The Material Quality of the imported material or exposed sub-grade is rated for Gravel roads. ⮚ The in-situ Material Quality is rated for Earth Roads. ⮚ Local knowledge of the roads must be used, if the surveyors know the road is problematic after rains, then this must be considered when rating the condition. CONDITION SCORE: 1 – GOOD MATERIAL QUALITY 2 – FAIR MATERIAL QUALITY 3 – POOR MATERIAL QUALITY 4 – BAD MATERIAL QUALITY  UNPAVED ROAD B. Material Quality Even size distribution with sufficient plasticity to bind the material – no significant oversize material (not bigger than 2 inches in diameter). Material Quality - Good (1)  UNPAVED ROAD B. Material Quality Material Quality - Fair (2) Loose material or stones clearly visible  UNPAVED ROAD B. Material Quality Poor particle size distribution Material Quality - Poor (3) with excessive oversize material. Plasticity is high enough to cause slipperiness or low enough to cause excessive loose material resulting in loss of traction  UNPAVED ROAD B. Material Quality Poorly distributed range of particle sizes, zero or excessive plasticity, excessive oversize material Material Quality - Bad (4)  UNPAVED ROAD C. Crown Shape ⮚ Crown Shape is determined to be the height of the center of the road above the edge of the road ⮚ This determines the ability of the road to shed water from it surface CONDITION SCORE: 1 – GOOD MATERIAL QUALITY 2 – FAIR MATERIAL QUALITY 3 – POOR MATERIAL QUALITY 4 – BAD MATERIAL QUALITY  UNPAVED ROAD C. Crown Shape Crown Shape - Good (1) >2% crossfall – no significant ponding  UNPAVED ROAD C. Crown Shape Crown Shape - Fair (2) Crossfall mostly